Details characteristic of nanomaterial classification.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7148",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Peripheral T-cell Lymphomas",title:"Peripheral T-cell Lymphomas",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In this book the reader will find a collection of chapters written by different research teams describing different aspects of peripheral T-cell lymphoma pathobiology, classification, and treatment. This work is mainly addressed to researchers already working in this area, but it is also accessible to anyone with a scientific background who desires to have an updated overview of the recent progress in this domain. It will also be valuable to scientists and physicians who have become newly involved in this field. Each chapter is self-contained and can be read independently of the others. This book intends to provide highlights of the current research as well as the current gold standards for diagnosis and treatment of these diseases, showing the recent advances in the personalized approach to T-cell derived lymphomas.",isbn:"978-1-83881-226-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-225-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-227-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73947",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"peripheral-t-cell-lymphomas",numberOfPages:132,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6d80a51035b7432acf6007837213bf1a",bookSignature:"Pier Paolo Piccaluga",publishedDate:"August 7th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7148.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9081,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 3rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 2nd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 20th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 19th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"76041",title:"Prof.",name:"Pier Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Piccaluga",slug:"pier-paolo-piccaluga",fullName:"Pier Paolo Piccaluga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76041/images/system/76041.jpg",biography:"Pier Paolo Piccaluga, Prof., MD, Ph.D., is currently Associate Professor of Pathology at the Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, Bologna University School of Medicine—Institute of Hematology and Medical Oncology, and the Biobank of research at the IRCCS S. Orsola-Malpighi Hospital. He has been responsible for many years for the Molecular Pathology Laboratory. In 2018, he was appointed for teaching at the Queen Mary University of London and Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya. He is the author of several international publications in journals such as Nature Medicine, Journal of Clinical Investigation, Journal of Experimental Medicine, Journal of Clinical Oncology, Blood, Lancet Oncology, and Lancet Infectious Diseases. Dr. Piccaluga is ranked a Top Italian Scientist (TIS) by VIA-Academy.",institutionString:"University of Bologna",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Bologna",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1082",title:"Hemato-Oncology",slug:"medicine-oncology-hemato-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"67320",title:"Introductory Chapter: Updates and New Insights from WHO 2017 Peripheral T-Cell Lymphoma Classification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86262",slug:"introductory-chapter-updates-and-new-insights-from-who-2017-peripheral-t-cell-lymphoma-classificatio",totalDownloads:643,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Pier Paolo Piccaluga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67320",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67320",authors:[{id:"76041",title:"Prof.",name:"Pier Paolo",surname:"Piccaluga",slug:"pier-paolo-piccaluga",fullName:"Pier Paolo Piccaluga"}],corrections:null},{id:"67078",title:"Overview of T-cell Lymphomas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85058",slug:"overview-of-t-cell-lymphomas",totalDownloads:1075,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"T-cell lymphomas are a mixed bag of diseases with a similar origin but diverse in biology and behavior. This review aims to highlight the key changes to the WHO classification and summarize the therapeutic paradigm as of the time of writing in November 2018.",signatures:"Nagavalli Somasundaram and Soon Thye Lim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67078",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67078",authors:[{id:"256407",title:"Prof.",name:"Soon Thye",surname:"Lim",slug:"soon-thye-lim",fullName:"Soon Thye Lim"},{id:"282164",title:"Dr.",name:"Nagavalli",surname:"Somasundaram",slug:"nagavalli-somasundaram",fullName:"Nagavalli Somasundaram"}],corrections:null},{id:"63776",title:"Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81382",slug:"anaplastic-large-cell-lymphoma",totalDownloads:1256,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) describes a distinct group of T cell lymphomas characterised by cell surface expression of CD30. At least three entities of ALCL exist, with similar cellular morphology but varying clinical courses and pathology: systemic ALCL, anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK)-positive, systemic ALCL ALK− and primary cutaneous ALCL. A fourth provisional entity associated with breast implants has been proposed, named breast implant-associated (BIA)-ALCL. ALCL have varying clinical outcomes, affect both children and adults, and range from being well-characterised at the genetic level to relatively unknown, predominantly due to the relative rarity of this group of malignancies. Current therapeutic approaches include standard chemotherapeutic agents as well as novel drugs including monoclonal antibodies and kinase inhibitors.",signatures:"Suzanne D. Turner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63776",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63776",authors:[{id:"254397",title:"Dr.",name:"Suzanne",surname:"Turner",slug:"suzanne-turner",fullName:"Suzanne Turner"}],corrections:null},{id:"67108",title:"Extranodal T/NK Lymphomas",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85541",slug:"extranodal-t-nk-lymphomas",totalDownloads:942,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extranodal T/NK lymphomas comprise infrequent and highly aggressive entities such as extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma nasal type, enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma, monomorphic epitheliotropic intestinal T-cell lymphoma, intestinal T-cell lymphoma NOS, and hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma. Except for NK/T lymphoma nasal type, there is scarce evidence to support a specific therapeutic regimen in first line and relapse. As the only potentially curative therapy is allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, it should be assessed in relapsing/refractory NK/T lymphoma nasal type and in the first line after remission in the other extranodal NK/T lymphomas.",signatures:"Silvana Novelli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67108",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67108",authors:[{id:"256391",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Silvana",surname:"Novelli",slug:"silvana-novelli",fullName:"Silvana Novelli"}],corrections:null},{id:"66323",title:"Gamma-Delta T-cell Lymphoma: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85542",slug:"gamma-delta-t-cell-lymphoma-an-overview",totalDownloads:2553,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gamma-delta T-cell lymphomas are very rare and aggressive T-cell neoplasms with complex heterogenicity and diagnostic complexity. Gamma-delta T lymphocytes originate from CD4− CD8− (double negative) thymocytes in the bone marrow and are distinct from alpha beta subtype. Four entities of gamma-delta lymphomas recognized by 2016 WHO classification of lymphoid neoplasms include: hepatosplenic Tγδ lymphoma (HSγδTL), primary cutaneous gamma-delta TCL (PCTCL), monomorphic epitheliotropic intestinal T-cell lymphoma (MEITL) and large granular lymphocytic leukemias (T-LGL). Extensive literature search based on small case series and case reports identifies few more subtypes of gamma-delta T-lymphomas which were not previously classified by World Health Organization. There remains a critical gap in our understanding of the subtypes of gamma-delta T-cell lymphomas and a lack of updated summarization. In this review, we summarize in detail on the classification, biology, heterogenicity, diagnosis, clinical behavior and treatment options of these rare but clinically important entities.",signatures:"Preethi Ramachandran, Alok Aggarwal and Jen Chin Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66323",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66323",authors:[{id:"211188",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen Chin",surname:"Wang",slug:"jen-chin-wang",fullName:"Jen Chin Wang"},{id:"257153",title:"Dr.",name:"Preethi",surname:"Ramachandran",slug:"preethi-ramachandran",fullName:"Preethi Ramachandran"},{id:"298697",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok",surname:"Aggarwal",slug:"alok-aggarwal",fullName:"Alok Aggarwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"66436",title:"Precision Medicine Concepts in T-Cell Lymphoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85543",slug:"precision-medicine-concepts-in-t-cell-lymphoma",totalDownloads:954,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modern oncology witnesses an increasing number of new effective anticancer drugs targeting specific oncogenic pathways. Despite these advances, real-world experience with targeted single agents is disappointing since drug resistance usually occurs after a short time. This is particularly true for patients with refractory or relapsed T-cell lymphoma (TCL) who so far could not benefit from novel agents and demonstrate a short survival time of only 3 months. The novel genetic information gained from genome-wide high-throughput techniques has greatly improved our understanding of TCL. However, if precision medicine strategies are based solely on genetics, it runs into two major challenges: (1) the heterogeneity within the cancer of an individual patient and (2) the incomplete understanding of the degree of contribution of a specific mutation to a tumor phenotype. Next-generation functional drug screening (ngFDS) aims to address these problems. Studies that proof the clinical utility of ngFDS are currently limited. The following chapter aims to discuss recent advances of ngFDS and to line out its potential for TCL patients.",signatures:"Philipp Staber",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66436",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66436",authors:[{id:"257371",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Philipp",surname:"Staber",slug:"philipp-staber",fullName:"Philipp Staber"}],corrections:null},{id:"66543",title:"Unique Therapeutic Approaches for Targeting Epigenetic Machinery in T-cell Lymphoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85059",slug:"unique-therapeutic-approaches-for-targeting-epigenetic-machinery-in-t-cell-lymphoma",totalDownloads:937,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Growing knowledge on T-cell lymphoma (TCL) biology has led to the understanding that TCLs harbor derangements in proteins modulating epigenetic control. Some such derangements include mutations in TET2, IDH2, DNMT3A, EP300, and CBP. In addition, overexpression of epigenetic modifiers such as EZH2 also exists in the absence of mutations. HDAC inhibitors are approved for use in relapsed T-cell lymphoma. There may be unique methods to targeting epigenetic derangements using new agents such as DNMT, EZH2, IDH, and BET inhibitors to name a few. In this chapter, we will review and explore unique methods for therapeutic targeting of epigenetic machinery for TCL.",signatures:"Jacob Cogan and Jennifer