",isbn:"978-1-83768-132-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-131-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-133-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"8e41aab8223c29ce69c00e8c8f6f560d",bookSignature:"Prof. Vlassios Hrissanthou",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12059.jpg",keywords:"Reservoir, Check Dam, River Flow, River Sediment Transport, Stilling Basin, Weir, Bridge Pier, Scouring, Reservoir Volume Capacity, Dimensioning Flood, Dimensioning Hydrograph, Length of Spillway",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 3rd 2023",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Hrissanthou is the author and co-author of 48 publications in scientific journals, 88 publications in conference proceedings, and 12 book chapters published in English, Greek, and German. He is a member of the Hellenic Hydrotechical Association, the Deutsche Vereinigung fur Wasserwirtschaft, the European Water Resources Association (EWRA), the International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS), and the International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research (IAHR).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"37707",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlassios",middleName:null,surname:"Hrissanthou",slug:"vlassios-hrissanthou",fullName:"Vlassios Hrissanthou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/37707/images/system/37707.png",biography:"Dr.-Ing. Vlassios Hrissanthou is an Emeritus Professor at the Civil Engineering Department of Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Xanthi, Greece. He studied Civil Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (AUTH), Greece, obtaining the diploma of Civil Engineer in 1972. He then undertook postgraduate and doctoral studies on Hydrology and Hydraulic Structures at the University of Karlsruhe (KIT), Germany. Subsequently, he completed a postdoctoral study on Hydraulics and Hydraulic Structures at the University of the Armed Forces Munich (UniBw München), Germany. His teaching work includes the following graduate and postgraduate study courses: Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics, Engineering Hydrology, River Engineering, Hydropower Engineering, Water Resources Management, Open Channel Hydraulics, Hydrology of Groundwater, Advanced Engineering Hydrology, Sediment Transport, Reservoir Design, Time Series Analysis, Selected Chapters of Hydropower Engineering, and Hydraulics of Stratified Flows. He has supervised a plethora of diploma, postgraduate and doctoral dissertations. He has participated as principal investigator in several competitive international, german and greek research projects, dealing amongst others with soil erosion and sediment transport. 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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
The exact amount of dyes produced in the world is not known. Exact data on the quantity of dyes discharged in the environment are also not available. It is assumed that a loss of 1-2% in production and 1-10% loss in use (after being garment) are a fair estimate [1]. For reactive dyes, this figure can be about 10-20% due to low fixation. Due to large-scale production and extensive application, synthetic dyes can cause considerable environmental pollution and are serious health-risk factors. Although, the growing impact of environmental protection on industrial development promotes the development of eco-friendly technologies, reduced consumption of freshwater and lower output of wastewater [1], the release of important amounts of synthetic dyes to the environment causes public concern, legislation problems and is a serious challenge to environmental scientists.
\n\t\t\t
Globally, accessing to freshwater is becoming more acute every day. In the dyeing of textile materials, water is used firstly in the form of steam to heat the treatment baths, and secondly to enable the transfer of dyes to the fibers. Cotton, which is the world’s most widely used fiber, is also the substrate that requires the most water in its processing [2]. The dyeing and rinsing of 1 kg of cotton with reactive dyes demands from 70 to 150 L water, 0.6 to 0.8 kg NaCl and anywhere from 30 to 60 g dyestuff. More than 80,000 tn of reactive dyes are produced and consumed each year, making it possible to estimate the total pollution caused by their use. After the dyeing is completed, the various treatment baths are drained out, including the first dye bath, which has a very high salt concentration, is heavily coloured and contains a substantial load of organic substances [2]. One solution to this problem consists in mixing together all the different aqueous effluents, then concentrating the pollution and reusing the water either as rinsing water or as processing water, depending on the treatment selected (either nanofiltration or reverse osmosis for the membrane processes). These treatments apply only to very dilute dye baths [2]. This is generally not the case of the first dye baths recovered which are the most heavily polluted ones. The wastewater produced by a reactive dyeing contains [2,3]: (i) hydrolyzed reactive dyes not fixed on the substrate, representing 20-30% of the reactive dyes applied (on average 2 g/L) (this residual amount is responsible for the coloration of the effluents and cannot be recycled); (ii) dyeing auxiliaries or organic substances, which are non-recyclable and responsible for the high BOD/COD of the effluents; (iii) textile fibres, and (iv) 60-100 g/L electrolyte, essentially NaCl and Na2CO3, which is responsible for the very high saline content of the wastewater.
\n\t\t\t
In addition, these effluents exhibit a pH of 10-11 and a high temperature (50-70 oC). The legal regulations respecting the limit values for the release of wastewater are changing and are becoming increasingly severe, including the limits with respect to salinity.
\n\t\t\t
A typical effluent treatment is broadly classified into preliminary, primary, secondary, and tertiary stages [4,5]. The preliminary stage includes equalization and neutralization. The primary stage involves screening, sedimentation, flotation, and flocculation. The secondary stage reduces the organic load and facilitates the physical/chemical separation (biological oxidation). The tertiary stage is focused on decolorization. In the latter, adsorption onto various materials can be broadly used to limit the concentration of colour in effluents [3].
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
1.1. Dyes
\n\t\t\t\t
The first synthetic dye, Mauveine was discovered by the Englishman, William Henry Perkin by chance in 1856. Since then the dyestuffs industry has matured [6].
\n\t\t\t\t
A dye or dyestuff is a coloured compound that can be applied on a substrate. With few exceptions, all synthetic dyes are aromatic organic compounds. A substrate is the material to which a colorant is applied by one of the various processes of dyeing, printing, surface coating, and so on. Generally, the substrate includes textile fibers, polymers, foodstuffs, oils, leather, and many other similar materials [7].
\n\t\t\t\t
Not all coloured compounds are dyestuffs because a coloured compound may not have suitable application on a substrate. For example, a chemical such as copper sulphate, which is coloured, finds no application on any substrate. If it is applied on a substrate, it will not have retaining power on the substrate and for this reason copper sulphate cannot be termed as a dye. On the other hand, congo red, a typical organic coloured compound. When it applied to cotton under suitable conditions can be retained on this natural fibre and due to this finds useful application on this fibre. It is termed as a dyestuff [7].
\n\t\t\t\t
In the field of chemistry, chromophores and auxochromes are the major component element of dye molecule. Dyes contain an unsaturated group basically responsible for colour and designated it as chromophore (“chroma” means colour and “phore” means bearer) (Table 1). Auxochromes (“Auxo” means augment) are the characteristic groups which intensify colour and/or improve the dye affinity to substrate [7] (Table 1).
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChromophore group \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tName \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAuxogroup \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tName \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
−N=N−
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Azo
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–NH2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Amino
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
−N=N+−O-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Azoxy
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–NHCH3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Methyl amino
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
−N=N−NH
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Azoamino
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–N(CH3)2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Dimethyl amino
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
−N=O, N−OH
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nitroso
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–SO3H
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sulphonic acid
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
>C=O
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Carbonyl
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–OH
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hydroxy
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
>C=C<
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ethenyl
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–COOH
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Carboxylic acid
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
>C=S
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Thio
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–Cl
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Chloro
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
−NO2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nitro
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–CH3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Methyl
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
>C=NH, >C=N−
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Azomethine
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–OCH3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Methoxy
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–CN
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cyano
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–COCH3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Acetyl
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
–CONH2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Amido
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Names of chromophore and auxochrome groups of dyes
\n\t\t\t\t
To further examine the interactions between dyes and substrates, the classification of dyes is required. It is very important to know the chemistry of the dyes in dyeing effluents, in order to synthesize a suitable adsorbent with the appropriate functional group. Hunger et al [7] mentioned that dyes are classified in two methods. The main classification is related to the chemical structure of dyes and particularly considering the chromophoric structure presented in dye molecules. Another type of classification is based on their usage or applying. The classification of dyes by usage or application is the most important system adopted by the Colour Index (CI). Briefly [8]:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tReactive dyes. These dyes form a covalent chemical bond with fiber is ether or ester linkage under suitable conditions. Majority of reactive dyes contains azo that includes metallized azo, triphendioxazine, phthalocyanine, formazan, and anthraquinone. The molecular structures of these dyes are much simpler than direct dyes. They also produce brighter shades than direct dyes. Reactive dyes are primarily used for dyeing and printing of cotton fibers.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tDirect dyes. In the presence of electrolytes, these anionic dyes are water-soluble in aqueous solution. They have high affinity to cellulose fibers. Most of the dyes in this class are polyazo compounds, along with some stilbenes, phthalocyanines, and oxazines. To improve wash fastness, frequently chelations with metal (such as copper and chromium) salts are applied to the dyestuff. Also, their treatment with formaldehyde or a cationic dye-complexing resin.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tDisperse dyes. These are substantially water insoluble nonionic dyes applied to hydrophobic fibers from microfine aqueous dispersion. They are used predominantly on polyester, polyamide, polyacrylonitrile, polypropylene fibers to a lesser, it is used to dye nylon, cellulose acetate, and acrylic fibers. Chemical structures of dyes are mainly consisted of azo and anthraquinonoid groups, having low molecular weight and containing groups which aid in forming stable aqueous dispersions.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tVat dyes. These dyes are water insoluble and can apply mainly to cellulose fiber by converting them to their leuco compounds. The latter was carried out by reduction and solubilization with sodium hydrosulphite and sodium hydroxide solution, which is called “vatting process”. The main chemical/structural groups of vat dyes are anthraquinone and indigoid.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tSulfur dyes. They are water insoluble and are applied to cotton in the form of sodium salts by the reduction process using sodium sulphide as the reducing agent under alkaline conditions. The low cost and good wash fastness properties of dyeing makes these dyes economic attractive.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tCationic (Basic dyes). These dyes are cationic and water soluble. They are applied on paper, polyacrylonitrile, modified nylons, and modified polyesters. In addition, they are used to apply with silk, wool, and tannin–mordant cotton when brightness shade was more necessary than fastness to light and washing.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tAcid dyes. They are water soluble anionic dyes and are applied on nylon, wool, silk, and modified acrylics. Moreover, they are used to dye paper, leather, inkjet printing, food, and cosmetics.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tSolvent dyes. They are water insoluble, but solvent soluble, dyes having deficient polar solubility group for example sulfonic acid, carboxylic acid or quaternary ammonium. They are used for colouring plastics, gasoline, oils, and waxes.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tMordant dyes. These dyes have mordant dyeing properties with good quality in the presence of certain groups in the dye molecule. These groups are capable to hold metal residuals by formation of covalent and coordinate bonds involving a chelate compound. The salts of aluminium, chromium, copper, cobalt, nickel, iron, and tin are used as mordant that their metallic salts.
\n\t\t\t\t
Aside from mentioned above, there are azoic dyes, ingrain dyes, pigment [6,7,9]. Comparative analysis of dye classes are presented in Table 2:
- Colloidal dispersion - Very low water solubility - Good wet fastness
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mordant
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
wool, leather, anodized aluminium
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
azo, anthraquinone
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
- Anionic compounds - Water soluble - Good wet fastness
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Reactive
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
cotton, wool, silk, nylon
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
azo, anthraquinone, phthalocyanine, formazan
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
- Anionic compounds - Highly water soluble - Good wet fastness.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Classification of dyes and their properties
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
1.2. Decolorization techniques
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Methods of dye wastewater treatment have been reported [11-14]. Also, fungal and bacterial decolorization methods have been reviewed [15-18]. There are several reported methods for the removal of pollutants from effluents. The technologies can be divided into three categories: biological, chemical and physical [11]. All of them have advantages and drawbacks. Because of the high cost and disposal problems, many of these conventional methods for treating dye wastewater have not been widely applied at large scale in the textile and paper industries. At the present time, there is no single process capable of adequate treatment, mainly due to the complex nature of the effluents [19,20]. In practice, a combination of different processes is often used to achieve the desired water quality in the most economical way. A literature survey shows that research has been and continues to be conducted in the areas of combined adsorption-biological treatments in order to improve the biodegradation of dyestuffs and minimize the sludge production.
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Biological treatment is often the most economical alternative when compared with other physical and chemical processes. Biodegradation methods such as fungal decolorization, microbial degradation, adsorption by (living or dead) microbial biomass and bioremediation systems are commonly applied to the treatment of industrial effluents because many microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, algae and fungi are able to accumulate and degrade different pollutants [14,16,17]. However, their application is often restricted because of technical constraints. Biological treatment requires a large land area and is constrained by sensitivity toward diurnal variation as well as toxicity of some chemicals, and less flexibility in design and operation [21]. Biological treatment is incapable of obtaining satisfactory color elimination with current conventional biodegradation processes [11]. Moreover, although many organic molecules are degraded, many others are recalcitrant due to their complex chemical structure and synthetic organic origin [22]. In particular, due to their xenobiotic nature, azo dyes are not totally degraded.
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Chemical methods include coagulation or flocculation combined with flotation and filtration, precipitation-flocculation with Fe(II)/Ca(OH)2, electroflotation, electrokinetic coagulation, conventional oxidation methods by oxidizing agents (ozone), irradiation or electrochemical processes. These chemical techniques are often expensive, and although the dyes are removed, accumulation of concentrated sludge creates a disposal problem. There is also the possibility that a secondary pollution problem will arise because of excessive chemical use. Recently, other emerging techniques, known as advanced oxidation processes, which are based on the generation of very powerful oxidizing agents such as hydroxyl radicals, have been applied with success for pollutant degradation. Although these methods are efficient for the treatment of waters contaminated with pollutants, they are very costly and commercially unattractive. The high electrical energy demand and the consumption of chemical reagents are common problems.
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Different physical methods are also widely used, such as membrane-filtration processes (nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis) and adsorption techniques. The major disadvantage of the membrane processes is that they have a limited lifetime before membrane fouling occurs and the cost of periodic replacement must thus be included in any analysis of their economic viability. In accordance with the very abundant literature data, liquid-phase adsorption is one of the most popular methods for the removal of pollutants from wastewater since proper design of the adsorption process will produce a high-quality treated effluent. This process provides an attractive alternative for the treatment of contaminated waters, especially if the adsorbent is inexpensive and does not require an additional pre-treatment step before its application. Adsorption is a well known equilibrium separation process and an effective method for water decontamination applications [23]. Adsorption has been found to be superior to other techniques for water re-use in terms of initial cost, flexibility and simplicity of design, ease of operation and insensitivity to toxic pollutants. Adsorption also does not result in the formation of harmful substances.
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1.3. Adsorption
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Adsorption techniques for wastewater treatment have become more popular in recent years owing to their efficiency in the removal of pollutants, which are difficulty treated with biological methods. Adsorption can produce high quality water while also being a process that is economically feasible. Decolourisation is a result of two mechanisms (adsorption and ion exchange) and is influenced by many factors including dye/adsorbent interaction, adsorbent’s surface area, particle size, temperature, pH and contact time.
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Physical adsorption occurs when weak interparticle bonds exist between the adsorbate and adsorbent. Examples of such bonds are van der Waals, hydrogen and dipole-dipole. In the majority of cases physical adsorption is easily reversible [24]. Chemical adsorption occurs when strong interparticle bonds are present between the adsorbate and adsorbent due to an exchange of electrons. Examples of such bonds are covalent and ionic bonds. Two means that are useful to be developed are “chemisorption” and “physisorption”. Chemisorption is a kind of adsorption which involves a chemical reaction between the surface and the absorbate. New chemical bonds are generated at the adsorbent surface. Examples include macroscopic phenomena that can be very obvious, like corrosion, and subtler effects associated with heterogeneous catalysis. The strong interaction between the adsorbate and the substrate surface creates new types of electronic bonds. In contrast with chemisorption is physisorption, which leaves the chemical species of the adsorbate and surface intact. It is conventionally accepted that the energetic threshold separating the binding energy of “physisorption” from that of “chemisorptions” is about 0.5 eV per adsorbed species. Chemisorption is deemed to be irreversible in the majority of cases [24]. Suzuki [25] covers the role of adsorption in water environmental processes and also the development of newer adsorbents to modernise the treatment systems. Most adsorbents are highly porous materials. As the pores are generally very small, the internal surface area is orders of magnitude greater than the external area.
