Materials available for orbital reconstruction.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d9159ce31733bf78cc2a79b18c225994",bookSignature:"Dr. Gabriel Cismaru",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11867.jpg",keywords:"Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy, Dilated Cardiomyopathy, Restrictive Cardiomyopathy, Transesophageal Echocardiography, Intracardiac Echocardiography, 3-Dimensional Echocardiography, Adult Congenital Heart Disease, Tetralogy of Fallot, Transposition of the Great Vessels, Coronary Artery Disease, Risk Stratification, Revascularization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 21st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an Assistant Professor at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, certified in Cardiology. After completing his certification in cardiology, Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu. He has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed articles and book chapters in the field of cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological study, and catheter ablation.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Raluca Tomoaia is an MD, Ph.D. in novel techniques in Echocardiography at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Cluj-Napoca, Romania., assistant professor, and a researcher in echocardiography and cardiovascular imaging.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191888/images/system/191888.png",biography:"Dr. Cismaru Gabriel is an assistant professor at the Cluj-Napoca University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania, where he has been qualified in cardiology since 2011. He obtained his Ph.D. in medicine with a research thesis on electrophysiology and pro-arrhythmic drugs in 2016. Dr. Cismaru began his electrophysiology fellowship at the Institut Lorrain du Coeur et des Vaisseaux Louis Mathieu, France, after finishing his cardiology certification with stages in Clermont-Ferrand and Dinan, France. He began working at the Rehabilitation Hospital\\'s Electrophysiology Laboratory in Cluj-Napoca in 2011. He is an experienced operator who can implant pacemakers, CRTs, and ICDs, as well as perform catheter ablation of supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias such as ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation. He has been qualified in pediatric cardiology since 2022, and he regularly performs device implantation and catheter ablation in children. Dr. Cismaru has authored or co-authored peer-reviewed publications and book chapters on cardiac pacing, defibrillation, electrophysiological studies, and catheter ablation.",institutionString:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5970",title:"Bedside Procedures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba56d3036ac823a7155f40e4a02c030d",slug:"bedside-procedures",bookSignature:"Gabriel Cismaru",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5970.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9064",title:"Epidemiology and Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cd6bf2b3181eb82446347fbe478a2bc",slug:"epidemiology-and-treatment-of-atrial-fibrillation",bookSignature:"Gabriel Cismaru and Keith Andrew Chan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9064.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191888",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Cismaru",slug:"gabriel-cismaru",fullName:"Gabriel Cismaru"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"60520",title:"Maxillofacial Fractures: From Diagnosis to Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76166",slug:"maxillofacial-fractures-from-diagnosis-to-treatment",body:'\nMid-face fractures are common in different populations [1, 2]. Facial fractures are detected in almost 5–10% of trauma patients [3]. Motor vehicle accidents seem to be the first cause of mid-face fractures all around the word [4]. The other causes of facial fractures including mid-face trauma indicated in the literature are assaults, falls, sport injuries, and anima attacks [5, 6].
\nThe importance of mid-face is clear in function and esthetics. The mid-face skeleton is important in providing a functional unit for respiratory, olfactory, vision, and digestive systems. The mid-face consists of vertical, horizontal, and sagittal pillars. Understanding the principles of mid-facial repair is the key to optimize the outcome.
\nDiagnosing mid-face fractures is sometimes very difficult in emergency cases. Diagnosis of the types of mid-face fractures is the first and basic step in management of mid-face trauma. The treatment of mid-face fractures is complex due to the physiology and anatomy of mid-facial subunits. Quality of life of the patients is influenced following unsuccessful management of mid-face fractures which lead to permanent functional problems. Esthetic disfiguring trauma changes the whole mid-facial compartments.
\nThis chapter aims to present a comprehensive review of mid-face fractures types’ diagnosis and management.
\nAdvanced trauma life support (ATLS) is the first step that should be applied in emergency cases. Airway obstruction should be evaluated as soon as possible since the mid-face is the beginning of the respiratory pathway. Hemorrhage and secretions may obstruct the oropharynx and nasopharynx. Removal of fractured teeth, clots, and loose dental crowns or dentures is important to open the oral airway. Packing should be used to control acute bleeding. Intubation to secure the airway in instable mid-face fractures is the next step that should be considered in emergency patients [7, 8]. It is important to keep the airway open in mid-face fractures because there is always the potential of airway obstruction due to displacement of bones or severe bleeding in such cases.