E. Amengual",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66543",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66543",authors:[{id:"260169",title:"M.D.",name:"Jennifer",surname:"Amengual",slug:"jennifer-amengual",fullName:"Jennifer Amengual"},{id:"284351",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacob",surname:"Cogan",slug:"jacob-cogan",fullName:"Jacob Cogan"}],corrections:null},{id:"64513",title:"Novel Aurora Kinase Inhibitor-Based Combination Therapies for PTCL",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81805",slug:"novel-aurora-kinase-inhibitor-based-combination-therapies-for-ptcl",totalDownloads:721,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCLs) are a rare, heterogeneous group of T-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas (T-NHL) that display distinct clinical and biological features. Despite a detailed understanding of PTCL transformation, there is no current accepted standard of care for newly diagnosed or relapsed/refractory (r/r) patients. PTCL are highly proliferative neoplasms with an immunosuppressive microenvironment that elaborates drug resistance to current therapies with poor outcomes. Aurora kinases (AKs) are a family of mitotic oncogenic serine/threonine kinases (A, B/C) that are aberrantly expressed in PTCL, providing a growth advantage. Alisertib, an AK-A inhibitor, blocks the mitotic phase of the cell cycle resulting in apoptosis. Preclinical and clinical trials in PTCL demonstrated an ~30% response rate in r/r PTCL similar to other investigational agents. In order to improve response rates, alisertib-based combination therapies were tested with HDAC inhibitors, romidepsin and vorinostat, in phase Ib trials. To improve response rates to alisertib, we evaluated alisertib-induced polyploidy as a drug resistance mechanism by targeting microtubules with vincristine. In addition, we also targeted immunosuppression-induced proliferation with an anti-PD-L1 antibody and PI3K inhibition in PTCL. Targeting aberrant proliferation and immunosuppression is a novel strategy that warrants evaluation in clinical trials for PTCL, an unmet clinical need.",signatures:"Pavan Tenneti, Lisa E. Davis and Daruka Mahadevan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64513",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64513",authors:[{id:"256454",title:"Prof.",name:"Daruka",surname:"Mahadevan",slug:"daruka-mahadevan",fullName:"Daruka Mahadevan"},{id:"267159",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavan",surname:"Tenneti",slug:"pavan-tenneti",fullName:"Pavan Tenneti"},{id:"267160",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisa",surname:"Davis",slug:"lisa-davis",fullName:"Lisa Davis"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9508",title:"Acute Leukemias",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"62d01617d9844f2238de6e3630fe5641",slug:"acute-leukemias",bookSignature:"Pier Paolo Piccaluga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9508.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76041",title:"Prof.",name:"Pier Paolo",surname:"Piccaluga",slug:"pier-paolo-piccaluga",fullName:"Pier Paolo 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Current biomass estimates are derived primarily from ground-based samples, as compiled and reported in inventories and ecosystem samples. By using remote sensing technologies, we are able to scale up the sample values and supply wall to wall mapping of biomass. Three separate remote sensing technologies are available today to measure ecosystem biomass: passive optical, radar, and lidar. There are many measurement methodologies that range from the application driven to the most technologically cutting-edge. The goal of this book is to address the newest developments in biomass measurements, sensor development, field measurements and modeling. The chapters in this book are separated into five main sections.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0313-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6177-6",doi:"10.5772/696",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"remote-sensing-of-biomass-principles-and-applications",numberOfPages:336,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c93637da5d1c8fcd07eda02777afab83",bookSignature:"Temilola Fatoyinbo",publishedDate:"March 28th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/169.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:38224,numberOfWosCitations:118,numberOfCrossrefCitations:55,numberOfDimensionsCitations:140,numberOfTotalCitations:313,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 12th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 9th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 16th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2011",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"12 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"11875",title:"Dr.",name:"Lola",middleName:null,surname:"Fatoyinbo",slug:"lola-fatoyinbo",fullName:"Lola Fatoyinbo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11875/images/system/11875.jpg",biography:"Research Physical Scientist, Biospheric Sciences Laboratory, NASA GSFC \n\nDr. Lola Fatoyinbo studies forest ecology and ecosystem structure at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Dr. Fatoyinbo’s current research focus is the fusion of optical, Synthetic Aperture Radar and lidar data to quantify forest structure, biomass, extent and degradation. Dr. Fatoyinbo has carried out extensive field and remote sensing research in tropical forest ecosystems of continental Africa, Madagascar and Latin America. She received her Bachelors in Biology in 2003 and her PhD in Environmental Sciences in 2008 from the University of Virginia. She then completed a NASA Postdoctoral Fellow within the Radar Science and Engineering Section at the Caltech - Jet Propulsion Laboratory, where her primary research focus was on using interferometric SAR data to quantify tropical forest extent, height and biomass through the development of radar-lidar fusion algorithms. Dr Fatoyinbo is now a research physical scientist at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in the Biospheric Sciences Laboratory.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"793",title:"Sustainable Energy Engineering",slug:"sustainable-energy-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"33849",title:"Lidar Remote Sensing for Biomass Assessment",slug:"lidar-remote-sensing-for-biomass-assessment",totalDownloads:3010,totalCrossrefCites:4,authors:[{id:"28463",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacqueline",surname:"Rosette",slug:"jacqueline-rosette",fullName:"Jacqueline Rosette"},{id:"39879",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Suárez",slug:"juan-suarez",fullName:"Juan Suárez"},{id:"39880",title:"Dr.",name:"Sietse",surname:"Los",slug:"sietse-los",fullName:"Sietse 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The development of nanomaterial has been attracted great interest in the worldwide in the past few years. The turning point for nanomaterials research was the discovery of carbon nanotubes in 1991 [1]. Nanomaterials are usually defined as having a particle size between 1 and 100 nanometers (nm). They are bigger than individual atoms (measured in angstroms, 1 Å = 10−10 m. One nanometer is millionth of millimeter. It is equal to 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of human hair. After this discovery, there was an explosive increase in the number of research teams working in the field. The properties of nanomaterials deviate from those of “bulk” materials with the same composition, thus allowing for many interesting applications. At nanodimensions, quantum effects, like quantum confinement, permit multiple applications [2, 3, 4]. Some of nanotechnology applications include alternative energy [3], electronics [5, 6], catalysis [5], biomedicine [2], batteries [7], water treatment [8], and materials reinforcement [9] (Figure 1).
(a) Evolution of science and technology and the future [
Classification is based on the number of dimensions, which are not confined to the nanoscale range (<100 nm) (Figure 2 and Table 1):
zero-dimensional (0-D);
one-dimensional (1-D);
two-dimensional (2-D); and
three-dimensional (3-D).
0-D, 1-D, 2-D and 3-D nanomaterial [
Details characteristic of nanomaterial classification.
1-D nanostructures as a series of the most important materials owed by it fascinating physical properties. Due distinct structure-dependent properties had lead it application widely especially in solar energy conversion, thermoelectric devices, energy storage technology. 1-D nanostructures mainly show three different morphologies (Table 2):
nanorod;
nanowires; and
nanotube.
Nanorods, nanowires and nanotube.
Among those 1-D nanostructures, nanorods have the advantage as it can be made from most elements (metals and nonmetals) and compounds, and the synthetic requirements for their production are more flexible than for nanotubes and nanowires. Nanorods have typical lengths of 10–120 nm. For example, metallic nanorods, semiconductor nanorods, carbon nanorods, and oxides nanorods, are essential for the development of electronic, optical, magnetic, and micromechanical devices [5, 6].
Due to their shape anisotropy (physical properties), nanorods are attractive component to be studied and ideal candidates for many application. It was discovered that ability of the nanorods was enhanced as compared spherical particles. This is due to the increase of aspect ratio of the particle lead to the increased of excitation of surface plasmons in the nanoparticles. Particularly, the strength of the dipole moment is within a nanoparticle due to incrementing of surface plasmons. Therefore, an increase of surface plasmons lead to the enhancement of electrical field in nanorods as compared spherical particles. One example of benefit of a rod-like shape demonstrated by Alivisatos and co-workers [14] who observed partially aligned CdSe nanorods provided an effective, directed path for charge carriers to move throughout the photovoltaic device and be collected. Similarly, the incorporation of nanorods within P3HT film could improve the external quantum efficiency by a factor of 3 as the aspect ratio increased from 1 to 10. The accumulation of electrons was improved as the aspect ratio of nanoparticles increased. Furthermore, alignment of nanorods also plays a key role in improving it properties. Work by Winey group [15] studying Ag nanorods for polystyrene composites and discovered that the aspect ratio of anisotropic nanoparticle play role in the electrical conductivity of polymer composites. Particularly, due to the minimal percolation threshold of rod-shape particles as compared to spherical particles. Percolation has been found to be depended on both size and shape of nanoparticles. Larger in both length and diameter of rod-shape particles are expected to share many advantages in the oriental properties of nanorods. Last but not least, nanorods offer more advantages over isotropic (homogeneous and uniform) particles. It can be summarized that the efficiency of nanorods depends strongly on nanorods aspect ratio, volume fraction, polydispersity and orientation.
Various nanorods have been extensively studied such as carbon nanorods, ZnO nanorods, gold nanorods and magnetic nanorods. Recently, various techniques have been proposed for synthesizing the nanorods. It can be classified into either via physical or chemical methods or known as bottom-up or top-down techniques. The method such as thermal hydrolysis, hydrothermal route, sol-gel, vapor condensation, spray pyrolysis, pulse laser decomposition, laser ablation, thermal evaporation, pulse combustion-spray pyrolysis, electro-mechanical, flame spray plasma, microwave plasma, low energy beam deposition, ball-milling, chemical vapor deposition, laser ablation, chemical reduction, co-precipitation, hybrid wet chemical route, physical evaporation, electrophoretic deposition, radio frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering, vapor deposition, metal assisted growth, template assisted routes, metal-assisted growth and seed-based growth, simple chemical etching, etc. Typically, nanorods prepared by controlling the nucleation growth than transverse one.