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Separation occurs because either the differences in molecular mass, shape or polarity causes some molecules to be held more strongly on the surface than others or the pores are too small to admit large molecules [25]. However, amongst all the adsorbent materials proposed, activated carbon is the most popular for the removal of pollutants from wastewater [26,27]. In particular, the effectiveness of adsorption on commercial activated carbons (CAC) for removal of a wide variety of dyes from wastewaters has made it an ideal alternative to other expensive treatment options [26]. Because of their great capacity to adsorb dyes, CAC are the most effective adsorbents. This capacity is mainly due to their structural characteristics and their porous texture which gives them a large surface area, and their chemical nature which can be easily modified by chemical treatment in order to increase their properties. However, activated carbon presents several disadvantages [27]. It is quite expensive, the higher the quality, the greater the cost, non-selective and ineffective against disperse and vat dyes. The regeneration of saturated carbon is also expensive, not straightforward, and results in loss of the adsorbent. The use of carbons based on relatively expensive starting materials is also unjustified for most pollution control applications [28]. This has led many workers to search for more economic adsorbents.
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1.3.1. Polymeric adsorbents (chitosan)
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The majority of commercial polymers and ion exchange resins are derived from petroleum-based raw materials using chemical processes that are not always safe or environmental friendly. Today, there is growing interest in developing natural low-cost alternatives to synthetic polymers [29]. Chitin (Figure 1), found in the exoskeleton of crustaceans, the cuticles of insects, and the cells walls of fungi, is the most abundant aminopolysaccharide in nature [30]. This low-cost material is a linear homopolymer composed of b(1-4)-linked N-acetyl glucosamine. It is structurally similar to cellulose, but it is an aminopolymer and has acetamide groups at the C-2 positions in place of the hydroxyl groups. The presence of these groups is highly advantageous, providing distinctive adsorption functions and conducting modification reactions. The raw polymer is only commercially extracted from marine crustaceans primarily because a large amount of waste is available as a by-product of food processing [30]. Chitin is extracted from crustaceans (shrimps, crabs, squids) by acid treatment to dissolve the calcium carbonate followed by alkaline extraction to dissolve the proteins and by a decolorization step to obtain a colourless product [30].
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Figure 1.
Chemical structures of chitin.
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Since the biodegradation of chitin is very slow in crustacean shell waste, accumulation of large quantities of discards from processing of crustaceans has become a major concern in the seafood processing industry. So, there is a need to recycle these by-products. Their use for the treatment of wastewater from other industries could be helpful not only to the environment in solving the solid waste disposal problem, but also to the economy. However, chitin is an extremely insoluble material. Its insolubility is a major problem that confronts the development of processes and uses of chitin [30], and so far, very few large-scale industrial uses have been found. More important than chitin is its derivative, chitosan.
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Figure 2.
Chemical structures of chitosan.
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Partial deacetylation of chitin results in the production of chitosan (Figure 2), which is a polysaccharide composed by polymers of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine (Figure 3).
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Figure 3.
Chemical structures of commercial chitosan composed of N-acetyl glucosamine.
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The “chitosan label” generally corresponds to polymers with less than 25% acetyl content. The fully deacetylated product is rarely obtained due to the risks of side reactions and chain depolymerization. Copolymers with various extents of deacetylation and grades are now commercially available. Chitosan and chitin are of commercial interest due to their high percentage of nitrogen compared to synthetically substituted cellulose. Chitosan is soluble in acid solutions and is chemically more versatile than chitin or cellulose. The main reason for this is undoubtedly its appealing intrinsic properties, as documented in a recent review [30], such as biodegradability, biocompatibility, film-forming ability, bioadhesivity, polyfunctionality, hydrophilicity and adsorption properties. Most of the properties of chitosan can be related to its cationic nature [30], which is unique among abundant polysaccharides and natural polymers. These numerous properties lead to the recognition of this polyamine as a promising raw material for adsorption purposes.
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The elevated interest in chitin and chitosan is reflected by an increase in the number of articles published and talks given on this topic. Currently, these polymers and their numerous derivatives as described in reviews [29,31] are widely used in pharmacy, medicine, biotechnology, chemistry, cosmetics and toiletries, food technology, and the textile, agricultural, pulp and paper industries and other fields such as oenology, dentistry and photography. The potential industrial use of chitosan is widely recognized. These versatile materials are also widely used in clarification and water purification, water and wastewater treatment as coagulating, flocculating and chelating agents. However, despite a large number of publication on the use of chitosan for pollutant recovery, the research failed to find practical applications on the industrial scale: this aspect will be discussed later.
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2. Synthesis of adsorbents
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2.1. Grafting reactions
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The basic idea of modifications is to make various changes in chitosan structure to enhance its properties (capacity, resistance etc). In particular, several researchers have proposed certain mofidifications in chitosan backbone to improve its adsorption capacity. These modifications are realized with grafting reactions [32-38]. The modifications can improve chitosan’s removal performance and selectivity for dyes, alter the physical and mechanical properties of the polymer, control its diffusion properties and decrease the sensitivity of adsorption to environmental conditions. Many scientists suggested chemical grafting specific ligands [39,40]. However the only class for which chitosan [37] has low affinity is basic (cationic) dyes. To overcome this problem, the use of N-benzyl mono- and disulfonate derivatives of chitosan is suggested to enhance its cationic dye hydrophobic adsorbent properties and to improve its selectivity [32,33,41]. These derivatives could be used as hydrophobic adsorbents in acidic media without any cross-linking reactions. To enhance and further develop the high potentials of chitosan, it is necessary to add/introduce chemical substituents at a specific position in a controlled manner [37]. This chemical derivatization promotes new adsorption properties in particular towards basic dyes in acidic medium or reactive/acid dyes in basic medium. Another study deals with the enzymatic grafting of carboxyl groups onto chitosan as a mean to confer the ability to adsorb basic dyes on beads [37]. The presence of new functional groups on the surface of beads results in increased surface polarity and density of adsorption sites and hence improved adsorption selectivity for the target dye. Other studies showed that the ability of chitosan to selectively adsorb dyes could be further improved by chemical derivatization. Novel chitosan-based materials with long aliphatic chains are developed by reacting chitosan with high fatty acids and glycidyl moieties [36]. In this way, these products could be used as effective adsorption materials for both anionic and cationic dyes. Other researchers suggested the use of cyclodextrin-grafted chitosan derivatives as new chitosan derivatives for the removal of dyes [34,35,42]. These materials are characterized by a rate of adsorption and a global efficiency greater than that of the parent chitosan polymer [35].
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2.2. Cross-linking reactions
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The pure form of chitosan powders (raw) tends to present some disadvantages such as unsatisfactory mechanical properties and poor heat resistance. Another important limitation of the pure form is its solubility in acidic media and therefore it cannot be used as an insoluble adsorbent under these conditions (except after physical and chemical modification). The main technique to overcome these limitations is to transform the raw polymer into a form whose physical characteristics are more attractive. So, cross-linked beads have been developed and proposed. After cross-linking, these materials maintain their properties and original characteristics [43], particularly their high adsorption capacity, although this chemical modification results in a decrease in the density of free amine groups at the surface of the adsorbent in turn lowering polymer reactivity towards metal ions [44,45]. The cross-linking agent is very important. Therefore many researchers studied the chitosan behaviour prepared with different cross-linkers, such as glutaraldehyde (GLA), tripolyphosphate sodium (TPP), epichlorydrine (EPI), ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (EGDE), etc [46-49]. The change in adsorption capacity was confirmed; the results showed that the chitosan-EPI beads presented a higher adsorption capacity than GLA and EGDE [46,47]. They reported that these materials can be used for the removal of reactive, direct and acid dyes. It was found that 1 g chitosan adsorbed 2498, 2422, 2383 and 1954 mg of various reactive dyes (Reactive Blue 2, Reactive Red 2, Direct Red 81 and Acid Orange 12, respectively) [49]. As a comparison, it is specified that the adsorption capacities of commercially activated carbon for reactive dyes generally vary from 280 to 720 mg/g. Another advantage of EPI is that it does not eliminate the cationic amine function of the polymer, which is the major adsorption site to attract the anionic dyes during adsorption [47]. The cross-linking with GLA (formation of imine functions) or EDGE decreases the availability of amine functions for the complexation of dyes. With a high cross-linking ratio the uptake capacity decreases drastically. Among the conditions of the cross-linking reaction that have a great impact on dye adsorption are the chemical nature of the cross-linker, as mentioned above, but also the extent of the reaction. In general, the adsorption capacity depends on the extent of cross-linking and decreases with an increase in cross-linking density. When chitosan beads were cross-linked with GLA under heterogeneous conditions, it was found that the saturation adsorption capacity of reactive dyes on cross-linked chitosan decreased exponentially from 200 to 50 mg/g as the extent of cross-linking increased from 0 to 1.5 mol GLA/mol of amine. This is because of the restricted diffusion of molecules through the polymer network and reduced polymer chain flexibility. Also the loss of amino-binding sites by reaction with aldehyde is another major factor in this decrease. However, the cross-linking step was necessary to improve mechanical resistance, to enhance the resistance of material against acid, alkali and chemicals, and also to increase the adsorption abilities of chitosan. According to literature [46-49], the adsorption capacity of non cross-linked beads was greater than that of cross-linked beads in the same experimental conditions. The materials, mainly cross-linked using GLA, have been also proposed as effective dye removers by several researchers [34,43]. The reaction of chitosan with GLA leads to the formation of imine groups, in turn leading to a decrease in the number of amine groups, resulting in a lowered adsorption capacity, especially for dyes adsorbed through ion-exchange mechanisms. In heterogeneous conditions, chitosan (solid state) was simply mixed with GLA solution, while in homogeneous conditions chitosan was mixed with GLA solution after being dissolved in acetic acid solution. An optimum aldehyde/amine ratio was determined for dye adsorption that depends on the type of cross-linking (water-soluble or solid-state solution) operation. The initial increase in dye adsorption was attributed to the low levels of cross-linking in the precipitates preventing the formation of closely packed chain arrangements without any great reduction in the swelling capacity. This increase in adsorption was interpreted in terms of the increases in hydrophilicity and accessibility of complexing groups as a result of partial destruction of the crystalline structure of the polymer by cross-linking under homogeneous conditions. At higher levels of cross-linking, the precipitates had lower swelling capacities, and hence lower accessibility because of the more extensive three-dimensional network and also because of its more hydrophobic character with increased GLA content. In general, the adsorption capacity increased greatly at low degrees of substitution but decreased with increasing substitution. This phenomenon is interpreted in terms of increased hydrophilicity caused by the destruction of the crystalline structure at low cross-linking densities, while this can be associated with an accompanying decrease in active sites, accessibility, and swellability of the adsorbent by increasing the level of cross-linking. Furthermore, it is noted that cross-linking can change the crystalline nature of chitosan, as suggested by the XRD diffractograms. After the cross-linking reaction, there was a small increase in the crytallinity of the chitosan beads and also increased accessibility to the small pores of the material.
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3. Adsorption conditions
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3.1. Equilibrium
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3.1.1. pH
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The pH of the dye solution plays an important role in the whole adsorption process and particularly on the adsorption capacity; influences the surface charge of the adsorbent, the degree of ionization of the material present in the solution, the dissociation of functional groups on the active sites of the adsorbent, and the chemistry of dye solution. It is important to indicate that while the adsorption on activated carbon was largely independent of the pH, the adsorption of dyes on chitosan was controlled by the acidity of the solution. pH affects the surface charge of the adsorbent. Chitosan is a weak base and is insoluble in water and organic solvents, however, it is soluble in dilute aqueous acidic solution (pH~6.5), which can convert the glucosamine units into a soluble form R-NH3\n\t\t\t\t\t\t+. Chitosan is precipitated in alkaline solution or in the presence of polyanions and forms gels at lower pH. Its pKa depends on the deacetylation degree, the ionic strength and the neutralization of amine groups. In practice pKa lies within 6.5-6.7 for fully neutralized amine functions [50]. So, chitosan is polycationic in acidic medium: the free amino groups are protonated and the polymer becomes fully soluble and this facilitates electrostatic interaction between chitosan and the negatively charged anionic dyes. This cationic property, especially in the case of anionic dyes, depending on the charge and functions of the dye under the corresponding experimental conditions will influence the adsorption procedure [51]. In the literature, the ability of the anionic dyes to adsorb onto chitosan beads is often attributed to the surface charge which depends on the pH of the operating batch system, as mentioned. Dye adsorption occurred through electrostactic attraction on protonated amine groups and numerous researchers concluded that the influence of the pH confirmed the essential role of electrostatic interactions between the chitosan and the target dye. For example, chitosan had a positively charged surface below pH=6.5 (point of zero potential) [52], and reducing the pH increased the positivity of the surface, thus making the adsorption process pH sensitive. Decreasing the pH makes more protons available to protonate the amine group of chitosan with the formation of a large number of cationic amines. This results in increased dye adsorption by chitosan due to increased electrostatic interactions. Differences in pH of the solution have also been reported to influence the dye adsorption capacity of chitosan and its mechanism [44,45]. They noted that, at low pH, chitosan’s free amino groups are protonated, causing them to attract anionic dyes, demonstrating that pH is one of the most important parameters controlling the adsorption process. Some researchers [32,33,53] also found that the adsorption capacity of cationic dyes on chitosan-grafted materials was strongly affected by the pH of solution and was generally significantly decreased by increasing the pH. pH is also known to affect the structural stability of dye molecules (in particular the dissociation of their ionizable sites), and therefore their colour intensity. As a result, the dye molecule has high positive charge density at a low pH. This indicates that the deprotonation (or protonation) of a dye must be taken into consideration. If the dyes to be removed are either weakly acidic or weakly basic, then the pH of the medium affects their structure and adsorption. Initial pH also influences the solution chemistry of the dyes: hydrolysis, complexation by organic and/or inorganic ligands, redox reactions, and precipitation are strongly influenced by pH, and on the other side strongly influence speciation and the adsorption capacity of the dyes. Some useful structural characteristics must be pointed out, as given below:
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The free amine groups in chitosan are much more reactive and effective for chelating pollutants than the acetyl groups in chitin. There is no doubt that amine sites are the main reactive groups for (anionic) dye adsorption, though hydroxyl groups (especially in the C-3 position) may contribute to adsorption. Almost all functional properties of chitosan depend on the chain length, charge density and charge distribution and much of its potential as adsorbent is effected by its cationic nature and solution behaviour. However, at neutral pH, about 50% of total amine groups remain protonated and theoretically available for the adsorption of dyes. The existence of free amine groups may cause direct complexation of dyes co-existing with anionic species, depending on the charge of the dye. As the pH decreases, the protonation of amine groups increases together with the efficiency. The optimum pH is frequently reported in the literature to be around pH 2-4. Below this range, usually a large excess of competitor anions limits adsorption efficiency. This competitor effect is the subject of many studies aiming to develop materials that are less sensitive to the presence of competitor anions and to the pH of the solution, as described in the next two paragraphs.