\nCervical spine injuries are common in facial fractures. The incidence rate of cervical spine trauma in pediatric facial fracture cases is almost 3.5% [9] whilst this number is much higher in adult trauma patients [10]. According to the possibility of spinal injuries in facial trauma patients stabilizing the cervical spine by a rigid collar is necessary until the spinal injury is ruled out.
\nAfter providing a secure airway, ATLS protocol can continued. When the patient is stable, facial examination to detect the mid-face fractures is executed as follow.
\nLe Fort fractures are classified as three types. Le Fort I injury is defined as separation of maxilla from the mid-face (Figure 1A). Nasal septum, lateral nasal walls, lateral maxillary sinus wall, and pterygoid plates are involved in these kinds of fractures (Figure 2). Le Fort II fracture is also called the pyramidal fracture pattern which is identified by the separation of nasomaxillary complex (Figure 1B). Nasal and lacrimal bones, nasofrontal suture, infraorbital rims, and pterygoid plates are involved in this fracture pattern. Le Fort III also known as craniofacial dissociation is detected by the separation of the whole mid-face from the skull (Figure 1C). This fracture occurs in nasofrontal and zygomaticomaxillary sutures, zygomatic arch, and pterygoid plates.
\nLe Fort I (A), II (B), III (C) fracture patterns on a three-dimensional model.
A, a three-dimensional view of Le Fort I fracture and B, pterygoid plate involvement in Le Fort I fracture (arrow head).
As an initial examination mobility of maxilla is evaluated. The maxillary arch is grasped by thumb and pointing fingers of one hand and the mobility is checked by the other hand on pyriform aperture, nasofrontal suture, and zygomaticofrontal suture. In Le Fort fractures, lateral and medial pterygoid muscles pull the fracture segment posteriorly and inferiorly lead to an anterior open bite deformity. So malocclusion is an important sign in diagnosing the Le Fort fractures. Epistaxis is a common sign in all three patterns of Le Fort fractures. Hypoesthesia of the infraorbital nerve is seen in types I and II of Le Fort fractures. Bilateral periorbital ecchymosis which is called raccoon eyes is a classic sign of Le Fort II and III fractures (Figure 3). The clinician should be aware of the possibility of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak in Le Fort II and III fractures.
\nA classic raccoon eye is a sign of Le Fort II fracture.
The decision to choose whether the open or closed technique in Le Fort fractures is dependent on the mobility of the maxilla and severity of maxillary displacement results in malocclusion. Minor maxillary displacement and malocclusion and low mobility of fractured segment are the indications of closed treatment. Closed technique could be performed by either maxillomandibular fixation (MMF) or skeletal suspension (Figure 4). The method of choice in the treatment of mobile maxilla with severe malocclusion is open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF). In the Le Fort I pattern lateral nasal walls and zygomatic buttresses are used to provide stability by four plates. Displaced Le Fort II fracture is treated by ORIF of bilateral infraorbital rims and zygomatic buttresses simultaneously using a miniplate to fix the nasofrontal suture. Mobile mid-face and esthetic problems following Le Fort III fracture (dish-face deformity) are the main indications of ORIF treatment. The number of fixations is dependent on the extent of comminution and dislocation. Bilateral zygomatic arches and zygomaticofrontal sutures and nasofrontal sutures should be fixed in severely displaced cases.
\nSuspension and closed treatment of comminuted Le Fort fractures.
Hendrickson et al. [11] classified the palatal fracture into six patterns anatomically (Figure 5). Computed tomographies (CTs) in coronal and axial views are helpful in detecting the palatal fractures. Alveolar fracture is classified as type I palatal fracture in which it is categorized into two subcategories of anterior and posterolateral fractures. Anterior type I palatal fracture involves the incisor teeth and involving the posterior teeth it is defined as type 1b palatal fracture. Type II palatal fracture is defined as sagittal fracture which is less common in adults. Type III and IV fractures are the most common palatal fractures in adults [11]. Type III is also called para-sagittal fracture which occurs in the thin part of the palate lateral to the attachment of vomer bone to the maxilla. The anterior limit of the fracture is between canine teeth which extend to the pyriform aperture. Type III fracture pattern extends posteriorly to the tuberosity or track approximate to the midline. Type IV fracture also known as para-alveolar fracture is a variant of the type III pattern. The fracture line in this pattern tracks medial to the alveolar bone of maxilla. The type V pattern is a complex fracture with comminution fragments. The transverse palatal fracture is classified as the type VI pattern which is the least common palatal fracture type.
\nClassification of palatal fractures.