Carbon nanorods have attracted great interest from past few decades owing to their physical (particle size, shape, large surface area and greater pore size distribution) and chemical properties [16, 17, 18]. Nanorods made of carbon also known as “carbon nanorods” and “diamond nanorods.” Diamond nanorods have a crystalline structure like diamond with sp3 carbon hybridization. The yield and purity of synthesizing the carbon nanorods are strongly dependent on the composition of the inert atmosphere and its pressure. Generally, the carbon nanorods had better physicochemical properties after introducing different functionalities in the carbon nanorods pore surfaces. It will permit many applications, like in catalysis, water treatment, supercapacitors, and others. Carbon nanorods large applied as anodic material in batteries apart from their application like fillers [19] and high performance electrode materials in batteries [20, 21, 22, 23]. Till now, various synthesis methods have been proposed and it can be classified as “bottom up” (like synthesis from small molecules or colloidal solutions) or “top down” (like starting with bigger structures). The top-down method for synthesizing carbon nanorods including, simple chemical etching and electrochemical etching. Meanwhile, bottom-up approach including template assisted, metal assisted, hydrothermal route, vapor deposition (CVD), seed based and other synthesis in solution.
A recent finding was discussed on the recent advanced efforts in the preparation of carbon nanorods from metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) [24]. MOFs-a class of porous and crystalline material have attracted a great deal attention due to their fascinating architectures as well as their useful properties [25]. MOFs could be synthesized using both organic and inorganic components. Eventhough MOFs is well-established excellent porous material, yet the thermal transformation of MOFs into carbon materials accompanied by partial or complete collapse of their original morphology. Due to this reasons, the synthesis of nonhollow (solid) 1-D of carbon nanorods with moderate aspect ratio, high surface area and good performance capacitor electrodes is achieved by self-scarified and morphology-preserved thermal transformation of MOF-74 [24] (Figure 3).
(a) The secondary building unit and 3-D crystal structure of MOF-74 and (b) scheme of synthesis of MOF-74-rod, carbon nanorods. (b) The secondary building unit and 3-D crystal structure of MOF-74.
The reaction of zinc nitrate and 2,5-dihydroxyterephthalic acid in N, N-dimethylformaide (DMF) by traditional hydrothermal method resulted in formation of microcrystalline MOF-74. The room-temperature reaction of those components in the presence of salicylic acid as a modulator led to the formation of rod-shaped MOF-74 (MOF-74-Rod, 30–60 nm wide, 200–500 long) as observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The addition of salicylic acid directed MOF growth in a rod-shape morphology by stabilizing the active metal sites on the MOF crystal surface [26]. The thermal transformation of MOF-74-Rod at 1000°C results in the formation of carbon nanorods. In comparison of MOF-74-Rod (377 m2 g−1), higher surface area of MOF-74 (411 m2 g−1) might be attributed to the perfect arrangement of MOF crystallites in the domain structure. The pore size distribution for MOF-74-Rid confirms the formation of micro (∼1.5 nm) and mesopores (∼6.5 nm), whereas MOF-74 shows the presence of microspores (∼1.2 nm) exclusively. The great different in pore size distribution attributed to the formation of voids resulted from lateral attachment of MOF nanorods. The MOF-74-Rod showed excellent capacitor performance with specific capacitance value of 164 F g-1 at sweep rate of 10 mVs−1. Overall from this study, open up new avenues for efficient product of 1-D carbon material with promising applications in electrochemical devices.
ZnO has a wide band-gap (3.37 eV at room temperature). ZnO is known to have wurtzite structure with lattice constant (a) 3.249 Å, (c) 5.207 Å. It has a large excitonic binding energy of 60 MeV, which is greater than the thermal energy at room temperature, makes it a promising candidate for applications in blue-UV light emission and room-temperature UV lasing. ZnO posed an excellent chemical and thermal stability and the electrical properties. Since Zno has lack of center symmetry, make it results in a piezoelectric effect, whereby a mechanical stress/strain could be transformed into electrical voltage and vice versa, due to the relative displacement of the cations and anions in the crystal [27]. Single crystal of ZnO exhibit significantly faster electron transport and greater mobility. The faster electron transport is a result of the high electron diffusion coefficients, which will provide significant advantages to device performance [28]. Since ZnO could emits at the near ultraviolet, has transparent conductivity and piezoelectric properties, thus, ZnO is an interesting material for semiconductor and laser devices, piezoelectric transducers, transparent electronics, surface acoustic wave devices, spin functional devices, and gas sensing. Overall, ZnO is an excellent material for sensor application attributed by its large surface to volume ratio that leads to the enhancement of it sensitivity, bio-safety and bio-compatibility. A recent research has demonstrated that creation of highly oriented and ordered array of ZnO nanostructures has greatly stimulate interest in development of novel devices [29]. The large surface area of nanorods makes ZnO attractive for gas and chemical sensing. High oriented array of ZnO nanorods (and nanowires) can be produced via various chemical, electrochemical and physical deposition techniques such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or metal organic CVD (MOCVD), vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) growth, electrochemical deposition (ED) and hydrothermal approaches.
Recently, a great deal of attention has been focused on the study of synthesizing the ZnO nanorods via VLS method. In this case, gold (Au) nanoparticles are used as catalyst in order to promoting the ZnO nanorods formation. Unfortunately, the are some apparent drawbacks in VLS growth technique. Generally, it required high growth temperature > 900°C in order to dissolving the Zn vapor into the Au catalyst simultaneously forming an alloy droplet. After saturated, Zn precipitates out from the droplet and further oxidized as ZnO nanorods grow. The other drawback from VLS growth method is that at the tips of ZnO nanorods there are always impurity particles that might be undesirable for fabrication. Due to this reason, the synthesizing ZnO nanorods via CVD and MOCVD were highlighted. The synthesis temperature used generally mild reaction temperature and high purity of ZnO nanorods could formed.
Apparently, the CVD process took place in a horizontal quartz tube placed in a rapid thermal furnace. Figure 4(a) shows a schematic illustration of the CVD furnace including a horizontal quartz tube of 1-in. A high-purity metallic granulated zinc (99.99%) was placed in an alumina boat which was then inserted at the end of quartz ampoule sealed at one end. Au nanoparticles are used as catalyst deposited on Chip B and C. Once the temperature went above the melting point of zinc metal (420°C), zinc would gradually vaporize to fill the quartz vial and then diffuse to Chip B and then to Chip C. The Au catalyst further formed liquid droplet and super saturated with Zn vapor. The nucleation growth of ZnO started with the arrival of oxygen gas. The ZnO will precipitate when the droplet reached a critical radius and continuously growth. Typically, ZnO synthesis was synthesized follow several steps. Initially, the quartz tube evacuated to 10–2 Torr, follow by purged using Ag gas to maintain a 1 atm ambient. The furnace temperature rapidly increased to 700°C under constant Ag flow and maintain within a period of time. Finally, the oxygen gas (O2 mixed Ag) was then flown through quartz tube forcing a precipitate to form. As shown in Figure 4(c), shows prismatic hexagonal rods of ZnO grown area. The ZnO crystal continuously growth perpendicular from the surface on one single nanowires forming comb structure (Figure 4(d)). Thick ZnO needle can be found at the outer edge (Figure 4(e)). With sufficient oxygen concentration, wires with larger diameter are grown.
Schematic illustration of the (a) CVD system with a horizontal quartz tube placed in a furnace. A small quartz vial inside the quartz tube is used to trap zinc vapor during the synthesis process, (b) MOCVD system, (ce) SEM image for ZnO nanorods from CVD system, (f) SEM image for ZnO nanorods from MOCVD system and (g) SEM image of a ZnO nanorod, indicating a diameter of 110 nm.
In the case of MOCVD techniques, in MOCVD generally, the use of organic precursor, such as Zn(C2H5)2 and O2 system, are involved. The ZnO films or nanorods were deposited on p-type silicon with (100) orientation. Figure 4(b) shows a schematic diagram of the MOCVD system. Mass flow controllers separately controlled the flow of Ar and O2 gases and the gas flow ratio of Ar to O2 was in the range of 1–2. The substrate temperature was varied as a process variable ranging from 250 to 500°C [30]. The deposition time was set to 10 min [30]. In this study the SEM image reveals that ZnO nanorods are directly grown on Si substrates (Figure 4(f)) and the diameter of ZnO nanorod ranges from 40 to 120 nm (Figure 4(g)). In summary, the uniform ZnO nanorods have successfully synthesized in bulk quantities directly on the Si substrate using the MOCVD technique.
Recently, several studies have demonstrates the growth of ZnO nanorods could be achieved molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). In MBE, the growth is performed under clean, low pressure condition and the reactants are very pure Zn metal and atomic O from a plasma generator [31]. In MBE system, the potential contamination is minimized [31] . The ZnO layers typically were grown on p-type silicon wafer Si(100) under conditions: substrate temperature 300–430°C, temperature of the Zn-Knudsen cell 300°C (Zn beads of purity 99.9999 were filled), pressure of the chamber during the growth was ∼(1–4) × 10–4 mbar and oxygen plasma was generated [32]. The ZnO nanorods of reasonable quality could be deposited forming cored nanorod (Figure 5(a and b)). This cored nanorods could be produced using Mg-doping during MBE growth. Similarly, Heo et al. [33] report on catalyst-driven MBE of ZnO nanorods. The single ZnO nanorod growth is realized via nucleation on Ag films that are deposited on SiO2-terminated Si substrate surface (Figure 5(c)). Growth occurs at substrate temperatures within range of 300–500°C. The nanorods are uniform cylinders exhibiting diameter of 15–40 nm (Figure 5(d)) and lengths in excess of 1 μm. Eventhough CVD, MOCVD and MBE such an attractive technique in developing ZnO nanorods but these growth techniques are complicated and growth temperatures used are high (435°C).
(a) Schematic of coaxial nanorods having a lateral heterostructure (top), (b) transmission electron micrographs showing cored (Zn1 − x Mgx)O nanorods a having Zn-rich phase surrounded by another (Zn1 − x Mgx)O phase (bottom), (c) SEM image of ZnO nanorods nucleated on Ag-coated Si/SiO2 substrate and (d) TEM and selected area diffraction image of a single crystal ZnO nanorod.