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It is not really the total number of free amine groups that must be taken into account but the number of accessible free amine groups. There are several explanations for this. The availability of amine groups is controlled by two important parameters: (i) the crystallinity of polymer, and (ii) the diffusion properties of dyes. It is known that some of the amine sites on chitosan are included in both the crystalline area and in inter or intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Moreover the residual crystallinity of the polymer may control the accessibility to adsorption sites. The deacetylation degree also controls the fraction of free amine groups available for interactions with dyes. Indeed, the total number of free amine groups is not necessarily accessible for dye uptake. Actually, rather than the fraction or number of free amine groups available for dye uptake, it would be better to consider the number of accessible free amine groups. It is also concluded that the hydrogen bonds linked between monomer units of the same chain (intramolecular bonds) and/or between monomer units of different chains (intermolecular bonds) decrease their reactivity. The weakly porous structure of the polymer and its residual crystallinity are critical parameters for the hydratation and the accessibility to adsorption sites.
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3.1.2. Isotherms
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Adsorption properties and equilibrium data, commonly known as adsorption isotherms, describe how pollutants interact with adsorbent materials and so, are critical in optimizing the use of adsorbents [31]. In order to optimize the design of an adsorption system to remove dye from solutions, it is important to establish the most appropriate correlation for the equilibrium curve. An accurate mathematical description of equilibrium adsorption capacity is indispensable for reliable prediction of adsorption parameters and quantitative comparison of adsorption behaviour for different adsorbent systems (or for varied experimental conditions) within any given system. Adsorption equilibrium is established when the amount of dye being adsorbed onto the adsorbent is equal to the amount being desorbed. It is possible to depict the equilibrium adsorption isotherms by plotting the concentration of the dye in the solid phase versus that in the liquid phase. The distribution of dye molecule between the liquid phase and the adsorbent is a measure of the position of equilibrium in the adsorption process and can generally be expressed by one or more of a series of isotherm models [54-58]. The shape of an isotherm may be considered with a view to predicting if a sorption system is “favourable” or “unfavourable”. The isotherm shape can also provide qualitative information on the nature of the solute–surface interaction. In addition, adsorption isotherms have been developed to evaluate the capacity of chitosan materials for the adsorption of a particular dye molecule. They constitute the first experimental information, which is generally used as a convenient tool to discriminate among different materials and thereby choose the most appropriate one for a particular application in standard conditions. The most popular classification of adsorption isotherms of solutes from aqueous solutions has been proposed by Giles et al. [57,58]. Four characteristic classes are identified, based on the configuration of the initial part of the isotherm (i.e., class S, L, H, C). The Langmuir class (L) is the most widespread in the case of adsorption of dye compounds from water, and it is characterized by an initial region, which is concave to the concentration axis. Type L also suggests that no strong competition exists between the adsorbate and the solvent to occupy the adsorption sites. However, the H class (high affinity) results from extremely strong adsorption at very low concentrations giving rise to an apparent intercept on the ordinate. The H-type isotherms suggest the uptake of pollutants by materials through chemical forces rather than physical attraction. There are several isotherm models available for analyzing experimental data and for describing the equilibrium of adsorption, including Langmuir, Freundlich, Langmuir-Freunldich, BET, Toth, Temkin, Redlich-Peterson, Sips, Frumkin, Harkins-Jura, Halsey, Henderson and Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherms. These equilibrium isotherm equations are used to describe experimental adsorption data. The different equation parameters and the underlying thermodynamic assumptions of these models often provide insight into both the adsorption mechanism, and the surface properties and affinity of the adsorbent. Therefore, it is important to establish the most appropriate correlation of equilibrium curves to optimize the condition for designing adsorption systems. Various researchers have used these isotherms to examine the importance of different factors on dye molecule sorption by chitosan. However, the two most frequently used equations applied in solid/liquid systems for describing sorption isotherms are the Langmuir [55] and the Freundlich [56] models and the most popular isotherm theory is the Langmuir one which is commonly used for the sorption of dyes onto chitosan.
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The majority of researchers found significant correlations between dye concentration and the dye-binding capacity of polymeric adsorbents and particularly chitosan [3,41,53]. The amount of the dye adsorbed onto chitosan increased with an increase in the initial concentration of dye solution if the amount of adsorbent was kept unchanged. This is due to the increase in the driving force of the concentration gradient with the higher initial dye concentration. In most cases, at low initial concentration the adsorption of dyes by chitosan is very intense and reaches equilibrium very quickly. This indicates the possibility of the formation of monolayer coverage of the dye molecules at the outer interface of the chitosan. At a fixed adsorbent dose, the amount of dye adsorbed increases with the increase of dye concentration in solution, but the percentage of adsorption decreased. In other words, the residual concentration of dye molecules will be higher for higher initial dye concentrations. In the case of lower concentrations, the ratio of initial number of dye moles to the available adsorption sites is low and subsequently the fractional adsorption becomes independent of initial concentration [3,41,46,47,49,52,53]. At higher concentrations, however, the number of available adsorption sites becomes lower and subsequently the removal of dyes depends on the initial concentration. At the high concentrations, it is not likely that dyes are only adsorbed in a monolayer at the outer interface of chitosan. As a matter of fact, the diffusion of exchanging molecules within chitosan particles may govern the adsorption rate at higher initial concentrations. In another theory, it is claimed that adsorption rate may diminish with an increase in dye concentration [34].This could be ascribed to the accompanying increase in dye aggregation and/or depletion of accessible active sites on the material.
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Generally speaking, the adsorption of pollutants increases with the increase in temperature, because high temperatures provide a faster rate of diffusion of adsorbate molecules from the solution to the adsorbent [31,41]. However, it is well known that temperature plays an important role in adsorption onto activated carbon, generally having a negative influence on the amount adsorbed. The adsorption of organic compounds (including dyes) is an exothermic process and the physical bonding between the organic compounds and the active sites of the carbon will weaken with increasing temperature. Also with the increase of temperature, the dye solubility also increases, the interaction forces between the solute and the solvent become stronger than those between solute and adsorbent, consequently the solute is more difficult to adsorb. Both of these features are consistent with the order of Langmuir adsorption capacity. The adsorption of dyes by chitosan is also usually exothermic: an increase in the temperature leads to an increase in the dye adsorption rate, but diminishes total adsorption capacity [3,41,53]. However, these effects are small and normal wastewater temperature variations do not significantly affect the overall decolorization performance [59]. In addition, the adsorption process is not usually operated at high temperature, because this would increase operation costs. The increase in temperature affects not only the solubility of the dye molecule (its solubility increases), but also the adsorptive potential of the material (its adsorption capacity increases). Both effects work in the same direction causing an increase of cost operation in the batch system. In general, this could be confirmed by the thermodynamic parameters. An increase in temperature is also followed by an increase in the diffusivity of the dye molecule, and consequently by an increase in the adsorption rate if diffusion is the rate-limiting step. Temperature could also influence the desorption step and consequently the reversibility of the adsorption equilibrium. So, the temperature (and its variation) is an important factor affecting chitosan adsorption and investigations of this parameter offer interesting results, albeit often contradictory. The usual increase in adsorption may be attributed to the fact that on increasing temperature, a greater number of active sites is generated on the polymer beads because of an enhanced rate of protonation/deprotonation of the functional groups on the beads. The fact that adsorption of dyes on chitosan increases with higher temperature can be surprising. Other authors concluded that an increase in temperature leads to a decrease in the amount of adsorbed dye at equilibrium since adsorption on chitosan is exothermic [60,61].
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3.3. Kinetics – Modelling
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The conventional approach to quantify the batch adsorption process is the empirical fitting based on the dependence between the global adsorption rate and the driving force for adsorption i.e. the difference between the actual and the equilibrium adsorbate concentration. This dependence can be a linear one but in most cases is taken as quadratic. The parameters extracted from the fitting procedure may be appropriate to represent the experimental data, but they do not have any direct physical meaning (although some researchers relate them to an hypothetical diffusion coefficient). In addition, this type of empirical modelling cannot be extended to describe more complicated process geometries than the simple batch one. A phenomenological approach based on fundamental principles) is needed, in order to develop models with parameters with physical meaning. This type of models can be extended to be used for the design of processes of engineering interest (like fixed bed adsorption) and improve the understanding of the adsorbent structure in line with its interaction with the adsorbate.
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The phenomenological approach to the batch adsorption is well-known. Kyzas et al [41] made an attempt for the description of the derivation of the models, of the inherent assumptions and of how several simplified models used in literature are hooked to the general approach. The description of the approach will be made for a general porous solid and then the adjustment to the particular structure of the chitosan derivatives will be presented. The actual difficulty in the modeling of the adsorption process for porous adsorbents is not its physics but its geometry in micro-scale. For extensive discussion on the physics of adsorption process please see other works [62,63]. The physics is well-understood in terms of the occurring processes: (i) diffusion of the adsorbate in the liquid, (ii) adsorption-desorption between the liquid and solid phase, and (iii) surface diffusion of the adsorbate. See a simple schematic on the phenomena occurring in a pore in Figure 4.
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Figure 4.
Phenomena occurring in pore scale
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On the other hand, the actual shape of the geometry, in which the above phenomena occur, is completely unknown. Recently, several reconstructions or tomographic techniques have been developed for the 3-D digitization of the internal structure of porous media [64]. This digitized structure can be used to solve the equations describing the prevailing phenomena. The above approach is extremely difficult (still inapplicable for the size of pores met in adsorption applications), time consuming and its use is restricted to porous media development applications. A more effective approach is needed for the purpose of adsorption process design. So, the classical approach of “homogenizing” the corresponding partial differential equations and transferring the lack of knowledge of the geometry to the values of the physical parameters of the problem is given below. In the adsorbent particle phase, the adsorbate can be found both as solute in the liquid, filling the pores of the particle (concentration C in kg/m3) and adsorbed on the solid phase (concentration q in kg adsorbate/kg adsorbent). The “homogeneous” equations for the evolution of C and q inside a spherical adsorbent particle of radius R, are the following:
where t is the time, r is the radial direction, εp the porosity of the particle, ρp the density of the particle (kg adsorbent/m3), Dp is the liquid phase diffusivity of the adsorbate and Ds is the corresponding surface diffusivity. The diffusivity Dp for a given pair of adsorbate-fluid depends only on the temperature, whereas the diffusivity Ds depends both on the type of adsorbent and on q also (apart from their dependence on geometry). For particles with non-uniform structure the parameters Dp, Ds, εp, ρp are functions of r but this case will not be considered here. The function G(C,q) denotes the rate of the adsorption-desorption process. The boundary conditions for the above set of equations are:
where C\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t\t is the concentration of the adsorbate in the bulk solution, and k\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tm\n\t\t\t\t\t is the mass transfer coefficient from the bulk solution to the particle.
Having values for the initial concentrations of adsorbate in the particle and for the bulk concentration Cb, the above mathematical problem can be solved for the functions C(r,t) and q(r,t). The above model is the so-called non-equilibrium adsorption model. Models of this structure are used in large scale solute transport applications (e.g. soil remediation), where the phenomena are of different scale from the present application [65]. In the case of adsorption by small particles, the adsorption-desorption process is much faster than the diffusion, leading to an establishment of a local equilibrium (which can be found by setting G(C,q)=0 and corresponds to the adsorption isotherm q=f(C)). In the present case, the local
where qm and b corresponds to Qmax and KLF, respectively of L-F model.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the limit of very fast adsorption-desorption kinetics it can be shown by a rigorous derivation that the mathematical problem can be transformed to the following:
An additional assumption considered in the above derivation is that the amount of the adsorbate found in the liquid phase in the pores of the particle is insignificant compared to the respective amount adsorbed on the solid phase (i.e. εpC<<ρpq). This assumption always holds, as it can be easily checked by recalling the definition of the adsorption process.
\n\t\t\t\t
The concentration C in eqs 6, 8 can be found by inverting the relation q=f(C). The diffusivity D is an overall diffusivity, which combines the bulk and surface diffusivity and is given by the relation:
where the prime denotes the differentiation of a function with respect to its argument. The average concentration of the adsorbed species (dye molecules) can be computed by the relation:
In case of batch experiments the concentration of the solute in bulk liquid Cb decreases due to its adsorption; so, the evolution of the Cb must be taken into account by the model. The easier way to do this is to consider a global mass balance of the adsorbate:
where Cbo is the initial value of Cb; m is the total mass of the adsorbent particles; V is the volume of the tank.
\n\t\t\t\t
Let us now refer to the several analytical or simple numerical techniques used in literature for the above problem and explain under which conditions they can be employed. In the case of an overall diffusion coefficient D with no concentration dependence (which implies (i) constant Ds, and (ii) zero Dp or linear adsorption isotherm) and a linear adsorption isotherm, the complete problem is linear and it can be solved analytically. The mathematical problem for the case of surface diffusion is equivalent to the homogeneous diffusion or solid diffusion model used by several authors [66]. The complete solution is given by Tien [54], but their simplified versions [67], which ignore external mass transfer and/or the solute concentration reduction through equation 13 (i.e. assuming an infinite liquid volume), are extensively used in the literature with topic of dye adsorption [68]. In case of constant diffusivity, and non-linear adsorption isotherm (which implies no pore diffusion and it is usually used in adsorption from liquid phase studies), several techniques based on the fundamental solutions of the diffusion equation can be used [66,69]. In general, the partial differential equation is transformed to an integro-differential equation for the average concentration qave (dimensionality reduction).
\n\t\t\t\t
Another class of approximation methods, which can be used in any case (but with a questionable success for non-linear problems), is the so-called Linear Driving Force model (LDF model) [70]. The concentration profile in the particle is approximated by a simple function (usually polynomial with two or three terms) and using this, the partial differential equation problem can be replaced by an expression for the evolution of qave. This method is not appropriate for use in batch adsorption studies, but it has been proven to be successful in cases like fixed bed adsorption. In these cases, where the solution of equation 8 in several positions along the case of adsorption bed is required, LDF approximation is very useful. In cases, where no simplifications are possible and high accuracy is required, one has to resort to numerical techniques. A widely used approach is the collocation discretization of the spatial dimension, which is very efficient due to the use of higher order approximation. However, its advantage can be completely lost for the case of very rapid (or even discontinuous) changes of the parameters inside the particle. In order to be able to extend our approach to non-uniform particles, a typical finite difference discretization (permitting arbitrarily dense grid) is performed in the spatial dimension.
\n\t\t\t\t
The model for adsorption by chitosan derivatives and how it fits to the above general adsorption model will be discussed next. The chitosan particles are homogeneous consisting of swollen polymeric material. The basic (cationic) dyes are diffused in the swollen polymer phase and are incorporated (adsorbed) on the polymer with the interaction of the amino and hydroxyl groups [71]. In the case of reactive (anionic) dyes, the incorporation step is due to strong electrostatic attraction [72]. The kinetics of the whole process have been modeled in two distinct ways: based on diffusion [73] or based on the global chelation (or in general immobilization) reaction [75]. In the present study, the two modeling approaches are unified by assuming a composite mechanism of diffusion in the water phase, adsorption-desorption on the polymeric structure and diffusion on the polymeric structure (transition from one adsorption site to another). The system of equations for the above model is exactly the same, but with different meaning for some symbols. In particular, εp is the liquid volume fraction of the particle, Dp is again the liquid phase diffusivity of the adsorbate, and Ds is the diffusivity associated to the transition rate from one adsorption site to another. The function G(C,q) denotes the rate of the reversible adsorption process (chelation reaction or electrostatic attraction). The rest of the model development is exactly the same with that of the general porous solid, assuming that the form of the adsorption-desorption equilibrium isotherm is that of extended Langmuir.