Mobility of alveolar segments should be checked for the entire maxillary arch. Displacement of fractured segments results in malocclusion which is an important sign to the clinician in diagnosing the palatal fracture. Ecchymosis of the palate may also indicate the line of fracture.
\nWhen the occlusion is good enough and the fractured segment is either minimally displaced or not displaced at all the surgeon may decide to follow the patient and choose no intervention. MMF is the treatment of choice in minimally displaced palatal fractures unless there is a contraindication for MMF. Gunning and palatal splints are other amenable methods for closed treatment of palatal fracture (Figure 6). ORIF of palatal fracture is indicated in severely mobile and displaced patterns to prevent splaying of the fragments.
\n(A) Gunning for closed treatment of simultaneous mandibular and palatal fractures in an edentulous patient and (B) Maxillomandibular fixation for closed treatment of the patient.
According to the involved orbital walls there are five fracture patterns. The most common fracture of the orbit is the orbital floor fracture mostly detected as a blow-out fracture [6] (Figure 7). Orbital roof fracture is the most common fracture in pediatric population [12]. Other less common orbital fractures involve medial or lateral wall. Combined orbital fracture especially involving all four orbital walls are the least common orbital fracture [6] patterns whilst the leading functional and esthetic problems of this pattern are much more serious than former fracture types.
\nCoronal CT view indicating orbital floor (blow out) fracture.
Entrapment of extraocular muscles should be assessed when there is suspected orbital wall fracture (Figure 8). Forced duction test is helpful in distancing between muscle entrapment and neurologic disturbance although this test is sometimes falsely negative due to post-injury edema. Diplopia is a common sign of orbital fracture, especially medial fracture pattern due to rectus muscle entrapment [13]. Infraorbital nerve hypoesthesia is a symptom of orbital fracture especially when the infraorbital rim is involved [14]. Subconjunctival hemorrhage and periorbital ecchymosis are useful signs of an underlying orbital fracture [15] (Figure 9). Enophthalmus is an important sign of orbital fracture and also a significant indication of orbital reconstruction [16]. Enophthalmus usually occurs as a result of increased orbital volume or loss of orbital content especially orbital fat.
\nThe patient is not able to look upward concurrently by both eyes due to left orbital floor fracture lead to inferior rectus muscle entrapment.
Periorbital ecchymosis and subconjuctival hemorrhage following orbital fracture.
Orbital fracture cases are non- or minimally displaced should just observe. No intervention is needed when Orbital fractures do not result in any ocular problems including diplopia or enophthalmus. Orbital fracture treatment is a controversial issue among maxillofacial and oculoplastic surgeons. Fracture size, timing of the reconstruction, and biomaterials for reconstructions are all important issues which should be considered in orbital fracture repair. The debate still is present in deciding on whether to treat an orbital fracture or not. The investigations are insufficient with high heterogeneity in this field. As a general rule it is almost acceptable that defects more than 50% of the orbital wall or 2 cm length should be treated [17]. Enophthalmus and positive-forced duction tests are two indications for management of orbital wall fractures.
\nTiming of orbital reconstruction is categorized into three groups of immediate categories: within 24 h, early (between first and day 14), and delayed (after 2 weeks) [18]. When the reason of diplopia is muscle entrapment immediate reconstruction of the orbit is advocated by the investigators. Blow-out fracture in young patients is the other indication for immediate repair. Early orbital reconstruction is advocated by some surgeons in cases of early enophthalmus and symptomatic diplopia with positive forced duction test. Early reconstruction should also be considered in cases with large orbital wall defects (more than 50% defects). Symptomatic diplopia with negative force duction test and late-onset enophthalmus are indications for delayed orbital reconstructions [18].
\nDecision-making on the ideal material for orbital reconstruction is based on the surgeon’s experience, cost, defect size, and medical history (Figure 10) [19]. The available material and their pros and cons are categorized in Table 1.
\nTitanium meshwork plate is used to reconstruct the orbital floor defect.
Materials | \nExamples | \nAdvantages | \nDisadvantages | \nIndications | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Autogenous bone grafts | \nIliac bone graft, caldaria grafts | \nBiocompatibility, cost effective, variability in thickness, radio opacity | \nDonor site morbidity, difficult to shape, high resorption rate | \nLarge defects, immature orbits, secondary defect reconstruction | \n
Resorbable materials | \npoly-l-lactic acid (PLLA), | \nReplacement with bone formation | \nHigh cost, radiolucency, low stability | \nSmall defects | \n
Non-resorbable materials | \nTitanium mesh, Porous polyethylene sheets | \nHigh stability, easy fixation, availability, no donor site defect | \nHigh cost, increased infection rate | \nMedium size defects with medium complexity | \n
Materials available for orbital reconstruction.