The hydrothermal method [34, 35] has attracted considerable attention due to its unique advantages-it is simple, low temperature (60–100°C), high yield, low cost, uncomplicated process, excellent morphology-well-defined structure and controllable process [36]. Particularly, chemical precursor solution involves in formation of ZnO nanorods via hydrothermal route is Zn salt and hexamethylenetetramine on Si substrates with a seed layer prepared from zinc acetate solution. Polyethyleneimine was added to the solution to increase the nanorod aspect ratio [37]. The growth temperature and the growth time were constantly kept at lower temperature < 100°C and under certain period of time. Recently, ZnO nanorods with hexagonal structure were synthesized via hydrothermal route by Polsongkram and co-workers using zinc nitrate [Zn(NO3)2 6H2O] that was mixed with hexamethylenetetramine (HMT) (C6H12N4) solution and treated under temperature 60–95°C. It is evident that the at 95°C, the sample mainly consists of ZnO nanorods and most of them assembly into branched and urchin-like morphologies (Figure 6(a)). It was discovered that the hexagonal ZnO nanorods formed about 2 mm in length 100–150 nm in diameter. The nanorods grown larger (thick branched rods) when the temperature reduce to 75 and 60°C [35] (Figure 6(c and d)). This study also found that controlled growth of nanorods ranging from a thinner to a larger diameter can be realized by appropriate choice of the initial precursor concentration and deposition time. The hexagonal ZnO nanorods formation via hydrothermal method also in agreement with Phromyothin findings (Figure 6(d and e)) [38]. Similarly, this study also discovered that as the precursor concentration increased, the average diameter of ZnO nanorods will enlarge. It can be suggested that the precursor concentration provides the crucial role on the physical morphology and crystal growth direction of ZnO nanorods.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the ZnO nanorods grown from ZnNO3-0.040 M: HMT-0.025 M aqueous solution in 30 min at different temperatures: (a) 95°C, (b) 75°C and (c) 60°C [
Last but not least, the ZnO nanorods also could be synthesized via ED method. ED method has many advantages including a low growth temperature, simple and low cost process without the need for vacuum systems for preparing ZnO nanorods with high crystallinity, being suited for scale-up and good electrical contact between the structures and the substrate [39]. However, in ED method when the ZnO nanorods were growth using electrochemical on transparent conducting oxides (TCOs, i.e. ITO and FTO), electrodes and a previously deposited ZnO seed layer are necessary to precisely control the morphology and aspect ratio of the as-grown ZnO nanostructures. In ED method the ZnO nanorods were electrodeposited from the zinc nitride aqueous solution in an electrode system. Typically, electrodepositions were conducted in a water bath at 80°C. Figure 6(f) presents the electrodeposited ZnO results, the result showed the SEM images of ZnO nanorods on predeposited PAN film [40]. The ZnO nanorods exhibited good vertical alignment, and with significant hexagonal cross section and a relatively uniform size with an average diameter of 180 nm.
Much attention has been given recently to gold nanorods (Au nanorods), mainly due to their applications in biomedicine. Gold nanorods show two absorption bands, known as surface plasmon resonance (SPR) bands, called the TSPR (transverse) in the visible and LSPR (longitudinal) in the near infrared (NIR) region [41]. This last one is useful for medical applications because NIR radiation is the one that penetrates the most in living tissues. The absorbed radiation is converted into heat, thus showing promise for cancer treatment. Also, these nanorods have localized surface plasmon resonances (LSPRs) that allow for unique scientific and technical applications [42]. In particular, the synthesis of well-defined size and shapes of Au nanorods has attracted much attention due to its importance in electronic and optical properties of these nanomaterials. The longitudinal bands of Au nanorods can be tuned by changing their aspect ratio, simultaneously make it possible to gain absorption bands at the desired wavelength in the NIR. Small change in aspect ratio will result in drastic change in the NIR absorption wavelength. The Au nanorods could be synthesized via two general growth approaches, which are bottom-up and top-down methods. For bottom-up methods, Au nanorods are generated through nucleation in aqueous solutions and subsequent overgrowth, where Au salts are usually used to provide the Au source through reduction. Particularly, bottom-up method including wet-chemical, electrochemical, sonochemical, solvothermal, microwave-assisted and photochemical reduction technique. All of these method involving the use of reduced aqueous solvated Au salts by various reducing agents, such as sodium borohydride, ascorbic acid, and small Au clusters, under different external stimuli (triggering the reduction of Au salt). The length of Au nanorods could be elongated with the use of template, it serves to confine the growth along one direction during the reduction.
The electrochemical method was the first technique for developing the Au nanorods. Briefly, the Au and Pt were used as the anode and cathode, respectively. These electrodes will be immersed in an electrolytic solution containing the cationic surfactant such as hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and co-surfactant. The CTAB works as supporting electrolyte and stabilizer (preventing aggregation of the nanorods), and CTAB induces the formation of rods. The length of the nanorods is determined by the presence of a silver plate in the solution. The silver metals react with the Au ions generated by the dissolution of the anode. The researchers found that the amount of dissolved silver and the concentration of Ag+ ions determined the length of the nanorods [25]. The larger the area of silver plate, the higher the amount of Ag+ ion species formed and the higher the speed of silver will be released and thus, the longer the Au nanorods formed [43].
Based on previous literature for Au nanorods formation via bottom-up method, seed mediated growth has been by far the most efficient and popular approach [44]. This method utilizes “soft templates” for growing Au (Figure 7), which was developed by Murphy and El-Sayed studies [42]. Highly yield monodisperse Au nanorods with greater uniformity could be developed via this method. Typically, small Au nanoparticles seed of ∼1.5 nm is initially prepared by reducing chloroauric acid with borohydride in an aqueous CTAB solution [42]. The seed solution will be mixed with growth solution containing metal salt (weak reducing agent) such as ascorbic acid and a surfactant-directing agent CTAB. The CTAB will absorbed onto Au nanorods forming a bilayer. It is suggested that aspect ratio of Au nanorods can be controlled by ratio metal see/metal salt in growth solution. According to former study, the CTAB will bind to the crystallographic faces of Au existing along the sides of pentahedrally twinned rods, as compared to the faces at the tip. The seed-mediated growth technique is the presence of CTAB is one of the most widely used and the yields of the nanorods from the seed-mediated growth method can be as high as 99%. It have been reported that the size and shape of Au nanorods could be tailored by adjusting the growth condition such as the pH of growth solution, composition of surfactant, amount of the reagent, growth temperature and structure of the seed in the seed-mediated growth process. Interestingly, recent study demonstrated high yield and greater uniformity of Au nanorods could be obtained via seed-mediated growth through the use of aromatic additive to CTAB [45]. Figure 7(a and c) showed TEM images of Au nanorods synthesized with 0.0126 M sodium 3-methylsalicylate (additive) present in the growth solution. The nanorods obtained have an average diameter of 14.0 (1.0 nm and a length of 33.0 ± 2.5 nm. On the other hand, slightly longer nanorods are made when 0.010 M sodium salicylate is used as the additive (Figure 7(b and d)).
(a–d) TEM images for Au nanorods synthesized via seed-mediated growth with the addition of aromatic additive [
Eventhough the bottom-up method results in excellent monodisperse Au nanorods with small diameter and high uniformity, yet them suffer some drawback where typically, selective placement of Au nanorods at desired locations on substrates by the bottom-up methods has been very difficult owing to the random nature of the reduction of Au ions and the deposition of Au atoms in reaction solutions. Moreover, the shape and size of Au nanorods also varied from different synthesis batches. This will affect their optical and catalytic properties and applications. Last but not least, bottom-up method suffers in placing Au nanorods into large-area, ordered arrays. Due to these reasons, top-down approaches gained interest.
It is well-established that top-down method could promote high production homogeneous Au nanorods with controlled particle geometries and regular inter-particle arrangements, which is valuable for quantitative characterization as well as device applications. In top-down methods, Au nanorods are obtained through a combination of different physical lithography processes and Au deposition [42]. Particularly, there are two technique used for top-down method in synthesizing the Au nanorods. First method is through the removal of Au from predeposited Au films using ion beam or etching techniques. Second method is by employing the lithography techniques to create mask. Au layer then deposited on the substrate which is covered by the mask via physical method: thermal, electron-beam evaporation or sputtering. The synthesized Au nanorods further obtained from lift-off process. Generally, the size of Au nanorods obtained via top-down method is limited by the resolution of lithography method. Interestingly, recent study by Koh and co-worker reported that state-of-the-art electron beam lithography system able to produce the size of Au nanorods within diameter ranging from ∼10 to >100 nm [46]. The Au nanorods were fabricated on 30-nm-thick silicon-nitride (SiN) membranes (Figure 8(a)). High-resolution TEM images of individual nanostructures of Au nanorods in Figure 8(b) reveal that the Au nanostructures were polycrystalline in nature. The polycrystallinity of the metal structures could potentially be a drawback of lithographically defined metal structures, as chemically synthesized metal nanoparticles can be a single crystal when synthesized in certain conditions. Eventhough, Au nanorods successfully synthesized via top-down method yet this method is time consuming and costly makes them impractical for fabrication of Au nanorods in bigger scales. Furthermore, Au nanorods obtained from vacuum deposition techniques also can degrade their plasmonic properties due to the electron scattering at the grain boundaries. Due to these reason had limit their usage in device application and simultaneously make the top-down method to be unattractive in fundamental research.
(a) SEM images of an array of Au nanostructures with elongated and (b) TEM image of individual Au nanorods [
Nanostructured iron oxide magnetite (Fe3O4) behaves supermagnetic and widely used in the biomedical field as well as device application. Generally, the magnetic nanoparticle could be utilized as nanoadsorbents, cancer diagnostic and treatment, contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), etc. Meanwhile for 1-D magnetite extremely important in building block for nanodevices. It has been found that size and shape of magnetite nanoparticles play key role in controlling the corresponding properties [47]. The magnetite nanoparticles could be synthesis via aqueous co-precipitation, magnetic field induction, CVD, template mediated, etc. [48, 49, 50]. The aqueous co-precipitation of Fe2+ and Fe3+ by a base, usually sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia, is the well-known method which is usually carried out for synthesizing the magnetite nanoparticle [51]. This method is the most scalable chemical synthesis routes which results in iron oxide nanospherical crystal. However, there is a study also found that innovative modification in co-precipitation technique through incorporation of special aqueous solution will lead to the formation of nanocubes or nanorods iron oxide particle’s. This was in agreement with Khalil finding’s [52].