\n\t\t\t\t
A very useful application to experimental data of the model described above is developed by our research team [41]. The dye adsorbents were grafted chitosan beads with sulfonate groups (abbreviated as Ch-g-Sulf), N-vinylimido groups (abbreviated as Ch-g-VID), and non-grafted beads (abbreviated as Ch). The tests were carried out both for reactive and basic dyes.
\n\t\t\t\t
Although chitosan has a gel-like structure, the water molecules can be found in relatively large regions, which can be characterized as pores with diameters of 30-50 nm for the pure chitosan. The dye molecules which are diffused through these pores, are adsorbed-desorbed on the pore walls and finally are diffused (transferred) from one adsorption site to the other. All these phenomena are included to the kinetic model described in this study. There are two unknown parameters, namely pore and surface diffusivity (Dp and Ds), which must be found from the kinetic data. The simultaneous determination of both parameters requires experimental data of intraparticle adsorbate concentration, which are not easily available. Thus, the kinetic data can be fitted to the infinite pairs of Dp and Ds by keeping the value of the one parameter fixed and calculating the value of the other one that fits the experimental kinetic data.
\n\t\t\t\t
At the first stage of model employment, the surface diffusion is ignored (setting Ds=0) and the pore diffusivity is calculated and fitted to the experimental kinetic data. In order to make the diffusion coefficients comparative, it is necessary to estimate the diffusivity of each dye in the water (Dw) at the corresponding temperatures. The diffusivity in water are calculated according to the Wilke-Chang correlation (molecular radius can be found by employing codes like the BioMedCAChe 5.02 program by Fujitsu).
\n\t\t\t\t
The key point of the procedure developed here is to compare the effective pore diffusivity (Dp) of the dye with its diffusivity in the water (Dw). This relation has the well known form [75]:
where ε is the porosity (water volume fraction), and τ is the tortuosity of the adsorbent particle. Given that the structure of the particle (ε,τ) does not depend on the temperature, and assuming that the pure pore diffusion with no any other type of interactions is responsible for the solute transfer in the adsorbent particle, the temperature’s dependence of Dp must follow the temperature’s dependence of Dp.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tBasic dye. From all the combinations of dye-adsorbent examined up to now, the only one in which Dp follows the temperature dependence of Dw is the combination of basic dye-Ch (adsorption of basic dye onto non-grafted chitosan). The value Dp/Dw = τ/ε is found to be temperature independent, suggesting that the actual transport mechanism is the pore diffusion with no specific interactions between adsorbent and solute (τ/ε is found to be about 12). Indeed, Ch has amino and hydroxyl groups in its molecule, but smaller in number compared to that of grafted chitosan. So, the relatively weak interactions between dye and adsorbent (hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, pi-pi interactions, chelation) [72,76] do not drastically affect the transportation/diffusion of dye. Taking into account that ε for chitosan derivatives ranges between 0.4 and 0.6, τ is calculated to be about 6; this is a reasonable value located between the generally proposed value (τ=3) and the values that holds for microporous solids as activated carbon (τ>10) [77]. On the contrary, the higher values of the Dp, which were found in the case of grafted chitosan derivatives, indicate that the surface diffusion mechanism takes part. So, the fitting procedure must be repeated using the Dp values calculated (as an approximation assuming similar geometric structures) for the non-grafted chitosan (Ch) and searching for the Ds values that fits these data. Of course, a slight decrease of τ/ε versus temperature, which was found for Ch, suggests that some surface diffusion is still presented, but given the approximate nature of analysis, it is reasonable to ignore it. The surface diffusivity extracted from the experimental data appears to exhibit smaller temperature dependence than pore diffusivity. In surface diffusivity, the increase with temperature is related to the enhancement of the thermal motion of the adsorbed molecules (proportional to the absolute temperature), whereas in pore diffusivity the latter is related to the decrease of the water viscosity. The surface diffusivity also increases with grafting as the density of the adsorption sites increases. It is due to the fact that the larger density of adsorption sites corresponds to the smaller site-to-site distance in the chitosan backbone, and consequently to the higher probability of transition from one site to another.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tReactive dye. The situation (mechanism of diffusion) is different in the case of the reactive dyes. It would be helpful to observe the relation of the structure of this type of dye and the respective structure of the adsorbents used. The dye is composed of sulfonate groups [8], and the adsorbents contain amino groups (the higher basicity of adsorbent, the stronger protonation occurs at acidic conditions) [75]. So, the main adsorption mechanism of reactive dyes onto chitosan is based on the strong electrostatic interactions between dissociated sulfonate groups of the dye and protonated amino groups of the chitosan. Many studies confirm that the above process is favored under acidic conditions, where the total “charge” of chitosan adsorbent is more positive (due to the stronger protonation of amino groups at acidic pH values) [78,79].
\n\t\t\t\t
Proposing our diffusion concept, it is obvious from the experimental data that: (i) the temperature’s dependence of the coefficients Dp suggests that the transport mechanism is not simply a pure diffusion through the pores, and (ii) the small values of Dp versus Dw set questions about the existence of surface diffusivity. The above observations are compatible to the nature of interactions between the reactive dye and the adsorbent, which is described above. The strong electrostatic interaction in the adsorption sites inhibits the surface diffusion. Moreover, the electrostatic forces have a relatively large region of action. Using as reference the non-grafted chitosan (Ch), the existence of charges of opposite sign at the pore walls creates a surface charge gradient in addition to the adsorbate gradient in the adsorbent particle. This charge gradient drags the oppositely charged dye molecules inside the particle and leads to enhanced effective pore diffusivity. This fact could completely explain the increase of diffusivity related with the grafting groups (the more positively charged grafted groups, the stronger attraction of negatively charged dye molecule). As the density of the adsorption sites increases, the charge density in the particle increases, leading to higher effective pore diffusivity values. The temperature’s dependence of this electrostatically facilitated diffusion process is weaker than that of the pure diffusion process. However, the opposite phenomenon is occurred in the case of sulfonate-chitosan derivative (Ch-g-Sulf), where the surface charge is of the same sign as that of the dye molecule, inhibiting the diffusion process. The above concept of the adsorption process of reactive dyes on chitosan derivatives suggests the development of models that take into account explicitly the electrostatic interaction between dye and adsorbent, instead of considering them only by the modification, which they create to the effective pore diffusivity Dp. Conclusively, by employing the phenomenological model based on the pair pore-surface diffusion for the transport of the dye in the adsorbent particle information about the actual mechanism of adsorption and on interaction between adsorbent and adsorbate can be extracted.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Desorption conditions and Reuse
\n\t\t\t
Chitosan adsorbents present considerable advantages such as their high adsorption capacity, selectivity and also the facility of regeneration. The regeneration of the adsorbent may be crucially important for keeping the process costs down and to open the possibility of recovering the pollutant extracted from the solution. For this purpose, it is desirable to desorb the adsorbed dyes and to regenerate the chitosan derivative for another cycle of application. Generally, the regeneration of saturated chitosan for non-covalent adsorption can be easily achieved by using an acid solution as the desorbing agent. Researchers proposed to desorb the dye from the beads by changing the pH of the solution [52,53] and they showed that the beads could be reused five times without any loss of mechanical or chemical efficacy. The optimum pH of desorption was determined to be the contrast of the optimum of adsorption [53]. Another study has shown the desorption capability of chitosan even at the same pH conditions as those of adsorption [3]. In the same study, 10 cycles were achieved with no significant loss of re-adsorption capacity (~5% loss between 1st and last cycle).
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. Conclusions
\n\t\t\t
The treatment of industrial dyeing effluent that contains the large number of organic dyes by adsorption process, using easily available low-cost adsorbents, is an interesting alternative to the traditionally available aqueous waste processing techniques (chemical coagulation/flocculation, ozonation, oxidation, photodegradation, etc.). Undoubtedly, low-cost adsorbents offer a lot of promising benefits for commercial purposes in the future. The distribution of size, shape, and volume of voids species in the porous materials is directly related to the ability to perform the adsorption application. The comparison of adsorption performance of different adsorbents depend not only on the experimental conditions and analytical methods (column, reactor, and batch techniques) but also the surface morphology of the adsorbent, surface area, particle size and shape, micropore and mesopore volume, etc. Many researchers have made comparison between the adsorption capacities of the adsorbents, but they have nowhere discussed anything about the role of morphology of the adsorbent, even in case of the inorganic material where it plays a major role in the adsorption process. The pH value of the solution is an important factor which must be considered during the designing of the adsorption process. The pH has two kinds of influences on dye: (i) an effect on the solubility, and (ii) speciation of dye in the solution (it depends on dye class). It is well known that surface charge of adsorbent can be modified by changing the pH of the solution. The high adsorption of cationic or acidic dyes at higher pH may be due to the surface of adsorbent becomes negative, which enhances the positively charged dyes through electrostatic force of attraction and vice versa in case of anionic or basic dyes. In case of chitosan-based materials, the literature reveals that maximum removal of dyes from aqueous waste can be achieved in the pH range of 2-4. However, physical and chemical processes such as drying, autoclaving, cross-linking reactions, or contacting with organic or inorganic chemicals proposed for improving the sorption capacity and the selectivity. The production of chitosan also involves a chemical deacetylation process. Chitosan is characterized by its easy dissolution in many dilute mineral acids, with the remarkable exception of sulfuric acid. It is thus necessary to stabilize it chemically for the recovery of dyes in acidic solutions. Several methods have been developed to reinforce chitosan stability. The advantage of chitosan over other polysaccharides is that its polymeric structure allows specific modifications without too many difficulties. The chemical derivatization of the polymer by grafting new functional groups onto the chitosan backbone may be used to increase the adsorption efficiency, to improve adsorption selectivity, and also to decrease the sensitivity of adsorption environmental conditions. It is interesting to note the relationships between physicochemical properties and/or sources of chitosan and the dye-binding properties. Most of the properties and potential of chitosan as adsorbent can be related to its cationic nature, which is unique among abundant polysaccharides and natural polymers, and its high charge density in solution.
\n\t\t\t
The common adsorbent, commercially available activated carbon has good capacity for the removal of pollutants. But its main disadvantages are the high price of treatment and difficult regeneration, which increases the cost of wastewater treatment. Thus, there is a demand for other adsorbents, which are of inexpensive material and do not require any expensive additional pretreatment step. However,there is no direct answer to the question which adsorbent is better: chitosan (raw material, preconditioned chitosan, grafted or cross-linked chitosans) or activated carbons? The best choice depends on the dye and it is impossible to determine a correlation between the chemical structure of the dye and its affinity for either carbon or chitosan. Each product has advantages and drawbacks. In addition, comparisons are difficult because of the scarcity of information and also inconsistencies in data presentation.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/40755.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/40755.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/40755",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/40755",totalDownloads:8001,totalViews:570,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:5,impactScorePercentile:94,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 29th 2012",dateReviewed:"August 28th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 16th 2013",dateFinished:"November 5th 2012",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/40755",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/40755",book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing"},signatures:"George Z. Kyzas, Margaritis Kostoglou, Nikolaos K. Lazaridis and Dimitrios N. Bikiaris",authors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",email:"kyzas@chem.ihu.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/152296/images/system/152296.jpg",institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"152887",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",middleName:null,surname:"Lazaridis",fullName:"Nikolaos Lazaridis",slug:"nikolaos-lazaridis",email:"nlazarid@chem.auth.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/152887/images/system/152887.jpeg",institution:null},{id:"152888",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Bikiaris",fullName:"Dimitrios Bikiaris",slug:"dimitrios-bikiaris",email:"dbic@chem.auth.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"153366",title:"Prof.",name:"Margaritis",middleName:null,surname:"Kostoglou",fullName:"Margaritis Kostoglou",slug:"margaritis-kostoglou",email:"kostoglu@chem.auth.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Dyes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Decolorization techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Adsorption",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"1.3.1. Polymeric adsorbents (chitosan)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6",title:"2. Synthesis of adsorbents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.1. Grafting reactions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.2. Cross-linking reactions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Adsorption conditions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1. Equilibrium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.1.1. pH",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.1.2. Isotherms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.3. Kinetics – Modelling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Desorption conditions and Reuse",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. 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A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1977\n\t\t\t\t\tTechnology of textile processing volume II: Chemistry of dyes and principles of dyeing.\n\t\t\t\t\tBombay: Sevak;\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B10",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPokhrel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tViraraghavan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tTreatment of pulp and paper mill wastewater-a review.\n\t\t\t\t\tSci. Total Environ.\n\t\t\t\t\t333\n\t\t\t\t\t37\n\t\t\t\t\t58\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B11",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRobinson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMcmullan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarchant\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNigam\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tRemediation of dyes in textile effluent: a critical review on current treatment technologies with a proposed alternative\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresour. Technol.\n\t\t\t\t\t77\n\t\t\t\t\t247\n\t\t\t\t\t255\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B12",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSlokar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. M\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMajcen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarechal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tMethods of decoloration of textile wastewaters\n\t\t\t\t\tDyes Pigments\n\t\t\t\t\t37\n\t\t\t\t\t335\n\t\t\t\t\t356\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDelee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\'Neill\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHawkes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPinheiro\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tAnaerobic treatment of textile effluents: a review.\n\t\t\t\t\t J. Chem. Technol. Biot.\n\t\t\t\t\t73\n\t\t\t\t\t323\n\t\t\t\t\t335\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B14",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBanat\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. M\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNigam\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSingh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarchant\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tMicrobial decolorization of textile-dye-containing effluents: a review\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresour. Technol.\n\t\t\t\t\t58\n\t\t\t\t\t217\n\t\t\t\t\t227\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPearce\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. I\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLloyd\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuthrie\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. T\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tThe removal of colour from textile wastewater using whole bacterial cells: a review\n\t\t\t\t\tDyes Pigments\n\t\t\t\t\t58\n\t\t\t\t\t179\n\t\t\t\t\t196\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMcmullan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMeehan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tConneely\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKirby\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRobinson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNigam\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBanat\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. M\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarchant\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSmyth\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tMicrobial decolourisation and degradation of textile dyes.\n\t\t\t\t\tAppl. Microbiol. Biotechnol.\n\t\t\t\t\t56\n\t\t\t\t\t81\n\t\t\t\t\t87\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tViraraghavan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tFungal decolorization of dye wastewaters: a review.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresour. Technol.\n\t\t\t\t\t79\n\t\t\t\t\t251\n\t\t\t\t\t262\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStolz\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tBasic and applied aspects in the microbial degradation of azo dyes.\n\t\t\t\t\tAppl. Microbiol. Biotechnol.\n\t\t\t\t\t56\n\t\t\t\t\t69\n\t\t\t\t\t80\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPereira\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. F. R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSoares\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOrfao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. J. 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G\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSarma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption characteristics of the dye, Brilliant Green, on Neem leaf powder\n\t\t\t\t\tDyes Pigments\n\t\t\t\t\t57\n\t\t\t\t\t211\n\t\t\t\t\t222\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRaviKumar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. N. V.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSridhari\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBhavani\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDutta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPK\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tTrends in color removal from textile mill effluents.\n\t\t\t\t\tColorage\n\t\t\t\t\t40\n\t\t\t\t\t25\n\t\t\t\t\t34\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDabrowski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption, from theory to practice. \n\t\t\t\t\tAdv. Colloid Int. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t93\n\t\t\t\t\t135\n\t\t\t\t\t224\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRuthven\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD. M\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1984\n\t\t\t\t\tPrinciples of adsorption and adsorption processes;\n\t\t\t\t\tWiley-Int;\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuzuki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tRole of adsorption in water enviroment processes.\n\t\t\t\t\tWat. Sci. Tech.\n\t\t\t\t\t35\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t11\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRamakrishna\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tViraraghavan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tDye removal using low cost adsorbents\n\t\t\t\t\tWater Sci. Technol.\n\t\t\t\t\t36\n\t\t\t\t\t189\n\t\t\t\t\t196\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBabel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKurniawan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tLow-cost adsorbents for heavy metals uptake from contaminated water: a review\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Hazardous Mater.\n\t\t\t\t\t97\n\t\t\t\t\t219\n\t\t\t\t\t243\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B28",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStreat\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPatrick\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. W\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPerez\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. J\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995\n\t\t\t\t\tSorption of phenol and para-chlorophenol from water using conventional and novel activated carbons\n\t\t\t\t\tWater Res.