Recently, considerable attention has been drawn to production of 1-D magnetite nanorods due to their high surface to volume ration and superior properties. Due to the high aspect ratio, magnetic nanorods have the high values of coercivity and produce a lot of heat in high frequency magnetic field, which offer longer blood circulation times, stronger interaction with tumors, enhanced retention at tumor sites and improved targeting efficiency [47, 53]. All of these reasons stimulate their making in excellent candidates as targeting pharmaceutical carrier or MRI contrast agents. For instance, iron oxide nanocubes including nanorods structure with a length larger than 100 nm could be achieved via thermal decomposition, wet chemical, hydrothermal, template mediated, solvothermal, hydrolysis and sol-gel.
Thermal decomposition method involved chemical decomposition at high temperature, lead to the breaking of the chemical bonds. The thermal decomposition method for synthesis iron oxide nanorods involve metal-organic compound. The obtained nanorods generally with diameter and length within range of 50–100 nm. This method typically led large nanorods structure due to the annealing by high reaction temperature. It is in agreement with Chen et al. finding reported that with the increasing reaction temperature, the aspect ratio of the products decreases to some extent, thus no any rod-like particles produced when high temperatures synthesis method is used [54]. Meanwhile, eventhough the co-precipitation method is a conventional method for synthesizing iron oxide nanorods, yet this method often uses trioctylphosphine (TOP), tributylphosphine (TBP), trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO) or oleylamine (OA) and other long chain amines as solvents and capping agents in order to prevent the uncontrolled precipitation. Since this nanoparticle used for biomedical application, hence the nanoparticles of iron oxides should be a nontoxic. The usage of nontoxic capping agent and stabilizer eliminates the use of toxic and expensive chemical such as TOP, TBP or amines.
In the past years, the wet chemical synthesis of iron oxide nanorods via one step wet chemical method have been reported by several groups [54, 55]. Chen’s group reported in the one-step synthesis method and a surfactant, polyethylene glycol (PEG) was used as template and ferrous ammonia sulfate was use as precursor [54]. This study agreed that a formation of iron oxide nanorods can be achieved at longer retention synthesis time and adjusting the diffusion of ammonia by implementation a suitable ratio between the rates of deposition and oxidation of ferrous ions. These were in agreement with TEM image the iron oxide synthesize at from 2 to 10 h and it is reveals that the iron oxide nanorods could be obtained upon extended reaction time. By adjusting pressure of ammonia, i.e., adjusting the concentration of aqueous ammonia in the right flask also results in formation of pure magnetite phase. Further study on synthesizing iron oxide nanorods via wet chemical method were also reported by Ahmed and co-worker [56]. The obtained nanoparticles were rod shaped and consisted mainly of maghemite (ϒ-Fe2O3) phase. The nanoparticles also appear superparamagnetic behavior under room temperature.
Solvothermal method is an effective method for producing iron oxide nanorods. Si et al. present a method for obtaining the iron oxide nanorods via solvothermal method, and product showed formation of iron oxide nanorods with diameter size within range of 58–250 nm and width from 8 to 64 nm (Figure 9(a and b)) [57]. The iron oxide nanorods obtained exhibit uniform size and greater dispersion in nonpolar solvent (cyclohexane). It also revealed the single crystalline nature of nanorods is successfully produced upon synthesis process. The effectiveness of solvothermal method in producing iron oxide nanorods was in agreement Sun and co-worker finding, which reported that Fe3O4 single crystal nanorods with a uniform length between 64 and 140 nm can be prepared using Fe(CO)5 in the presence of oleic acid through a solvothermal process [58].
TEM image of iron oxide nanorods in (a) cyclohexane and (b) water prepared via solvothermal method [
Recent by Kloust et al. also discovered that the iron oxide nanorods can be produced directly from template mediated approach [59]. The iron oxide nanorods synthesis directly from iron oleate in one-step procedure. The iron oleate is used as a precursor. In this method, the iron oxide nanodot string together in a row to form rods-structure (Figure 9(c)). Based on the TEM image the formed iron nanorods exhibit a mean length of approximately 24 nm and mean diameter 2.5 nm with an associated aspect ratio of 10 (Figure 9(d)). The iron oxide nanorods produced particularly small and thin nanorods. The nanodot string combination mechanism have been confirmed in TEM micrograph, which shows the alignment of single dot characteristic. The high resolution TEM image of iron oxide nanorods (Figure 9(e)) confirms this characteristic and show twisted crystal-orientations of single nanocrystal. Further magnetic characterization reveals that the iron oxide nanorods synthesized via template mediated approach posed super-paramagnetic behavior. In the blocked state the nanorods exhibit a magnetic easy axis parallel to the long axis of nanorods due to the enhancement shape anisotropy. Kloust et al. [59] also presented a method for preparation of iron oxide nanorods with a template approach, where iron oxide nanodots string together. The procedure uses iron oleate as a precursor and is a one-step synthesis. A precise tuning of the width of the nanorods between 1 and 6 nm was realized.
Hydrothermal method might flexible method for synthesizing iron oxide nanorods. Thus, several procedures have been developed [48, 49, 50]. Hydrothermal methods rely on the ability of water at elevated pressures and temperatures to hydrolyze and dehydrate metal salts, and the very low solubility of the resulting iron oxide in water at these conditions to generate supersaturation [60]. Extremely high supersaturation could be achieved in the reaction process attributed by the lower solubility of metal hydroxides and oxides, thus very fine crystals will form. Similar case with thermal decomposition methods, the hydrothermal system also involves high temperature synthesis condition. Thus, the size of the nanoparticles had a larger particle (if the hydrothermal method proceed under supercritical temperature (<350°C)). This was due to the promotion of crystal growth that results from the dissolution and precipitation process in sub-critical water. The particle size also increased with the increase in reaction pressure in supercritical water [61]. Liang and co-workers report the variation of crystallite and particles size of iron oxide at temperature 250 and 350°C; the crystallite size of iron oxide increased significantly as the temperature was raised from 250 to 350°C. This phenomenon is due to the nucleation process which occurred as the monomer concentration reached the saturation point [62]. Interestingly, the size of particles will reduce and become smaller if the hydrothermal method proceeded under temperature > 380°C (above critical temperature). This is probably due to a rather low solvent power of supercritical water and an extremely high hydrolysis rate of iron salt in supercritical water. Therefore, very high super-saturation is achieved in which results in fine iron oxide crystals nucleating in situ immediately. It is in agreement with Arai et al. study [61]. Eventhough hydrothermal method considered effective in synthesizing iron oxide nanoparticles, yet the particles shape difficult to control in order to form pure rod-like structure.
Other method that effective in synthesizing the iron oxide nanorods is sol-gel method. Piao et al. reported on wrap-bake-peel process for nanostructural transformation from β-FeOOH nanorods to biocompatible iron oxide nanocapsules [63]. This process involves silica coating, heat treatment and lastly the removal of silica layer, in order to transform the phases and structures of nanostructured materials while preserving their nanostructural characteristic. Water dispersible hollow iron oxide nanocapsules were obtained by applying the wrap-bake-peel process to β-FeOOH nanoparticles. The synthesized magnetite nanocapsules could be successfully used not only as a drug-delivery vehicle, but also as a T2 MRI contrast agent.
Although the process of synthesis of metallic nanoparticles provides a number of benefits, it is still difficult to achieve formation of nanoparticles of various shapes and sizes, which is significant as shape and size dictate possible nanoparticle activity. Therefore, regulation of nanoparticle shape and size has received a great deal of attention. When marine microbes were employed to synthesize metallic nanoparticles, consideration was given to a range of factors related to metallic nanoparticle nucleation and formation. More specifically, to achieve metallic nanoparticles of uniform size and shape, the factors of pH, reaction temperature, time and reactant concentrations were taken into account.
The development of metallic nanoparticles depends significantly on the pH of the reaction medium [64]. Gold nanoparticles mediated by Rhodopseudomonas capsulate occurred at pH ranging between 4 and 7, while extracellular formation of gold nanoparticles of round shape and 10–20 nm in size occurred at pH 7 and a number of nanoplates occurred at a pH value of 4. Comparable results were obtained when Shewanella algae were used to synthesize gold nanoparticles intracellularly under conditions without oxygen and with H2 gas serving as electron donor at a temperature of 25°C [65]. Thus, gold nanoparticles of 10–20 and 15–200 nm in size respectively occurred in periplasmic space with pH 7 and on bacterial surface with pH 2.8. Hence, it can be concluded that pH has great significance for morphological modulation and detection of nanoparticle development site.
The dependence of microorganism-based synthesis of metallic nanoparticles as well as nanoparticle morphology and yield on the temperature of reaction is well established. In a recently conducted study, silver nanoparticles were synthesized extracellularly by
Metallic nanoparticle size and shape also depend on the synthesis reaction time. One study employed
The development of metallic nanoparticles is subject to the influence of reactant concentration as well. One study reported that the size and shape of gold nanoparticles were considerably impacted by the use of different gold salt concentration alongside
In summary, uniform 1-D magnetite nanorods showed fascinating physical properties this due to the distinct structure-dependent properties of nanorods structures. Larger in both length and diameter of rod-shape particles are expected to share many advantages in the oriental properties of nanorods. Last but not least, nanorods offer more advantages over isotropic (homogeneous and uniform) particles. It can be summarized that the efficiency of nanorods depends strongly on nanorods aspect ratio, volume fraction, polydispersity and orientation. There are many methods for synthesizing carbon nanorods, ZnO nanorods, Au nanorods and iron oxide nanorods. Overall, bottom-up was very effective method for synthesizing nanorods particles. Yet, bottom-up method still suffer with some drawbacks; placing metal into large area, ordered array and purity problem. Due to these reasons, top-down approaches gained interest, but top-down method is time consuming and costly for industrial practical.
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the PUTRA grant-UPM (Vot No: 9344200), MOSTI-e Science (Vot No: 5450746), Geran Putra Berimpak (GPB) UPM/800-3/3/1/GPB/2018/9658700 and University of Malaya’s RU grant (Project No:RU007C-2017D).
CVD is one of the most common causes of death in the world [1]. Some disorders such as HTN, type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2), hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis and inflammatory disorders can increase the risk of CVD [2]. Among these disorders, HTN is one of the most common diseases imposed by modern lifestyle in terms of decreased physical activity and unbalanced lipid-rich diet [3].
It is estimated that around 30% of the world population will get involved with HTN by 2025 [4]. HTN gradually develops without notice, hence possibly aggravating such fatal diseases as CVD and chronic heart failure (CHF) [3]. There are several risk factors for HTN, such as family history, genetic and environmental factors [4]. The prevalence in females is dependent on age. In other words, prevalence of HTN in women >50 years old strongly increases. For instance, high blood pressure ratio in women compared with men increments from 0.6 to 0.7 at the age of 30 years old, reaching 1.1 to 1.2 at the age of 65 years old [5]. CVD risks augment throughout the blood pressure range, which begins at 115/75 mmHg. The blood pressure which is higher than 140/90 mmHg needs intervention [3].
Drugs decreasing blood pressure including angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin-receptor blockers (ARBs), calcium channel blockers (CCBs), α-blockers and diuretics dwindle the complications of HTN [6]. However, most patients suffer from enhanced adverse drug reactions even in common doses and medication costs because of needing ≥2 drugs to attain blood pressure goals (< 140/90 mmHg or <130/80 mmHg in DM or chronic kidney disease) [6]. Whilst chemical drugs are necessary for treating and dominating the cardiovascular risk factors mentioned in the previous lines, diet also plays an important role in modulating them.
The Mediterranean diet is one of the most supreme in the world in terms of preventing chronic illnesses, such as CVD [2, 7, 8]. The bulk of the Mediterranean diet originates from plant sources of which olive tree products are the quintessential ingredient [9].
Olive tree (Olea europaea) belongs to genus Olea of the Oleaceae family [10]. The parts used in olive tree are leaf, fruit and skin. In ancient times, people applied olive tree, particularly olive leaves to treat fever, gout, wounds, diabetes, atherosclerosis and HTN [3, 11]. As a matter of fact, the leaf of the olive tree has several beneficial effects on human health attributed, in part, to hypocholesterolemic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, hypoglycaemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerotic, and especially anti-hypertensive effects [1, 7, 12]. The uses of olive leaf for humans are abundant. However, our aim is to focus on the anti-hypertensive yield.
There are lots of animals and human trials conducted to inquire about the anti-hypertensive effect of OLE. The animal studies are mostly conducted on rats. In 2002, Khayyal et al. performed an 8-week investigation into the effects of oral administration of OLE at different levels (25, 50 or 100 mg/kg/day) on blood pressure in rats rendered hypertensive by oral doses of 4-week L-NAME (NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester, 50 mg/kg/day). They reported a dose-dependent prophylactic influence against the ascent in blood pressure induced by L-NAME and the greatest effect was related to the 100 mg/kg of the extract [13]. Besides these observations, the effect of OLE has also been researched in 2016 by Romero et al. In this study, a 5-week investigation on OLE (15% w/w OL) in spontaneously hypertensive rats at 30 mg/kg body weight reported a significant reduction of systolic blood pressure (−21.6 ± 5.5 mmHg) [14]. Although there are many other animal studies in this field, we intend to talk more about human clinical trials. Here, we collected a systematic review on a number of human randomised controlled trials (RCTs), which have been conducted to investigate the effect of OLE compared to placebo on systolic and diastolic blood pressure as primary or secondary outcomes in adults.
In 2008, an open, controlled, parallel-group, co-twin trial was carried out for 8 weeks on the anti-hypertensive effect of OLE in 40-borderline hypertensive monozygotic twins (age: 16–60) by Perrinjaquet-Moccetti et al. There were two parallel experiments, the first being the effect of a 500 mg OLE tablet (equivalent to 104 mg OL) once daily compared with no medication. The second experiment involved a 500 mg OLE tablet once daily compared with that of 1000 mg (equivalent to 208 mg OL) divided into two distinct doses. As a result, they revealed a significant dose-dependent decrease in blood pressure within pairs, with mean systolic differences of ≤6 mmHg (500 mg vs control) and ≤13 mmHg (1000 vs 500 mg), and diastolic differences of ≤5 mmHg. Also, mean blood pressure had significantly decreased just for the high dose group [3].
Elsewhere, in 2008, Saberi et al. verified the anti-hypertensive effect of OLE in another way. They enrolled 64 mild to moderate hypertensive patients with normal treatment resistance. They randomised the patients into two distinct groups (n=32 intervention & n=32 placebo). In the intervention group, each person received a 1000 mg OLE capsule divided into three doses daily. Consequently, the study demonstrated a significant decrease in mean systolic blood pressure. They found no remarkable effect on diastolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure in the intervention group compared to before OLE treatment, despite the fact that there was meaningful diastolic blood pressure reduction in the OLE group compared to the placebo group [5].
In contrast, De Bock et al. who performed a 12-week randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover trial in 2013, demonstrated a different result. They assessed the effect of an OLE capsule (51.1 mg oleuropein; 9.7 mg hydroxytyrosol) daily on cardiovascular risk factors and insulin action in middle-aged overweight men. 46 participants (aged 35–55 years; BMI 25–30 kg/m2) randomly consumed OLE or placebo for 12 weeks with crossing over to the alternate arm after a 6-week washout. As a result, there were no remarkable changes in ambulatory (24-hour) blood pressure [15].
Further, in 2017, Lockyer et al. performed a randomised, double-blind, controlled, crossover trial to investigate the influence of a liquid-form OLE (136mg oleuropein; 6mg hydroxytyrosol) on blood pressure in prehypertensive patients. They used ambulatory blood pressure as the primary endpoint. The participants were 60 male subjects aged 45.3 ± 12.7, and body mass index (BMI) 27.0 ± 3.4 kg/m2. They received either OLE or placebo for 6 weeks before switching to the other treatment after a 4-week washout. After tracking down the 24-hour and daytime blood pressure in patients, they represented a marked daytime and 24-hour systolic and diastolic blood pressure reduction (about 3 mmHg) compared to the control group (placebo) [7].
In 2020, Yaghoobzadeh et al. performed a 12-week investigation into the effect of OLE on cardiometabolic profiles in patients (aged 30–60) with essential HTN. The trial participants were randomly selected regarding intervention and control groups. (n= 30 intervention & n=30 placebo). As a result, a 250 mg OLE capsule, twice daily, could decrease systolic blood pressure significantly. However, it did not show a meaningful effect on the diastolic part [4].
As you notice, all of these studies show the anti-hypertensive effect of OLE, except the experiment conducted by De Bock et al. [15]. The most important differences between this study and other studies might be related to the study design, type of disease, nature of OLE, duration of extract in-take, patients’ compliance and inclusion/exclusion criteria [4]. There is a systemic review and meta-analysis conducted by Muhammad Asyraf Ismail et al. in 2021 to show the effect of OLE on cardiometabolic profile in prehypertensive and hypertensive adults [1]. However, with all due respect to the authors of this study, there were a number of cases that encouraged us to make some updates with more accurate results. To clarify, the previous meta-analysis included 5 trials. Among these trials, in 2019, Javadi et al. did not investigate the effect of OLE on blood pressure [16]. Wong et al., studied a combined extract [17]. So, this study is not able to show us the pure effect of OLE. Susalit et al., compared OLE effect with a very strong anti-hypertensive drug (captopril) [6]. These three trials made the previous meta-analysis non-accurate, and they also excluded three useful RCTs for different reasons. De Bock et al. [15] were deleted because of not involving prehypertensive or hypertensive group in the study. Saberi et al. [5], was also deleted due to being a non-English RCT in addition to Lockyer et al. [7], who could not retrieve data after contacting the author [1]. Ultimately, the previous meta-analysis could not demonstrate the accurate effect of OLE on blood pressure. Hence, to determine the OLE effect on systolic and diastolic blood pressure, we aimed to perform a meta-analysis of these 5 human trials (Figures 1 and 2).
The meta-analysis of OLE compared to placebo or no treatment. Outcome: diastolic blood pressure (mmHg).
The met-analysis of OLE compared to placebo or no treatment. Outcome: systolic blood pressure (mmHg).
Our meta-analysis shows that OLE has a significant effect on the reduction of systolic blood pressure. But, its effect on diastolic blood pressure is not meaningful. The anti-hypertensive property of the olive leaf is due to its phenolic compounds.
Phenolic compounds are assorted as secondary metabolites that have a restricted distribution without any explicit function in general metabolism [10]. On the other hand, primary metabolites including nucleic acid, carbohydrate, protein, lipid and cofactors, are involved in the synthesis of substances that are pivotal for the growth of all organisms [18]. Olive tree polyphenols are present in the plant to combat pathogens inducing bacterial infections and to react to pests and insect injuries [19, 20]. There are a wide variety of phenolic compounds in Olea europaea and its by-products with much more concentration in olive leaves (comparison, 145 mg total phenolics/100 g fresh leaf compared to 110 mg/100 g olive fruit and 23 mg/100 ml extra virgin olive oil) [1, 7, 15]. Another comparison confirms the much more concentration of total polyphenols in olive leaves is relative to the olive oil and fruit; 1350 mg/kg fresh olive leaf versus 232 ± 15 mg/kg of extra virgin olive oil [21, 22]. High content of phenolic compounds in olive leaf excited the interest of many scholars to continue the investigations with animals and humans, and that resulted in realizing the beneficial health effects such as anti-hypertensive effects [23]. Major phenolic compounds extracted from olive leaf are categorised in the following.