\n\t\t\t\t\t29\n\t\t\t\t\t467\n\t\t\t\t\t472\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B29",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tNon-conventional low-cost adsorbents for dye removal: a review\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresour Technol.\n\t\t\t\t\t60\n\t\t\t\t\t67\n\t\t\t\t\t75\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRinaudo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tChitin and chitosan: properties and applications\n\t\t\t\t\tProg. Polym. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t31\n\t\t\t\t\t603\n\t\t\t\t\t632\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBadot\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tM. 2008\n\t\t\t\t\tApplication of chitosan, a natural aminopolysaccharide, for dye removal from aqueous solutions by adsorption process using batch studies: a review of recent literature.\n\t\t\t\t\tProg. Polym. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t33\n\t\t\t\t\t399\n\t\t\t\t\t447\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B32",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMartel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTorri\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption of C.I. Basic Blue 9 on chitosan-based materials\n\t\t\t\t\tInt. J. Environ. Pollut.\n\t\t\t\t\t34\n\t\t\t\t\t451\n\t\t\t\t\t465\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRobert\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGimbert\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMartel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAdam\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tO\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDe Giorgi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBadot\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. M\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tThe removal of Basic Blue 3 from aqueous solutions by chitosan-based adsorbent: batch studies.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Hazard. Mater.\n\t\t\t\t\t153\n\t\t\t\t\t96\n\t\t\t\t\t106\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGaffar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\tEl-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRafie\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. M\n\t\t\t\t\t\tEl-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTahlawy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tPreparation and utilization of ionic exchange resin via graft copolymerization of b-CD itaconate with chitosan\n\t\t\t\t\tCarbohyd. Polym.\n\t\t\t\t\t56\n\t\t\t\t\t387\n\t\t\t\t\t396\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B35",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMartel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDevassine\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrini\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWeltrowski\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBourdonneau\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMorcellet\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tPreparation and adsorption properties of a beta-cyclodextrin-linked chitosan derivative.\n\t\t\t\t\t J. Polym. Sci. A Polym. Chem.\n\t\t\t\t\t39\n\t\t\t\t\t169\n\t\t\t\t\t176\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B36",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShimizu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTanigawa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSaito\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNakamura\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tSynthesis of chemically modified chitosans with a higher fatty acid glycidyl and their adsorption abilities for anionic and cationic dyes\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Appl. Polym. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t96\n\t\t\t\t\t2423\n\t\t\t\t\t2428\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B37",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChao\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. C\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShyu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY. C\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. L\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tEnzymatic grafting of carboxyl groups on to chitosan-to confer on chitosan the property of a cationic dye adsorbent.\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresour Technol\n\t\t\t\t\t91\n\t\t\t\t\t157\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B38",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tUzun\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuzel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tRate studies on the adsorption of some dyestuffs and p-nitrophenol by chitosan and monocarboxymethylated(MCM)-chitosan from aqueous solution.\n\t\t\t\t\t Dyes Pigm\n\t\t\t\t\t118\n\t\t\t\t\t141\n\t\t\t\t\t154\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B39",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrabaharan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMano\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tChitosan derivatives bearing cyclodextrin cavities as novel adsorbent matrices.\n\t\t\t\t\tCarbohyd. Polym.\n\t\t\t\t\t63\n\t\t\t\t\t153\n\t\t\t\t\t166\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJayakumar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPrabaharan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tReis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. L\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMano\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002\n\t\t\t\t\tGraft copolymerized chitosan-present and status applications\n\t\t\t\t\tCarbohyd. Polym.\n\t\t\t\t\t62\n\t\t\t\t\t142\n\t\t\t\t\t158\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B41",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKyzas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. Z\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKostoglou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLazaridis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. K\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tRelating interactions of dye molecules with chitosan to adsorption kinetic data\n\t\t\t\t\tLangmuir\n\t\t\t\t\t26\n\t\t\t\t\t9617\n\t\t\t\t\t9626\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'\n\t\t\t\tEl-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTahlawy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK. F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGaffar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. A\n\t\t\t\t\t\tEl-\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRafie\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tNovel method for preparation of b-cyclodextrin/grafted chitosan and it’s application.\n\t\t\t\t\t Carbohyd. Polym.\n\t\t\t\t\t63\n\t\t\t\t\t385\n\t\t\t\t\t392\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B43",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCestari\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVieira\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEFS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tdos Santos\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAGP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMota\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tde Almeida\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption on of anionic dyes on chitosan beads. 1. The influence of the chemical structures of dyes and temperature on the adsorption kinetics.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Colloid Interf. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t280\n\t\t\t\t\t380\n\t\t\t\t\t386\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B44",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGibbs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTobin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. M\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuibal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption of acid green 25 on chitosan: influence of experimental parameters on uptake kinetics and adsorption isotherms.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Appl. Polym. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t90\n\t\t\t\t\t1073\n\t\t\t\t\t1080\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B45",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGibbs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTobin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. M\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuibal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tInfluence of chitosan preprotonation on reactive black 5 adsorption isotherms and kinetics.\n\t\t\t\t\t Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.\n\t\t\t\t\t43\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t11\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B46",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChiou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption behavior of reactive dye in aqueous solution on chemical cross-linked chitosan beads\n\t\t\t\t\tChemosphere\n\t\t\t\t\t50\n\t\t\t\t\t1095\n\t\t\t\t\t1105\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B47",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChiou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKuo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tRemoval of reactive dye from wastewater by adsorption using ECH cross-linked chitosan beads as medium.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Environ. Sci. Health. A\n\t\t\t\t\t38\n\t\t\t\t\t2621\n\t\t\t\t\t2631\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B48",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChiou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption behavior of dye AAVN and RB4 in acid solutions on chemically crosslinked chitosan beads.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Chin. Inst. Chem. Eng.\n\t\t\t\t\t34\n\t\t\t\t\t625\n\t\t\t\t\t634\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B49",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChiou\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption of anionic dye in acid solutions using chemically cross-linked chitosan beads.\n\t\t\t\t\tDyes Pigm.\n\t\t\t\t\t60\n\t\t\t\t\t69\n\t\t\t\t\t84\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B50",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuibal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tHeterogeneous catalysis on chitosan-based materials: a review\n\t\t\t\t\tProg. Polym. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t30\n\t\t\t\t\t71\n\t\t\t\t\t109\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B51",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuibal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMccarrick\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTobin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. M\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tComparison of the adsorption of anionic dyes on activated carbon and chitosan derivatives from dilute solutions.\n\t\t\t\t\tSep. Sci. Technol.\n\t\t\t\t\t38\n\t\t\t\t\t3049\n\t\t\t\t\t3073\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B52",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChatterjee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChatterjee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChatterjee\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB. P\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuha\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. K\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption of a model anionic dye, eosin Y, from aqueous solution by chitosan hydrobeads.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Colloid Interf. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t288\n\t\t\t\t\t30\n\t\t\t\t\t35\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B53",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKyzas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. Z\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLazaridis\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN. K\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tReactive and basic dyes removal by sorption onto chitosan derivatives\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Colloid Interf. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t331\n\t\t\t\t\t32\n\t\t\t\t\t39\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B54",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTien\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption Calculation and Modeling.\n\t\t\t\t\tBoston: Butterworth-Heinemann;\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B55",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLangmuir\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1916\n\t\t\t\t\tThe constitution and fundamental properties of solids and liquids.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Am. Chem. Soc.\n\t\t\t\t\t38\n\t\t\t\t\t2221\n\t\t\t\t\t2295\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B56",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFreundlich\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. M. F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1906\n\t\t\t\t\tUber die adsorption in lo° sungen.\n\t\t\t\t\tZ. Phys. Chem.\n\t\t\t\t\t57\n\t\t\t\t\t385\n\t\t\t\t\t471\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B57",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiles\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\' Silva\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEaston\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1974\n\t\t\t\t\tA general treatment and classification of the solute adsorption isotherm. II. Experimental interpretation.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Colloid Interf. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t47\n\t\t\t\t\t766\n\t\t\t\t\t778\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B58",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGiles\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSmith\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHuitson\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1974a\n\t\t\t\t\tA general treatment and classification of the solute adsorption isotherm. I. Theoretical.\n\t\t\t\t\t J. Colloid Interf. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t47\n\t\t\t\t\t755\n\t\t\t\t\t765\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B59",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRavi Kumar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. 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I\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGlueckauf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1947\n\t\t\t\t\tTheory of chromatography; experimental separation of two solutes and comparison with theory.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Chem. Soc.\n\t\t\t\t\t5\n\t\t\t\t\t1308\n\t\t\t\t\t1314\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B71",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGuibal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tInteractions of metal ions with chitosan-based sorbents: a review\n\t\t\t\t\tSep. Purif. Technol.\n\t\t\t\t\t38\n\t\t\t\t\t43\n\t\t\t\t\t74\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B72",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSmith\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. 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M\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tArgüelles-monal\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDesbrières\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRinaudo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tAn infrared investigation in relation with chitin and chitosan characterization\n\t\t\t\t\tPolymer\n\t\t\t\t\t42\n\t\t\t\t\t3569\n\t\t\t\t\t3580\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B77",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. T\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1987\n\t\t\t\t\tGas separation by adsorption processes\n\t\t\t\t\tBoston: Butterworths;\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B78",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption properties of congo red from aqueous solution onto N,O-carboxymethyl-chitosan\n\t\t\t\t\tBioresour. Technol.\n\t\t\t\t\t99\n\t\t\t\t\t1403\n\t\t\t\t\t1408\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B79",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSakkayawong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tN\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tThiravetyan\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNakbanpote\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. J\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005\n\t\t\t\t\tAdsorption mechanism of synthetic reactive dye wastewater by chitosan.\n\t\t\t\t\tJ. Colloid. Interf. Sci.\n\t\t\t\t\t286\n\t\t\t\t\t36\n\t\t\t\t\t42\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"George Z. Kyzas",address:"georgekyzas@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Oenology and Beverage Technology, Technological Educational Institute of Kavala, Greece
Department of Chemistry, Division of Chemical Technology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Department of Chemistry, Division of Chemical Technology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nikolaos K. Lazaridis",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Division of Chemical Technology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Dimitrios N. Bikiaris",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry, Division of Chemical Technology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
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Kyzas, Margaritis Kostoglou, Nikolaos K. Lazaridis and Dimitrios N. 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1. Introduction
Intellectual property rights include patents, trademarks, trade secrets, geographical indications and copyrights. IPR is a legal tool to protect industrial innovation in the modern world as well as to promote the protection of biodiversity and to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources among indigenous custodians [1, 2]. Most of the patented inventions are based on previous knowledge. One of the advantages of the patent system is that it promotes further inventions on a country-by-country basis using knowledge publicly [3]. Many of the herbal products derived from traditional medicine is protected by patent laws.
Phytoconstituents have many facets in intellectual property rights (IPR) in respect of copyrights, patents, and trademark for their medicinal preparations, and registered designs [4]. The most popular forms of IP protection for herbal medicines are trade secrets and trademarks [5].
However, patenting of plant derived medicinal products and processes on the basis of knowledge gained through tradition have become a major dispute in the intellectual property rights domain [6]. Intellectual property rights in connection with indigenous knowledge have given rise to many complex legal challenges to the present world. Issues concerning the preservation of indigenous knowledge are not only legal in nature. Furthermore, the problems encountered in traditional knowledge systems due to intellectual property law can be experienced directly in communities throughout world [7].
Recently activists and some specific non-governmental organizations (NGOs) uses the term Biopiracy’ to refer traditional knowledge related illegal or improper use of biological materials [8]. Furthermore, the growing number of patents also represents more exploration about biopiracy. Neem tree cases from India have shown that patents play a central role in biopiracy activity. While there has been much international discussion on disputes pertinent to intellectual property and assets, traditional knowledge and heritage, these international consultants are skeptical about the overuse of biopiracy to describe specific instances of unfair or false intellectual property claims over biological resources and traditional knowledge. Bioprospecting is a recent term constituted to describe the appropriate use of natural resources, respect the rights of indigenous peoples, and identify, commercialize bio products [3, 8, 9, 10].
However, while we protect these leading compounds and obtain private rights under the existing patent law system, the rights and interests (such as disclosure of origins, profit sharing, etc.) of the traditional knowledge owners who provide the “source” of these patents must also be respected. Otherwise, it is against the basic principles and concepts of the intellectual property system such as the interest balance [11, 12]. The Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is a key international agreement promoting the harmonization of IPR regime [13]. Key agencies like the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) has also been instrumental in establishing new frameworks for the protection of Indigenous interests under intellectual property. Moreover countries at national and regional level are primarily concerned about protecting traditional resources [14]. In this regard the present chapter provides an overview of the different types of intellectual property rights and execution of legal protection of traditional resources in India. The chapter also discussed the concepts like traditional knowledge, biopiracy and bioprospecting.
2. World intellectual property organization (WIPO)
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is specialized agency of United Nations which was established in 1967, dedicated to the promotion of innovation and creativity for the economic, social and cultural development of all countries through a balanced and effective international IP system. The organization reinforces the protection of intellectual property rights, genetic resources, Folklore and Traditional Knowledge [2]. WIPO is a driving force for the international harmonization of intellectual property standards. WIPO provides a global policy forum, bringing together governments, business groups and civil society to address growing IP issues. Worldwide Protection of intellectual property and assurance of administrative cooperation among the intellectual property unions are the two main objectives of WIPO [15].
WIPO’s annual study of intellectual property (IP) activities around the world is known as the World Intellectual Property Indicators. This reputable publication examines global IP activity reports. Based on 2018 filing, it covers patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, microorganisms, plant variety protection and geographic indications [15]. Most international conventions pertaining to intellectual property rights are administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization. The Patent Law Treaty and the Patent Cooperation Treaty (building upon the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property) facilitate the harmonization of patent laws internationally. WIPO has played a key role in the politics and discussion surrounding IP, traditional knowledge, and biodiversity, while being disregarded by many authors and campaigners. WIPO has created a rhetorically important, but slow-moving forum in the Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge in the realm of genetic resources and traditional knowledge (IGC) [15, 16, 17].