Some researchers categorised the phenolic compounds of olive tree in 5 groups: flavones (apigenin-7-glucoside, diosmetin, diosmetin-7-glucoside, luteolin and luteolin-7-glucoside); flavonols (rutin); flavan-3-ols; oleuropeosides (verbascoside and OL) and substituted phenols (vanillin, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol) [24]. Also, some researchers categorised the phenolic compounds of olive leaves into three distinct groups: (1) phenolic acids like vanillic acid, syringic acid, salicylic acid, vanillin, etc. (2) Flavonoids like luteolin, rutin, and apigenin-7-o-glucoside, luteolin-7-o-glucoside, etc. (3) Hydroxycinnamates and structurally related compounds like verbascoside, oleoside, ligasterol, oleuropein, etc. [25]. The most abundant phenolic compound identified in olive leaves is oleuropein, followed by hydroxytyrosol, luteolin-7-glucosides, verbascoside, and apigenin-7-glucosides [23]. It has been demonstrated that there are some factors that affect the chemical composition variability of olive leaves, like origin, storage conditions, proportion of branches existing in the extract, weather conditions, moisture content and degree of soil contamination [26, 27]. On the other hand, some processes such as drying and extraction enable us to change nutritional composition of the OLE [28]. Oleuropein, the principal phenolic compound in olive leaf has a significant impact on the reduction of blood pressure due to the potential mechanisms of action with its specific chemical characteristics [2].
Oleuropein (OL) is a glycosylated secoiridoid that uniquely exists in plants of the Oleaceae family, presented in olive leaves at higher concentrations, and representing 1–14% of olive leaf weight, includes oleuropein in contrast with 0.005–0.12 % of olive oil weight [25, 29, 30]. OL is also known as a coumarine-like compound presented in olive trees [8]. It is an elenolic ester of hydroxytyrosol (HT), in addition to an oleosidic skeleton possessed in common to the secoiridoid glucosides of Oleaceae [11]. In fact, HT, known as 2-(3,4-Di-hydroxyphenyl)-ethanol is the precursor of OL and the major phenolic compound in extra virgin olive oil [25, 31]. The chemical formula of one oleuropein molecule is C25H32O13 with molar mass equals to 540.518 g.mol−1 in its standard state (at 25°C [77°F], 100 kPa) (Figure 3) [32]. OL has been distinguished in olive flesh, leaf, seed and peel of green (unripe) olive and is an active substance of olive leaves. Its concentration declines during maturation phase happening in olive fruits because of undergoing hydrolysis yielding different products, such as HT [8, 33, 34]. It creates the bitter taste of olive that must be removed by immersion in lye, hence generating an edible olive, known as table olive [29]. OL content in olive leaves varies depending on the cultivar, production area and leaf tissue conditions (frozen, dried or fresh) [11]. There is the possibility of extracting OL molecules by some special methods explained in the following.
Oleuropein chemical structure. Source: pubChem. URL:
There are various extracting methods of phenolic compounds from olive leaves (after drying and milling), including solid-liquid extraction by maceration and soxhlet extraction utilizing water-methanol blends or hexane to yield OLE [1, 35, 36]. For more explanation on one of the most common techniques, mixing the specific quantity of dried olive leaf powder with an aqueous alcohol solution, incubating there to produce an alcohol extract. after a draining process, the crude extract will be dried again and treated with alcohol and water solution at least two more times. Then, by distilling the mixed extract under vacuum, the OLE will be produced [6, 12]. OL can be chemically decomposed into two different products, including hydroxytyrosol (HT) and elenolic acid by distinct factors such as high temperature, acid, base, light, metal ions, etc. [37]. This process assembles the enzymatic hydrolysis of this phenolic compound that occurs in human body. However, the studies conducted to exactly specify what happens to this phenolic compound extracted from olive leaves during absorption from small intestine and colon to the blood circulation, have mentioned scattered findings. Therefore, we go directly to the mechanism of its action in the body.
The studies performed in human models to show the mechanisms of action for anti-hypertensive property of OL are scarce and have been conducted much more in vitro. This mysterious compound is endowed with anti-hypertensive property which is thought to be due to its influence on membrane receptors and/or enzymes involved in cell signalling, including ACE, L-type Ca2+ channels, nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), or to clarify, the metabolite of OL inhibits ACE. Another mechanism is that a degraded product of OL (3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl-ethanol) directly affects L-type Ca2+ channels as an antagonist resulting in blocking the channels [29, 38, 39]. In fact, OL has synergic effects with other active substances in OLE to present ACEI and CCB activity in the body. Also, the Vasodilator effect of OLE justifies its anti-hypertensive activity [1, 29]. This phenolic compound performs a particular task to increase NO bioavailability and expression of the inducible form of endothelial NO synthase (e NOS) studied in animal subjects [9, 25, 29, 40]. As a matter of fact, OL reacts with NO and its noxious derivative peroxynitrite (−OONO). There is a possibility that OL increases NO production via modifying two specific enzymes: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase (NADPH-oxidase) and NO synthase [41]. These mechanisms modulate NO bioavailability, thus improving vascular function and ultimately reducing blood pressure [25]. The last one influences ROS. ROS play a significant role in the development of oxidative stress, which also encompasses the principal role in the pathology of HTN. ROS are produced permanently in the human body. They are indispensable for several mechanisms happening in the cells, such as chemical signalling, immune performance and energy production [24]. When the balance between ROS and antioxidants upsets, meaning ROS level more than the other, the cell makes oxidative stress [2, 9]. Indeed, an excess in the production of ROS which could be controlled by a number of enzymes, including glutathione peroxidase, catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), enable to damage lipids, proteins and DNA in the cells particularly cardiovascular cells, are even able to ruin the vascular function and structure [2, 42, 43]. So oxidative injury increases the risk of CVD. In this regard, the OL molecule consists of some active components that have determined scavenging functions [44]. So, there is a potential antioxidant property that is suggested to be related to the H-atom donation from the OL phenolic groups [8, 33, 45]. In other words, OL preserves paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus from oxidative stress. OL activates the Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-mediated signalling pathway and finally, it improves mitochondrial function. Thus provides an exquisite way to treat HTN [1, 8, 46]. Hence, antioxidant property of OLE enhances its antihypertensive yield.
In spite of the beneficial health properties of OLE in human body, it is essential to be determined what dosage of this extract will be safe for the body. Many studies aimed at this indicated acute OLE toxicity (2000 mg/kg) and also 4-week OLE toxicity (100–400 mg/kg) revealed no symptoms of toxicity in subjects [47, 48]. However, another study reported the opposite result by noticing bleeding in the liver and kidneys of rats when using OLE [49].
OLE can reduce both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in human body. The effect of OLE on systolic blood pressure is more significant and mostly depends on the dose of the extract for diastolic part. The anti-hypertensive effect of OLE is mostly due to OL. The two most common methods of OL extraction are maceration and soxhlet. There are special mechanisms with which OL reduces blood pressure. For instance, inhibiting ACE, blocking L-type Ca2+ channels, possessing vasodilator activity by increasing NO bioavailability and having anti-oxidant properties.