3. The World Trade Organization (WTO) and TRIPS
The WTO, the primary rule-making body for international trade. In order to set universal standard of protection and enforcement of IPRs among the WTO (World Trade Organization) member states, an influential international treaty came into existence which was termed as Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). The TRIPS Agreement negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) between 1989 and 1990 and is administered by the WTO. The trade in services covered by the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). These three agreements have been described as the three pillars of the WTO [18, 19]. The TRIPS Agreement aims to set minimum standards in intellectual property protection. TRIPS is considered to be the most important international agreement on IP, incorporating into it much substantive law from previous international agreements, such as the Berne Convention and Paris Convention [20]. These agreements and treaties include the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), and the Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) treaty. The main contentions in TRIPs include: patentable subject matter (for example genetically engineered products, food, medical and agricultural products, biological processes etc.), duration of protection, limitations on rights, and legal enforcement of rights [21].
4. Intellectual property rights
Intellectual property rights are the legal rights granted to a person to protect the interests of innovators and creators over their creations. It’s a privilege granted to creators over their creative efforts for a set period of time [1].
There are two types of intellectual property rights:
Copyright and rights related to copyright
Industrial property
4.1 Copyright and rights related to copyright
Copyrights are legally described term used to describe the rights of authors of literary and artistic works. Copyrights also include the rights over books and other writings, musical compositions, paintings, sculpture, computer programs and films, for a minimum period of 50 years after the death of the author. Copyright protection extends solely to expressions and does not embody concepts, procedures, and strategies of operation or mathematical ideas per se. Copyright may or may not be available for a variety of objects such as titles, slogans, or logos, reckoning on whether they contain sufficient authorship.
Under copyright, there are two categories of rights:
Economic rights, which allow the owner of the rights to profit financially from the utilization of their work by others; and
Moral rights, which protect the author’s non-economic interests [1].
4.2 Industrial property
The broad application of the term “industrial property” is set out in the Paris Convention. “Industrial property shall be understood in the broadest sense and shall apply not only to industry and commerce proper, but likewise to agricultural and extractive industries and to all manufactured or natural products, for example, wines, grain, tobacco leaf, fruit, cattle, minerals, mineral waters, beer, flowers, and flour.” Paris Convention – Article 1(3).
Industrial property include patents for inventions, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, layout-designs of integrated circuits, commercial names and designations, geographical indications and protection against unfair competition [1].
4.3 Patents
Patents also referred to as patents for invention, are the most widespread means of protecting technical inventions. The term “patent”, or letter “patent”, also refers to the document issued by appropriate government authority. Patents are exclusive rights that are valid only in the country or territory where they were filed and granted, under the laws of that country or region.
Requirements of patentability include
Patentable subject matter
Industrial applicability (utility)
Novelty
Non-obviousness
Disclosure of the invention.
Once a patent is granted by a state or by a regional office acting for several states, the owner of a patent has the right to prevent anyone else from commercially exploiting the invention for a limited period, generally 20 years [1, 22].
4.4 Industrial designs
Industrial designs are applied to a wide variety of industrial products and handicrafts. They refer to the ornamental or esthetic aspects of an article, including compositions of lines or colors or any three-dimensional forms that give a special appearance to a product or handicraft. In registering their industrial designs, manufacturers protect one of the creative elements that determine market success. It grants the owner of the design the exclusive right to make, import, sell, hire or offer for sale articles to which the design is applied or in which the design is embodied. The term for an industrial design rights varies from country to country. The usual maximum term is from 10 to 25 years. The layout-designs of integrated circuits are creations of the human mind [1].
4.5 Trademarks
A trademark is a distinctive indication that distinguishes certain goods or services as those produced or offered by a specific person or organization. Trademarks can be registered for both goods and services. The procedures for registering trademarks are governed by national and regional IP authorities’ rules and laws. A single word, or a mix of words, letters, and numerals, will utterly represent a trademark [1, 22, 23].
4.6 Geographical indication (GI)
A geographical indication is a sign that appears on commodities that have a specific geographical origin and possess qualities or a reputation due to that place of origin. This “geographical indication” is more than just a description of the product’s origin. GI indicates the connection between quality, reputation or characteristic of that good and its territory of origin. The primary role of a GI is to identify a link between a good’s quality, reputation, or characteristic and its origin territory. Well-known examples embrace “Champagne”, “Scotch Whiskey”, “Tequila”, and “Roquefort” cheese [1, 15, 24].
4.7 Protection against unfair competition
Protection against unfair competition supplements the protection of inventions, industrial designs, trademarks and geographical indications. It is particularly crucial for the protection of non-patentable knowledge, technology, or information that may be necessary to make the best use of a patented invention eg: The legal protection of trade secrets also part of protection of unfair competition, depending upon the legal system [1].
4.8 Plant variety protection
Plant variety protection, also known as a “plant breeder’s right,” is a type of intellectual property right granted to the breeder of a new plant variety in connection with certain acts relating to the exploitation of the protected variety that require the breeder’s prior authorization. Prior inspection and granting by the proper authority, as in the case of patents, trademarks, and industrial designs, are required [25].
Figure 1 represents different types of intellectual property rights.
Figure 1.
Types of IPR.
5. Traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights
Patent, copyrights, trademarks, trade secrets, geographical identification and traditional knowledge are part of IPRs [26]. The term “traditional knowledge” refers to knowledge, possessed by indigenous people, in one or more societies and in one or more forms, including, but not limited to, art, dance and music, medicines and folk remedies, folk culture, biodiversity, knowledge and protection of plant varieties, handicrafts, designs, literature (WIPO, 2011). ‘It is knowledge, know-how, skills and practices that are developed, sustained and passed on from generation to generation within a community, often forming part of its cultural or spiritual identity’ (WIPO, 2000). Traditional knowledge (TK) is integral to the identity of most local communities. Indigenous people, especially in rural communities, use Traditional Medicinal Knowledge (TMK) to maintain their health system [27, 28, 29, 30].
The term traditional know-ledge can be categorized into three classes: Traditional Medicinal Knowledge (TMK), Traditional Agricultural Knowledge (TAK) and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). Indigenous knowledge is a subset of traditional knowledge category, held and used by communities, peoples and nations. Indigenous people, especially in rural communities, uses Traditional Medicinal Knowledge (TMK) maintain their health systems [30, 31].
Traditional knowledge (TK) is integral to the identity of most local communities and its preservation as such is of paramount importance for the community’s social and physical environment. This knowledge is an outcome of their connection with local biodiversity that is, plants, fungi, animals, and other endemic biological materials. Traditional societies and communities are responsible for the discovery, development and preservation of a wide variety of medicinal plants, healthy herbal formulations, and agricultural and forest products that are traded internationally and generate substantial economic value. Thereby TK plays an important role in the global economy. Pharmaceutical industries have shown an interest in developing traditional medicines, from many plant species can provide important leads for the discovery of new drugs. An example is the development of the anticancer drugs vincristine and vinblastine from Catharanthus roseous (Apocynaceae) indigenous to Madagascar. Innovations based on TK may benefit from patent, trademark, and geographical indication protection, or be protected as a trade secret or confidential information. Traditional knowledge, on the other hand, which has ancient roots and is frequently passed down orally, is not protected by traditional intellectual property (IP) regimes. Intellectual Property (IP) rights have been claimed over biological resources and/or traditional knowledge (TK) by modifications of known properties [28, 32, 33].
However a few issues pertaining to safeguarding of traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions should be addressed as well [30, 31]. It is disturbing to note that keen interest have been shown by researchers from universities and large industries in indigenous plant use today for taking out the patents to profit financially, has opened up the more than hundreds of million peoples living in traditional communities around the world life in jeopardy [30, 31, 34]. While we use the existing patent law system to protect these leading compounds and secure private rights, we must also respect the rights and interests of traditional knowledge owners who offer a “source” for these patents. Moreover, potential of patent derived products from traditional medicines provides an important incentive for pharmaceutical companies, since it creates possible benefits that increase over the period of time and, thus, ultimately, for sharing such information will lead to the betterment of the mankind [35, 36].
Knowledge on indigenous plants in selected areas where the people are using for ages are many times attempted for patent provoked significant condemnation because they are based upon already existing indigenous or traditional knowledge and therefore should not meet the standard of ‘new’ for the patent grant. Examples of this include patents issued related to the neem tree. The European Patent Office (EPO) revoked a controversial patent on the use of antifungal agents extracted from the neem tree, it sensitize the world against biopiracy [37, 38].
Exploiting traditional knowledge resources for commercial or industrial benefits might prompt its embezzlement and can bias the interests of its legitimate custodians.
In the face of such risks, there is a need to develop ways and means to protect and nurture TK for long term development that befits the interests of Traditional knowledge-holders. The preservation, protection and promotion of the TK-based innovations and practices of local communities are particularly important for developing countries. Their rich endowment of TK and biodiversity plays an essential role in their health care, food security, culture, religion, identity, climate, trade and development [39].
According to the Summary for Policymakers of the 2019 IPBES Global Assessment on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services:
‘Recognizing the knowledge, innovations, practices, institutions and values of indigenous peoples and local communities, and ensuring their inclusion and participation in environmental governance, often enhances their quality of life and the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of nature, which is relevant to broader society. Governance, including customary institutions and management systems and co-management regimes that involve indigenous peoples and local communities, can be an effective way to safeguard nature and its contributions to people by incorporating locally attuned management systems and indigenous and local knowledge. The positive contributions of indigenous peoples and local communities to sustainability can be facilitated through national recognition of land tenure, access and resource rights in accordance with national legislation, the application of free, prior and informed consent, and improved collaboration, fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use, and co-management arrangements with local communities [37, 40].
5.1 Protection of traditional knowledge
Through the Intergovernmental Committee on Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC-GRTF), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is trying to prepare a draft of an international legal instrument for protection of TK that allow access to those outside the country/community of its traditional holders. According to WIPO, Traditional knowledge is a living body of knowledge that is developed, sustained and passed on from generation to generation within a community, often forming part of its cultural or spiritual identity. WIPO’s work on traditional knowledge addresses three domain areas: traditional knowledge, traditional cultural expressions and genetic resources, which are related to each other. Two types of intellectual property protection are being sought for traditional knowledge [2, 39].
5.1.1 Defensive protection
Which target to prevent people outside the community from acquiring intellectual property rights over TK. Defensive strategies might also be used to protect sacred cultural manifestations, such as sacred symbols or words from being registered as trademarks.
For example India developed a searchable database Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) which is an evidence that treatments already used in indigenous system of medicine and ensure that patents are not granted and thus prevent the biopiracy followed by a well-known case in which the US Patent and Trademark Office granted a patent after turmeric. Defensive protection is meant to prevent piracy and application for IP as new inventions. TKDL is a prime example of a measure for defensive protection [2, 38, 39].
5.1.2 Positive protection
It empowers the communities for granting of rights to promote their traditional knowledge, control its uses and benefit from its commercial exploitation. Some uses of traditional knowledge can be protected through the existing intellectual property system, and a number of countries have also developed specific legislation [39].
6. Biopiracy
‘Biopiracy’ is an emergent term used to name illegal or improper appropriation of traditional knowledge and biological materials the fight against biopiracy, the preservation of biodiversity and the need for sustainable practices hence constitute one of the major challenges for the twenty-first century [30, 32]. “Natural” space of India is described through its biodiversity; a biodiversity which can be appreciated but also exploited. Bioprospecting turns into biopiracy. Vandana Shiva interpreted that, biopiracy is a phenomenon of claiming property rights to biodiversity and its products through intellectual property rights regimes and patents based on indigenous and traditional knowledge [41].
6.1 Categories of biopiracy
6.1.1 Patent-based biopiracy
The patenting of (often spurious) inventions based on biological resources and/or traditional knowledge that are extracted without adequate authorization and benefit sharing from other (usually developing) countries, indigenous or local communities [42].
6.1.2 Non-patent biopiracy
Other intellectual property control based on biological resources and/or traditional knowledge that have been extracted without adequate authorization and benefit-sharing from other (usually developing) countries, indigenous or local communities [42].
7. Bioprospecting
The emergence of the discourse of ‘Bioprospecting’ was discussed in (in the late 1980s or early 1990s) for the search of biological resources that can help to contribute for the conservation as well as the discovery of beneficial products [42]. Bioprospecting is defined as ‘the search for biodiversity, for valuable genetic and biochemical information found in wild animals, plants or microbial organisms’ for product development as a purely scientific and commercial endeavor [43]. Bioprospecting is the exploration of biodiversity for new biological resources of social and economic value. It is carried out by a wide variety of industries, the best known being the pharmaceutical industry, but also by a variety of branches of agriculture, manufacturing, engineering, construction and many others [44]. The bioprospecting concept is based on recognition of the importance of natural product discovery for the development of new crops and medicines, often based on traditional knowledge [42]. Pharmaceutical bioprospecting has been sharply criticized for what has become known as ‘biopiracy’ in which large international pharmaceutical corporations make use of local medicinal knowledge without acknowledging that it is indigenous intellectual property [44, 45].
However, bioprospecting has received more attention in recent years due to the increasing awareness that new drugs will be urgently needed in the near future, either to cure currently incurable diseases affecting an increasing global population or replacing increasingly ineffective drugs to treat health problems. Bioprospecting can impact any industry that depends (wholly or partly) on accessing, sourcing, processing, or production of genetic resources to develop commercially viable products for the world market [46].
An example of bioprospecting that has been cited as a success story of benefit sharing is the Kani model of access and benefit sharing (ABS). Trichopus zeylanicus known as ‘Arogyapacha’ used to treat fatigue and stress by the Kani tribe, inhabiting from Southern Western Ghat region of Kerala State in India (Figure 2). The lead provided by this tribal community has led to the development of a scientifically validated drug “Jeevani” by the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute (TBGRI). While transferring the technology for production of the drug to the pharmaceutical firm, TBGRI agreed to share the license fee and royalty with the tribal community on a fifty-fifty basis. This is the first benefit sharing model in the world. However Kani case has criticized for whether the commercialization got informed consent from tribal community and sharing financial benefits equitably. This benefit-sharing model have been criticized for not yielding the desired the results [47, 48, 49, 50, 51].
Figure 2.
Kani tribe with Trichopus zeylanicus collected from southern Western Ghats Kerala (source: The Hindu news paper dated October 18, 2012).
8. National legislations and policies
India has a tremendous legacy of written and oral TK about elements, conservation and different applications of biodiversity for the benefit of humans, animals, and the planet. This asset of knowledge is important for preservation and human prosperity. Intellectual Property Rights is an unavoidable tool for the present globalized economy. Its more extensive use should be empowered. Notwithstanding, such utilize should not prompt the getting of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) which cannot be advocated for something that has been made by individuals, nor can revelations made on that premise happen without recognizing the contribution of TK and sharing benefits to the makers of information fairly and equally [52]. Fostering innovation is one among the sustainable development goals set by Indian government. “An India where Intellectual Property stimulates creativity and innovation for the benefit of all” is the vision of India’s National IPR Policy. Several initiatives have already proven to foster innovation like the Make in India, Start-up India, Digital India and Skill India [53]. The current laws were either enacted or revised after the TRIPS Agreement and are completely consistent with it. These laws along with various judicial decisions provide a stable and effective legal framework assurance and advancement of IPRs [54].
Systems have been planned and executed to perceive and ensure India’s immense Traditional Knowledge (TK) resources. Suitable administrative and institutional components have been put in place, important plans are being carried out and funds have been set aside for this purpose. In India, institutional mechanisms and programs directly related to the use of medicinal plants are under the Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga and Natural Therapy, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy (AYUSH). The main legislation related to traditional knowledge is the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and The Patents Act, 1970, build up equity in the distribution of benefits with the traditional knowledge holders and the profits derived from the use of such knowledge, and prevented improper filing of patent application for an invention based on traditional knowledge [52, 55].
8.1 India’s biological diversity act, 2002
The Biological Diversity Act of 2002 (BDA) is part of an Indian law that emerged in response to compliance with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), of which India is a ratified member. In fact, India has taken the lead among developing and developed nations both in introducing a substantive legislation in conformance with the objectives of the CBD. It governs the conservation of biological diversity, and sustainable utilization and equitable sharing of benefits from the use of biological resources and knowledge [53, 54]. In terms of Section 6(1) of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 a person is prohibited from applying for any intellectual property in or outside India for any invention based on any research or information on a biological resource obtained from India, without first obtaining prior consent from the (National Biodiversity Authority) NBA. The BD Act makes admittance to TK and filling of applications for IPRs for products or invention that utilize TK, subjected to the approval of competent authorities [56, 57, 58].
8.2 The Patents act, 1970
Indian law has adequate provisions for the protection of TK and Biological Resources. The Patents Act, 1970, which defines that “invention means a new product or process involving an inventive step and capable of industrial application”. Further, under Section 3(e) of the Patents Act “a substance obtained by a mere admixture resulting only in the aggregation of the properties of the components thereof or process for producing such substances” is not an invention and hence, not patentable. The Indian Patents Act also has a unique provision under Section 3(p), wherein “an invention which, in effect, is traditional knowledge or which is an aggregation or duplication of known properties of traditionally known component or components. The patents Act warrants that the subject-matter claimed in a patent application must be novel. The inventive step is another cardinal principle of patentability. Often it is said to be the final gate keeper of the patent system. The applications related to TK and/or biological material shall also be critically examined with respect to requirements of full and particular disclosure of the invention, its operation or use and the method by which it is to be performed along with the best method of performing the invention by way of working examples known to the applicant in the complete Specification as provided under Section 10(4) (a) and (b) of the Patents Act [57].
8.3 Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001
The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 is a sui generis legislation in India providing protection for plant varieties and rights of farmers and is under the aegis of the Ministry of Agriculture. India having ratified the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of the Intellectual Property Rights has to make provision for giving effect to agreement. To give effect to the aforesaid objectives the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001 has been enacted in India. The Act, provides a system for protection of plant varieties, farmers’ and plant breeders’ rights including rights in respect of their contributions made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of new plant varieties. It also facilitate development of seeds and their commercialization by farmers [54, 59, 60].
8.4 The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 (NGT Act, 2010)
The National Green Tribunal is a specialized body set up under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 for the expeditous disposal of civil cases that are related to environmental protection, conservation of forest and other natural resources. The tribunal plays a significant role in the sustainable development of the environment [61].
8.5 Forest rights act, 2006
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, was enacted to protect the rights of the forest dwelling tribal communities who had been residing in such forests for generations. The act also empowers the balance of rights with the responsibilities for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance so that forests are conserved while ensuring the livelihood and food security of the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers. Section 3(1) of the act enumerates the types of rights that the act recognizes. These include “Right of access to biodiversity and community right to intellectual property and TK related to biodiversity and cultural diversity”.
The act covers rights of self-cultivation and habitation as Individual rights; and grazing, fishing and access to water bodies in forests as community rights, habitat rights for particularly vulnerable tribal groups, traditional seasonal resource access of nomadic and pastoral community, access to biodiversity, community right to intellectual property and traditional knowledge, recognition of traditional customary rights and right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource for sustainable use [59, 62].
8.6 Geographical Indication of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act (1999)
The Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 is an act provide for the registration and better protection of geographical indications relating to goods. India, in compliance with its obligation under TRIPS, has taken legislative measures by enacting the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999, which came into effect on 15th September, 2003 and the Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Rules, 2002.
Emphasis would be laid on creating awareness regarding the rich heritage of India in terms of our Geographical Indications. As per the act “Geographical Indication”, in relation to goods, means an indication which identifies such goods as agricultural goods, natural goods or manufactured goods as originating, or manufactured in the territory of a country, or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of such goods is essentially attributable to its geographical origin and in case where such goods are manufactured goods one of the activities of either the production or of processing or preparation of the goods concerned takes place in such territory, region or locality, as the case may be. Geographical indications in India include Darjeeling tea, Kancheepuram Silk, Palakkadan Matta Rice, Mysore Sandalwood Oil, Alleppey Green Cardamom, Wayanad Jeerakasala Rice etc. [15, 63].
8.7 National IPR policy
Government of India adopted the National IPR Policy in 2016, to facilitate promotion, creation and commercialization of IP assets, through a Cell for IPR Promotion and Management (CIPAM) under the aegis of Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT) (IPR P, 2016). The national policy encourages researchers in public funded academic and R&D institutions in IPR creation by linking it with research funding and career progression. It aims to raise awareness of the value of copyright for creators, the importance of their economic and moral rights and to promote India’s rich heritage of traditional knowledge with the effective involvement and participation of those knowledge holders. The main focus of this policy is related to the slogan “Creative India; Innovative India”, which subsequently is aligned to different government initiatives and missions in recent times that include “Make in India”, “Atal Innovation Mission”, “Start Up India”, and “Stand-Up India” promoting creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship in the country [57, 64, 65].
The policy suggests some measures, such as expanding the ambit of the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL), and expanded to include other fields besides Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani and Siddha. The policy also state that traditional knowledge holders will be provided necessary support and incentives for furthering the knowledge systems that they have nurtured through civilization. The policy also seeks Activities for promotion of traditional knowledge with effective participation of holders of such knowledge. By documentation of such oral traditional knowledge will preserve the integrity of the said knowledge and traditional ways of life of the communities [54].
8.8 Traditional Knowledge digital library (TKDL)
The TKDL in India is a collaborative project between the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Public Health (AYUSH). It is a nationally developed effort to ensure that patent offices around the world do not grant patents for applications based on India’s ancient TK. The idea of establishing TKDL arouse as a result of India’s attempt to revoke a patent granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) for the wound healing properties of turmeric (Curcuma longa), and a patent granted by the European Patent Office (EPO) on the antifungal properties of neem (Azadirachta indica). Concrete measures have been taken to develop a programme aimed at documenting the knowledge and information contained in the ancient texts of Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani, as well as creating a database on the medicinal plants involved and their medical use. TKDL has transcribed more than 2.90 lakh medical formulations of Ayurveda Unani and Siddha in five internationally recognized TKDL is a collective resource in the management of intellectual property rights [52, 65].
9. International forums
9.1 The Nagoya Protocol
The Nagoya Protocol on access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization was adopted in Nagoya, Japan on 29 October 2010. it is a new international treaty that builds on and supports the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), in particular one of its three objectives, the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. The Nagoya Protocol is a landmark agreement in the international governance of biodiversity and is relevant for a variety of commercial and non-commercial sectors involved in the use and exchange of genetic resources. It also covers genetic resources and traditional knowledge (TK) associated with genetic resources, as well as the benefits arising from their utilization [66].
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization was adopted in Nagoya, Japan on 29 October 2010. It is a new international treaty that expands on and upholds the execution of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), specifically one of its three goals, the fair and equitable sharing of benefits emerging from the use of genetic resources. The Nagoya Protocol is a milestone agreement in the international governance of biodiversity. It supports various commercial and non-commercial sectors involved in the use and exchange of genetic resources. Indeed it covers genetic resources and traditional knowledge (TK) associated with genetic resources, as well as the benefits derived from their use [66].
9.2 Convention on biological diversity (CBD)
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty designed to promote sustainable development of biological diversity, conservation as well as the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources” CBD has been ratified by 196 nations including India. Its overall objective is to encourage actions, which will lead to a sustainable future. The Convention on Biological Diversity covers biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species and genetic resources [67].
10. Conclusion
Perhaps the most fundamental prerequisite for all social, economic and cultural advancement is the encouragement of intellectual creation. All branches and forms of intellectual property are therefore important, whether copyright, trademarks, industrial designs, patents or unfair competition, for the protection of traditional cultural expressions. This chapter explored briefly about the intellectual property rights with special emphasis on protection of traditional knowledge. It also discussed the overview about the concepts like biopiracy and bioprospecting. India is one of the world’s most biologically and culturally diverse countries. The intellectual property law regime has seen rapid change in the last decade or so. India, a hub of TK and unique endowment has considerable unexplored potential for developing, promoting and utilizing traditional knowledge. Bioprospecting encompasses the search for the commercial potential of medicinal natural products. Consequently, it is important to deal with issues of biopiracy at the global scale. Hoping that the existing international mechanisms and national level legislations will be effective at reducing the prevalence of Biopiracy. It is the responsibilities of governments and various NGOs and corporates and the communities to nurture all forms of innovations under traditional knowledge for the benefit of mankind under the frameworks of intellectual property rights.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"IPR, biopiracy, bioprospecting, traditional knowledge, patent",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78249.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78249.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78249",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78249",totalDownloads:257,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 17th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 21st 2021",datePrePublished:"August 26th 2021",datePublished:"March 16th 2022",dateFinished:"August 26th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Patents are the form of IP most often used to seek protection of knowledge related to biological resources. The value of plants as medicinal sources is more widely recognized and the “intellectual property rights” (IPR) associated with their use and protection have been debated around the world. Indeed, being a land of indigenous cultural heritage and traditional knowledge, India is an open treasure box for whole world. IPR provisions under WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) and patent rights have attracted the appeal of many researchers, pharmaceutical companies and organizations to explore the potential of traditional knowledge. In this scenario, effective protection and management of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) is essential, and India is fully committed to this. Similarly IPR and its policy framework equally contribute to development of any nation. This chapter attempts to provide information relevant to national and legal rules and policies regarding Intellectual property rights. Protection of traditional knowledge, Conservation of the rights of local and indigenous peoples to their knowledge and resources are equally important. In this regard, this chapter also discusses the concepts Biopiracy and Bioprospecting. All information is gathered from published articles and legal documents of respective countries and official websites of international organizations as these are the only sources of legal information.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78249",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78249",signatures:"Bency Baby T and Timmakkondu Narasimman Kuppusami Suriyaprakash",book:{id:"10656",type:"book",title:"Intellectual Property",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Intellectual Property",slug:"intellectual-property",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",bookSignature:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu and Timmakkondu Narasimman Kuppusami Suriyaprakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10656.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-921-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-920-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-922-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",middleName:null,surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"295389",title:"Dr.",name:"Timmakkondu Narasimman Kuppusami",middleName:null,surname:"Suriyaprakash",fullName:"Timmakkondu Narasimman Kuppusami Suriyaprakash",slug:"timmakkondu-narasimman-kuppusami-suriyaprakash",email:"suritnk@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/295389/images/system/295389.jpg",institution:{name:"Kerala University of Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"349037",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Bency",middleName:null,surname:"Baby T",fullName:"Bency Baby T",slug:"bency-baby-t",email:"bencybabyt@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. World intellectual property organization (WIPO)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The World Trade Organization (WTO) and TRIPS",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Intellectual property rights",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Copyright and rights related to copyright",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Industrial property",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Patents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4 Industrial designs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5 Trademarks",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.6 Geographical indication (GI)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.7 Protection against unfair competition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.8 Plant variety protection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Traditional knowledge and intellectual property rights",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.1 Protection of traditional knowledge",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"5.1.1 Defensive protection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"5.1.2 Positive protection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17",title:"6. Biopiracy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.1 Categories of biopiracy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"6.1.1 Patent-based biopiracy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"6.1.2 Non-patent biopiracy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"7. Bioprospecting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"8. National legislations and policies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"8.1 India’s biological diversity act, 2002",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"8.2 The Patents act, 1970",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"8.3 Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"8.4 The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 (NGT Act, 2010)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"8.5 Forest rights act, 2006",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"8.6 Geographical Indication of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act (1999)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"8.7 National IPR policy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"8.8 Traditional Knowledge digital library (TKDL)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31",title:"9. International forums",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"9.1 The Nagoya Protocol",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"9.2 Convention on biological diversity (CBD)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34",title:"10. 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Regulating Access and Protecting Traditional health Knowledge through intellectual property rights? Issues from a holistic health systems perspective. Sci Technol Soc. 2018;23(3):504-529'},{id:"B44",body:'Beattie AJ, Hay M, Magnusson B, de Nys R, Smeathers J, Vincent JFV. Ecology and bioprospecting. Austral Ecol. 2011;36(3):341-356'},{id:"B45",body:'Mgbeoji, Ikechi. (2006). Global Biopiracy: Patents, Plants, and Indigenous University of British Columbia Press, 2006'},{id:"B46",body:'Resource Manual for Bioprospecting. available from. http://ipbio.org/pdfs/papers/ResourceManual_Oct14_2004.pdf'},{id:"B47",body:'The Hindu. A benefit-sharing model that did not yield desired results. 2012. available from. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/A-benefit-sharing-model-that-did-not-yield-desired-results/article12561312.ece'},{id:"B48",body:'TBGRI Model of Benefit Sharing. http://www.kerenvis.nic.in/Database/TBGRI_1402.aspx. Last Updated: 23/02/2021'},{id:"B49",body:'WIPO. Using Traditional Knowledge to Revive the Body and a Community. available from https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2599'},{id:"B50",body:'Shiva V. Bioprospecting as sophisticated Biopiracy. Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 2007; 32: 307-313 DOI:10.1086/508502'},{id:"B51",body:'Chaturvedi S. ABS and Kani Case in India. 2008;1-36'},{id:"B52",body:'UNEP. The Clearing-House Mechanism of the Convention on Biological Diversity: 6th National Report-India. 2018;1-270. Available from: https://chm.cbd.int/database/record?documentID=245938'},{id:"B53",body:'Patents. Available from. https://ipindia.gov.in/vision-patent.htm'},{id:"B54",body:'National-IPR-Policy. 2016. available from https://dipp.gov.in/sites/default/files/national-IPR-Policy20114October2020.pd'},{id:"B55",body:'Mitra A. India: Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and Patenting of Biological Inventions In India – Part I (Section – 6). 2017. https://www.mondaq.com/india/patent/589566/biological-diversity-act-2002-and-patenting-of-biological-inventions-in-india-part-i-section-6'},{id:"B56",body:'Government of India, The Biological Diversity Act, 2002. INDIA CODE Digital Repository of All Central and State Acts. 2002;1-20. Available from: http://www.nbaindia.org/act/act_english.htm'},{id:"B57",body:'Guidelines for processing of patent applications relating to traditional Knowledge and biological material. 2005. available from http://www.ipindia.gov.in/writereaddata/Portal/IPOGuidelinesManuals/1_39_1_5-tk guidelines.pdf'},{id:"B58",body:'NBAP. India’s National Biodiversity Action Plan An Overview – 2019. 2019;198. Available from: https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/in/in-nbsap-other-en.pdf'},{id:"B59",body:'Protection of plant varieties and farmers’ rights authority, India, available from http://www.plantauthority.gov.in/about-authority.htm'},{id:"B60",body:'The Gazette of India PART II – Section 1. The protection of plant varieties and farmers’ rights act, 2001. 2001;(Dl):1-50'},{id:"B61",body:'Government of India. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010. 2014;1-19'},{id:"B62",body:'Forest Rights Act. Govt of India. available from https://tribal.nic.in/FRA.aspx'},{id:"B63",body:'Sharma A. India: Geographical Indication Tagging Of Agricultural Products and Foodstuffs. Available from https://www.mondaq.com/india/trademark/898690/geographical-indication-tagging-of-agricultural-products'},{id:"B64",body:'Verma D, Governance G. National Intellectual Property Rights Policy of India – A Review AWARENESS ABOUT INTELLECTUAL Editors Dr Anita Moudgil DAV College for Girls Yamunanagar National Press Associates, New Delhi. 2020;(July)'},{id:"B65",body:'Gaudillière JP. An indian path to biocapital? The traditional knowledge digital library, drug patents, and the reformulation regime of contemporary ayurveda. East Asian Sci Technol Soc. 2014;8(4):391-415'},{id:"B66",body:'Factsheets. Introduction to Access Introduction to access and benefit-sharing. CBD. Convention on Biological Diversity.2011;1-6'},{id:"B67",body:'The Convention on Biological Diversity, available from https://www.cbd.int/intro/'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bency Baby T",address:"bencybabyt@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Pharmacognosy, Al Shifa College of Pharmacy, India