Fatemeh Rahimianfar would like to appreciate deeply the following people who contributed to completing the full chapter: Dr. Sepideh Soltani and Dr. Mahdieh Sadat Mousavi Rad helped to perform the meta-analysis.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
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\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. 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The more active a lesson, the more students tend to engage intellectually and emotionally in the learning activities. Cooperative learning is the foundation on which many of the active learning procedures are based. Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Most of the active learning procedures, such as problem-based learning, team-learning, collaborative learning, and PALS, require that students work cooperatively in small groups to achieve joint learning goals. Cooperative learning is based on two theories: Structure-Process-Outcome theory and Social Interdependence theory. Four types of cooperative learning have been derived: formal cooperative learning, informal cooperative learning, cooperative base groups, and constructive controversy. There is considerable research confirming the effectiveness of cooperative learning. 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The importance of VR/AR for the mental health field comes from three main concepts: (1) VR/AR as an imaginal technology, people can feel “as if they are” in a reality that does not exist in external world; (2) VR/AR as an embodied technology, the experience to feel user’s body inside the virtual environment; and (3) VR/AR as connectivity technology, the “end of geography’. In this chapter, we explore the opportunities provided by VR/AR as technologies to improve people’s quality of life and to discuss new frontiers for their application in mental health and psychological well-being promotion.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Sara Ventura, Rosa M. Baños and Cristina Botella",authors:[{id:"106036",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Baños",slug:"rosa-maria-banos",fullName:"Rosa Maria Baños"},{id:"227763",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",slug:"sara-ventura",fullName:"Sara Ventura"},{id:"229056",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Botella",slug:"cristina-botella",fullName:"Cristina Botella"}]},{id:"58060",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72341",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"64583",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81714",title:"Evaluating a Course for Teaching Advanced Programming Concepts with Scratch to Preservice Kindergarten Teachers: A Case Study in Greece",slug:"evaluating-a-course-for-teaching-advanced-programming-concepts-with-scratch-to-preservice-kindergart",totalDownloads:1408,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Coding is a new literacy for the twenty-first century, and as a literacy, coding enables new ways of thinking and new ways of communicating and expressing ideas, as well as new ways of civic participation. A growing number of countries, in Europe and beyond, have established clear policies and frameworks for introducing computational thinking (CT) and computer programming to young children. In this chapter, we discuss a game-based approach to coding education for preservice kindergarten teachers using Scratch. The aim of using Scratch was to excite students’ interest and familiarize them with the basics of programming in an open-ended, project-based, and personally meaningful environment for a semester course in the Department of Preschool Education in the University of Crete. For 13 weeks, students were introduced to the main Scratch concepts and, afterward, were asked to prepare their projects. For the projects, they were required to design their own interactive stories to teach certain concepts about mathematics or physical science to preschool-age students. The results we obtained were more satisfactory than expected and, in some regards, encouraging if one considers the fact that the research participants had no prior experiences with computational thinking.",book:{id:"6936",slug:"early-childhood-education",title:"Early Childhood Education",fullTitle:"Early Childhood Education"},signatures:"Stamatios Papadakis and Michail Kalogiannakis",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8743,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"61746",title:"Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Knowledge- Management Behaviors",slug:"facilitation-of-teachers-professional-development-through-principals-instructional-supervision-and-t",totalDownloads:3349,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher professional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management (KM) behaviors to benefit students. Thus, this chapter analyzes the relationship among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development. The author believes that principals’ instructional supervision and effective KM can facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.",book:{id:"6674",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",fullTitle:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development"},signatures:"Chien-Chin Chen",authors:[{id:"232569",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Chien Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chien-chih-chen",fullName:"Chien Chih Chen"}]},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:501,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",middleName:null,surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}]},{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:552,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? How do attitudes change due to top-down governing of education? and What motivates teacher educators to implement digital technology?",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Steinar Thorvaldsen and Siri Sollied Madsen",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",middleName:null,surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",middleName:null,surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"}]},{id:"75416",title:"Self-Study Research: Challenges and Opportunities in Teacher Education",slug:"self-study-research-challenges-and-opportunities-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:724,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This article aims to describe what self-study research is, why self-study can be a good approach to teacher educators’ professional development and improvements in practice and highlight some challenges and opportunities in this research approach. In addition, the article will shed light on some methodological aspects related to self-study. Self-study refers to teacher educators who in an intentionally and systematically way examine their practice to improve it, based on a deeper understanding of practice, as well as the context practice takes place. In the article, I argue that engaging in self-study is a learning and development process and an approach to developing personal professionalism, collective professionalism and improvements in practice.",book:{id:"10229",slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World"},signatures:"Kåre Hauge",authors:[{id:"332053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kåre",middleName:null,surname:"Hauge",slug:"kare-hauge",fullName:"Kåre Hauge"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"265",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81937",title:"Socialization Experiences among Undergraduate Students in Higher Learning Institutions (HLI)",slug:"socialization-experiences-among-undergraduate-students-in-higher-learning-institutions-hli-",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99007",abstract:"This work portrays the problems of socialization among undergraduate students in higher learning institutions. The socialization processes in higher learning institution are significant for the successful navigation of students in the academic programs and university environment in preparing the next generation of professional practitioners and scholars. But the undergraduate student socialization experiences of students at university environment are overlooked. To navigate in the higher learning institutions, students should be socialized effectively to the normative contexts of the higher learning institutions. The normative contexts of the higher learning institutions are generally categorized into social and academic contexts, because these context academic and social context integration have been linked to student retention and success. Social integration involves interpersonal relationships, support, interactions with others, and a sense of belonging at a university, which stems from extracurricular activities, informal dealings with peer groups, and interactions with faculty and staff, whereas academic integration is described through grade performance and intellectual development that reflects an ability to meet the standards of the academic system; intellectual development involves a student valuing their education as a process of development in which they gain knowledge and ideas. Students’ background is also the contributing factor for students’ socialization in the University.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Mulusew Birhanu Ayalew"},{id:"80280",title:"Adoption of Online Learning during the Covid19 Pandemic Lockdown by Universities in Garowe",slug:"adoption-of-online-learning-during-the-covid19-pandemic-lockdown-by-universities-in-garowe",totalDownloads:87,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99941",abstract:"In response to the Covid-19 outbreak the world closed and therefore countries like Somalia have not been exceptional. The government of Somalia and all higher education institutions adopted crisis intervention measures on implementation of blended learning approaches like online teaching and learning. In this chapter we explore the process and challenges of adopting online learning in response to the world wide lockdown due to the pandemic. Given that this was an abrupt requirement, the survey was interested in finding out whether universities adopted and adapted easily. Researchers compared findings from previous studies and theoretical inclinations on online learning. Results indicate that the adoption of online learning among universities in Garowe was as a matter of crisis management whereby administration, lecturers and students were all not ready and had no prior grounding in this pedagogical learning platform. Just like previous studies online learning implementers have continued to encounter several challenges like intermittent internet network, cost of gadgets and facilities, inadequate skills of both the instructors and students, aspects of communication and satisfaction from stakeholders. With the research survey in Garowe, results show that this is still pervading and therefore need for more rigorous contextualised research on this subject.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Tumwebaze Alicon Auf and Omer Abdi Hamdi"},{id:"78597",title:"Public-Private Participation in Funding University Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Nigerian Case-Study for Sustainable Development",slug:"public-private-participation-in-funding-university-education-in-sub-saharan-africa-a-nigerian-case-s",totalDownloads:134,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99940",abstract:"The developing countries in Africa still cannot withstand the pressure of the highly competitive global education market. Together with the large numbers of people who make a living in various innovative companies, these countries have solved key contemporary issues affecting global education. For this reason, it is necessary to actively respond to current technological innovation and educational challenges and to eliminate new technology graduates who can effectively interact with students through the responsive expansion of education and training. Expansion of education can produce effective expansion that promotes educational development, but due to budget constraints, most African governments cannot successfully and sustainably implement such educational programs. This is difficult. However, public-private partnership efforts provide a way out of this financial dilemma. The Sub-Saharan Africa initiative has achieved important educational objectives, such as: ensuring relevance for quality; secure funding for sustainability and establish resource mobilization partnerships and connections; and promote international cooperation. This discussion is relevant to the basic conditions for a successful public-private partnership with educational institutions and extended education and sheds light on the impact, lessons, and challenges. The public is increasingly concerned about the importance of higher education in the 21st century. This chapter explores some of the key functions of an innovative education system that supports the development of education in Nigeria and enhances people’s ability to use information. Nigeria’s education system re-emphasizes the importance of public and private universities, but the country does not have a sustainable education system and well-equipped educational institutions to support people’s ability to use information, learning, education, and research activities.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Lawrence Jones-Esan"},{id:"79197",title:"University Teachers’ Conceptions of What University Is: Implications for the Future of Higher Education",slug:"university-teachers-conceptions-of-what-university-is-implications-for-the-future-of-higher-educatio",totalDownloads:107,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100813",abstract:"This chapter presents the perception of university teachers about the university, the most recent changes and how they have influenced their activity. The phenomenographic study was conducted with 10 university teachers, nine females and one male with more than 15 years of professional activity. The perception of the university emerges, in the teachers’ voice, focused on the description of its mission, namely as a context for the production and diffusion of knowledge to society, as a space for creative and critical thinking about the world, as an interdisciplinary space and as a system focused on teaching and research. It also includes characteristics related to its structure and functioning, such as the level of hierarchization, bureaucratization, competitiveness, dehumanization and bibliometrics overvaluation. Regarding the perceived changes, they are related to the structural reforms resulting from the Bologna Process, diverse student populations, research and internationalization, new technologies, institutional cooperation, bureaucratization and relationship with the community. Teachers also revealed some dissatisfaction in the way they are experiencing university life due to the overwork resulting from the multiple tasks required in the four activity strands (teaching, research, management and extension) with an impact on quality and innovation, but in line with what the institution demands.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Elisa Chaleta"},{id:"78595",title:"Globalization and Education: Trends towards Sustainability",slug:"globalization-and-education-trends-towards-sustainability",totalDownloads:57,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99974",abstract:"Higher Education Institutions (IES) have a very relevant role in the path towards sustainability. The problem of the implementation of curricular sustainability is the disparity of solutions that can be adopted depending on the political and economic situation of each country. The study of a practical case in the south of Honduras allows the student to approach key decisions in a real scenario to bring improvements to a very disadvantaged population, lacking basic services, such as water and electricity, under the premise of sustainability, facing aspects as relevant such as sustainable mobility, water resources management, energy and construction models, in a context where globalization and technological innovation play a very important role. It is essential to know in depth the real context where structural changes will be applied to understand that there is no single reality, that actions are built adapting to specific situations and that the effectiveness of the measures that can be adopted to establish models that prioritize that part of sustainability that best weighs the balance between the environment, society and the economy for each case.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Maria Olga Bernaldo and Gonzalo Fernandez-Sanchez"},{id:"79255",title:"Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Africa Embracing the “New Normal” for Knowledge Production and Innovation: Barriers, Realities, and Possibilities",slug:"higher-education-institutions-heis-in-africa-embracing-the-new-normal-for-knowledge-production-and-i",totalDownloads:128,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101063",abstract:"If Africa is to remain relevant and competitive in today’s knowledge-based economy, it has to rely on higher education institutions (HEIs) as centers of excellence for knowledge production. HEIs nurture and sustain the production of highly-skilled individuals to support Africa’s growing economies. Among all possible ways, this could be achievable through strategic curricula innovation driven by emerging mobile technologies. Consequently, Africa’s HEIs need to embrace the ‘New Normal’ by optimizing online teaching and learning in their pursuit to expand information and communications technology (ICT) literacy as a means to increase students’ opportunities in higher education (HE). However, Africa’s ability to embrace the ‘New Normal’ has been marred by inadequate ICT infrastructures, low connectivity, unreliable power supply, and national budget constraints that may undermine Africa’s HEIs’ potential to augment knowledge production and innovation.",book:{id:"10911",title:"Higher Education - New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg"},signatures:"Christopher B. Mugimu"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 11th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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