Department of Pharmaceutics, Al Shifa College of Pharmacy, India
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
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We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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We conclude this chapter by expressing personal perspective on the probable challenges and developments of the controllable synthesis of CeO2 nanomaterials for various applications.",book:{id:"5510",slug:"functionalized-nanomaterials",title:"Functionalized Nanomaterials",fullTitle:"Functionalized Nanomaterials"},signatures:"Adnan Younis, Dewei Chu and Sean Li",authors:[{id:"191574",title:"Dr.",name:"Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Younis",slug:"adnan-younis",fullName:"Adnan Younis"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"38951",title:"Carbon Nanotube Transparent Electrode",slug:"carbon-nanotube-transparent-electrode",totalDownloads:3985,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"3077",slug:"syntheses-and-applications-of-carbon-nanotubes-and-their-composites",title:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites",fullTitle:"Syntheses and Applications of Carbon Nanotubes and Their Composites"},signatures:"Jing Sun and Ranran Wang",authors:[{id:"153508",title:"Prof.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",slug:"jing-sun",fullName:"Jing Sun"},{id:"153596",title:"Ms.",name:"Ranran",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"ranran-wang",fullName:"Ranran Wang"}]},{id:"49413",title:"Electrodeposition of Nanostructure Materials",slug:"electrodeposition-of-nanostructure-materials",totalDownloads:3733,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"We are conducting a multi-disciplinary research work that involves development of nanostructured thin films of semiconductors for different applications. Nanotechnology is widely considered to constitute the basis of the next technological revolution, following on from the first Industrial Revolution, which began around 1750 with the introduction of the steam engine and steelmaking. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production, and application of materials, devices and systems by controlling shape and size of the nanoscale. The nanoscale itself is at present considered to cover the range from 1 to 100 nm. All samples prepared in thin film forms and the characterization revealed their nanostructure. The major exploitation of thin films has been in microelectronics, there are numerous and growing applications in communications, optical electronics, coatings of all kinds, and in energy generation. A great many sophisticated analytical instruments and techniques, largely developed to characterize thin films, have already become indispensable in virtually every scientific endeavor irrespective of discipline. Among all these techniques, electrodeposition is the most suitable technique for nanostructured thin films from aqueous solution served as samples under investigation. The electrodeposition of metallic layers from aqueous solution is based on the discharge of metal ions present in the electrolyte at a cathodic surface (the substrate or component.) The metal ions accept an electron from the electrically conducting material at the solid- electrolyte interface and then deposit as metal atoms onto the surface. The electrons necessary for this to occur are either supplied from an externally applied potential source or are surrendered by a reducing agent present in solution (electroless reduction). The metal ions themselves derive either from metal salts added to solution, or by the anodic dissolution of the so-called sacrificial anodes, made of the same metal that is to be deposited at the cathode.",book:{id:"4718",slug:"electroplating-of-nanostructures",title:"Electroplating of Nanostructures",fullTitle:"Electroplating of Nanostructures"},signatures:"Souad A. M. Al-Bat’hi",authors:[{id:"174793",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Souad",slug:"mohamad-souad",fullName:"Mohamad Souad"}]},{id:"54226",title:"Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance for Optical Fiber-Sensing Applications",slug:"localized-surface-plasmon-resonance-for-optical-fiber-sensing-applications",totalDownloads:2265,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"It is well known that optical fiber sensors have attracted the attention of scientific community due to its intrinsic advantages, such as lightweight, small size, portability, remote sensing, immunity to electromagnetic interferences and the possibility of multiplexing several signals. This field has shown a dramatic growth thanks to the creation of sensitive thin films onto diverse optical fiber configurations. In this sense, a wide range of optical fiber devices have been successfully fabricated for monitoring biological, chemical, medical or physical parameters. In addition, the use of nanoparticles into the sensitive thin films has resulted in an enhancement in the response time, robustness or sensitivity in the optical devices, which is associated to the inherent properties of nanoparticles (high surface area ratio or porosity). Among all of them, the metallic nanoparticles are of great interest for sensing applications due to the presence of strong absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared regions, due to their localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPR). These optical resonances are due to the coupling of certain modes of the incident light to the collective oscillation of the conduction electrons of the metallic nanoparticles. The LSPR extinction bands are very useful for sensing applications as far as they can be affected by refractive index variations of the surrounding medium of the nanoparticles, and therefore, it is possible to create optical sensors with outstanding properties such as high sensitivity and optical self-reference. In this chapter, the attractive optical properties of metal nanostructures and their implementation into different optical fiber configuration for sensing or biosensing applications will be studied.",book:{id:"5721",slug:"nanoplasmonics-fundamentals-and-applications",title:"Nanoplasmonics",fullTitle:"Nanoplasmonics - Fundamentals and Applications"},signatures:"Pedro J. Rivero, Javier Goicoechea and Francisco J. Arregui",authors:[{id:"69816",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Goicoechea",slug:"javier-goicoechea",fullName:"Javier Goicoechea"},{id:"188796",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rivero",slug:"pedro-j.-rivero",fullName:"Pedro J. 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Piezoelectric materials are capable of transforming mechanical strain and vibration energy into electrical energy. This property allows opportunities for implementing renewable and sustainable energy through power harvesting and self-sustained smart sensing in buildings. As the most common construction material, plain cement paste lacks satisfactory piezoelectricity and is not efficient at harvesting the electrical energy from the ambient vibrations of a building system. In recent years, many techniques have been proposed and applied to improve the piezoelectric capacity of cement-based composite, namely admixture incorporation and physical. The successful application of piezoelectric materials for sustainable building development not only relies on understanding the mechanism of the piezoelectric properties of various building components, but also the latest developments and implementations in the building industry. Therefore, this review systematically illustrates research efforts to develop new construction materials with high piezoelectricity and energy storage capacity. In addition, this article discusses the latest techniques for utilizing the piezoelectric materials in energy harvesters, sensors and actuators for various building systems. With advanced methods for improving the cementations piezoelectricity and applying the material piezoelectricity for different building functions, more renewable and sustainable building systems are anticipated.",book:{id:"10511",slug:"multifunctional-ferroelectric-materials",title:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials",fullTitle:"Multifunctional Ferroelectric Materials"},signatures:"B. Chandra Sekhar, B. Dhanalakshmi, B. Srinivasa Rao, S. Ramesh, K. Venkata Prasad, P.S.V. Subba Rao and B. Parvatheeswara Rao",authors:[{id:"335022",title:"Dr.",name:"B. Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sekhar",slug:"b.-chandra-sekhar",fullName:"B. Chandra Sekhar"},{id:"422021",title:"Dr.",name:"B.",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanalakshmi",slug:"b.-dhanalakshmi",fullName:"B. Dhanalakshmi"},{id:"422022",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Srinivasa",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.srinivasa-rao",fullName:"B.Srinivasa Rao"},{id:"422023",title:"Dr.",name:"S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ramesh",slug:"s.-ramesh",fullName:"S. Ramesh"},{id:"422024",title:"Dr.",name:"K.Venkata",middleName:null,surname:"Prasad",slug:"k.venkata-prasad",fullName:"K.Venkata Prasad"},{id:"422025",title:"Dr.",name:"P.S.V",middleName:null,surname:"Subba Rao",slug:"p.s.v-subba-rao",fullName:"P.S.V Subba Rao"},{id:"422026",title:"Dr.",name:"B.Parvatheeswara",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"b.parvatheeswara-rao",fullName:"B.Parvatheeswara Rao"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1169",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81438",title:"Research Progress of Ionic Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting",slug:"research-progress-of-ionic-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101771",abstract:"Thermoelectric material is a kind of functional material that can mutually convert heat energy and electric energy. It can convert low-grade heat energy (less than 130°C) into electric energy. Compared with traditional electronic thermoelectric materials, ionic thermoelectric materials have higher performance. The Seebeck coefficient can generate 2–3 orders of magnitude higher ionic thermoelectric potential than electronic thermoelectric materials, so it has good application prospects in small thermoelectric generators and solar power generation. According to the thermoelectric conversion mechanism, ionic thermoelectric materials can be divided into ionic thermoelectric materials based on the Soret effect and thermocouple effect. They are widely used in pyrogen batteries and ionic thermoelectric capacitors. The latest two types of ionic thermoelectric materials are in this article. The research progress is explained, and the problems and challenges of ionic thermoelectric materials and the future development direction are also put forward.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jianwei Zhang, Ying Xiao, Bowei Lei, Gengyuan Liang and Wenshu Zhao"},{id:"77670",title:"Thermoelectric Elements with Negative Temperature Factor of Resistance",slug:"thermoelectric-elements-with-negative-temperature-factor-of-resistance",totalDownloads:72,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98860",abstract:"The method of manufacturing of ceramic materials on the basis of ferrites of nickel and cobalt by synthesis and sintering in controllable regenerative atmosphere is presented. As the generator of regenerative atmosphere the method of conversion of carbonic gas is offered. Calculation of regenerative atmosphere for simultaneous sintering of ceramic ferrites of nickel and cobalt is carried out. It is offered, methods of the dilated nonequilibrium thermodynamics to view process of distribution of a charge and heat along a thermoelement branch. The model of a thermoelement taking into account various relaxation times of a charge and warmth is constructed.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Yuri Bokhan"},{id:"79236",title:"Processing Techniques with Heating Conditions for Multiferroic Systems of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3, CaTiO3 Thin Films",slug:"processing-techniques-with-heating-conditions-for-multiferroic-systems-of-bifeo3-batio3-pbtio3-catio",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101122",abstract:"In this chapter, we have report a list of synthesis methods (including both synthesis steps & heating conditions) used for thin film fabrication of perovskite ABO3 (BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3) based multiferroics (in both single-phase and composite materials). The processing of high quality multiferroic thin film have some features like epitaxial strain, physical phenomenon at atomic-level, interfacial coupling parameters to enhance device performance. Since these multiferroic thin films have ME properties such as electrical (dielectric, magnetoelectric coefficient & MC) and magnetic (ferromagnetic, magnetic susceptibility etc.) are heat sensitive, i.e. ME response at low as well as higher temperature might to enhance the device performance respect with long range ordering. The magnetoelectric coupling between ferromagnetism and ferroelectricity in multiferroic becomes suitable in the application of spintronics, memory and logic devices, and microelectronic memory or piezoelectric devices. In comparison with bulk multiferroic, the fabrication of multiferroic thin film with different structural geometries on substrate has reducible clamping effect. A brief procedure for multiferroic thin film fabrication in terms of their thermal conditions (temperature for film processing and annealing for crystallization) are described. Each synthesis methods have its own characteristic phenomenon in terms of film thickness, defects formation, crack free film, density, chip size, easier steps and availability etc. been described. A brief study towards phase structure and ME coupling for each multiferroic system of BiFeO3, BaTiO3, PbTiO3 and CaTiO3 is shown.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Kuldeep Chand Verma and Manpreet Singh"},{id:"78034",title:"Quantum Physical Interpretation of Thermoelectric Properties of Ruthenate Pyrochlores",slug:"quantum-physical-interpretation-of-thermoelectric-properties-of-ruthenate-pyrochlores",totalDownloads:78,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99260",abstract:"Lead- and lead-yttrium ruthenate pyrochlores were synthesized and investigated for Seebeck coefficients, electrical- and thermal conductivity. Compounds A2B2O6.5+z with 0 ≤ z < 0.5 were defect pyrochlores and p-type conductors. The thermoelectric data were analyzed using quantum physical models to identify scattering mechanisms underlying electrical (σ) and thermal conductivity (κ) and to understand the temperature dependence of the Seebeck effect (S). In the metal-like lead ruthenates with different Pb:Ru ratios, σ (T) and the electronic thermal conductivity κe (T) were governed by ‘electron impurity scattering’, the lattice thermal conductivity κL (T) by the 3-phonon resistive process (Umklapp scattering). In the lead-yttrium ruthenate solid solutions (Pb(2-x)YxRu2O(6.5±z)), a metal–insulator transition occurred at 0.2 moles of yttrium. On the metallic side (<0.2 moles Y) ‘electron impurity scattering’ prevailed. On the semiconductor/insulator side between x = 0.2 and x = 1.0 several mechanisms were equally likely. At x > 1.5 the Mott Variable Range Hopping mechanism was active. S (T) was discussed for Pb-Y-Ru pyrochlores in terms of the effect of minority carrier excitation at lower- and a broadening of the Fermi distribution at higher temperatures. The figures of merit of all of these pyrochlores were still small (≤7.3 × 10−3).",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Sepideh Akhbarifar"},{id:"77635",title:"Optimization of Thermoelectric Properties Based on Rashba Spin Splitting",slug:"optimization-of-thermoelectric-properties-based-on-rashba-spin-splitting",totalDownloads:124,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98788",abstract:"In recent years, the application of thermoelectricity has become more and more widespread. Thermoelectric materials provide a simple and environmentally friendly solution for the direct conversion of heat to electricity. The development of higher performance thermoelectric materials and their performance optimization have become more important. Generally, to improve the ZT value, electrical conductivity, Seebeck coefficient and thermal conductivity must be globally optimized as a whole object. However, due to the strong coupling among ZT parameters in many cases, it is very challenging to break the bottleneck of ZT optimization currently. Beyond the traditional optimization methods (such as inducing defects, varying temperature), the Rashba effect is expected to effectively increase the S2σ and decrease the κ, thus enhancing thermoelectric performance, which provides a new strategy to develop new-generation thermoelectric materials. Although the Rashba effect has great potential in enhancing thermoelectric performance, the underlying mechanism of Rashba-type thermoelectric materials needs further research. In addition, how to introduce Rashba spin splitting into current thermoelectric materials is also of great significance to the optimization of thermoelectricity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Zhenzhen Qin"},{id:"75364",title:"Challenges in Improving Performance of Oxide Thermoelectrics Using Defect Engineering",slug:"challenges-in-improving-performance-of-oxide-thermoelectrics-using-defect-engineering",totalDownloads:214,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96278",abstract:"Oxide thermoelectric materials are considered promising for high-temperature thermoelectric applications in terms of low cost, temperature stability, reversible reaction, and so on. Oxide materials have been intensively studied to suppress the defects and electronic charge carriers for many electronic device applications, but the studies with a high concentration of defects are limited. It desires to improve thermoelectric performance by enhancing its charge transport and lowering its lattice thermal conductivity. For this purpose, here, we modified the stoichiometry of cation and anion vacancies in two different systems to regulate the carrier concentration and explored their thermoelectric properties. Both cation and anion vacancies act as a donor of charge carriers and act as phonon scattering centers, decoupling the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.",book:{id:"10037",title:"Thermoelectricity - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10037.jpg"},signatures:"Jamil Ur Rahman, Gul Rahman and Soonil Lee"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11976,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11977,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,annualVolume:null,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. 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Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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