According to Markowitz’s classification naso-orbital-ethmoid (NOE) fracture is defined as three patterns [20] (Figure 11). Type I NOE fracture is defined as single-segment central fragment. This pattern could be in a uni- or bilateral form. The medial tendon is attached to the fractures segment in this pattern. Type II NOE fracture consists of comminuted central fragments external to the medial canthal tendon insertion. In type III fracture the fracture line extends into the medial canthal insertion segment. The medial canthal tendon either remains attached to the central segment or does not.
\nNaso-orbital-ethmoid fracture types. A, type I Naso-orbital-ethmoid fracture. B, type II naso-orbital-ethmoid fracture. C, type III naso-orbital-ethmoid fracture.
Epistaxis is a common sign of NOE fracture. Involving the NOE complex in trauma patients results in splayed nasal complex and widened the nasal bridge. In the case of medial canthal tendon detachment or disruption of traumatic telecanthus and medial canthus rounding occurs (Figure 12). The intercanthal distance is usually half of the interpupillary distance (average of 28–35 mm in white adults). So when this measure is more than 40 mm or half of the interpupillary distance, the traumatic telecanthus is defined [21]. Bimanual test is a useful method in detecting the instability of NOE fracture [22].
\nSigns in a patient with naso-orbital-ethmoid fracture. Rounding of the left medial canthus (arrow) and traumatic telecanthus is obvious in this patient.
Stabilization of the fractures segment is the only intervention advocated in NOE type I fracture (Figure 13A). Stabilizing the central fragment in which the medial canthal tendon is inserted is the treatment of choice in type II fracture (Figure 13B). Transnasal wiring simultaneously with orbital medial wall reconstruction is considered in type III pattern.
\nA, fixation of the type I naso-orbital-ethmoid fracture. B, reconstruction of left type II naso-orbital-ethmoid fracture.
Intraoral approach and vestibular incision is the most common technique used in treatment of Le Fort fractures (Figure 14). Circum-vestibular incision mesial to the second premolar is used to reach the nasal lateral walls and zygomatic buttresses. As mentioned earlier these buttresses are stable enough to maintain the maxilla at the right position following rigid fixation. Cinch suture and V-Y plasty is necessary when the incision involves the nasalis muscles.
\nIntraoral approach to expose the Le Fort I fracture line.
After decision-making of rigid fixation of the Le Fort III fracture, extraoral approaches to the zygomaticofrontal and nasofrontal sutures are applied (Figure 15). Bicoronal flap is the common approach to achieve all three sutures by one sing incision. Also this is a good approach in repairing the NOE fracture. The incision is made several centimeters behind the hair line between the upper origins of the temporal muscles from one superior temporal line to the other. Dissection of the flap is performed in the subgaleal plane up to 2 cm above the superior orbital rims. The periosteum is incised at this level and subperiosteal dissection is continued to expose the zygomaticofrontal and nasofrontal sutures. Using a suction drain is optional during closure.
\nCoronal approach for management of Le Fort III fracture (courtesy of Dr. Fereydoun Pourdanesh).
When there is no displacement of nasofrontal suture, fixation of zygomaticofrontal sutures is applicable by lateral brow approach. The incision is made almost 2 cm parallel to the hair follicles of the lateral eyebrow (Figure 16). The advantages of this technique are least noticeable scar and no adjacent anatomical structure.
\nLateral brow approach.
Glabellar and ethmoidal (known as Lynch approach) approaches are used in solitary NOE fracture. The latter technique is not recommended by AOCMF due to visible scar band (web) [23]. Glabellar incision is made in old patients in the glabellar furrows through the skin, subcutaneous layer, and the periosteum.
\nFour kinds of periorbital approaches are represented in the literature for reconstruction of orbital fractures and Le Fort II fracture. The incisions on the lower lid are classified into three types based on the distance from the gray line (Figure 17). The periorbital approach is called subciliary incision when this distance is about 2–3 mm. When this distance is almost 3–4 mm to the gray line the incision is known as mid-lower lid or subtarsal approach. The dissection of these two techniques is in three fashions. The best dissection technique is to start a few millimeters subcutaneously followed by orbicularis oculi muscle dissection. Skin only or pre-orbicularis oculi muscle incision is not advocated by authors due to high possibility of ectropion rate. The third incision is called skin-muscle flap which involves both skin and orbicularis oculi muscle.
\nPeriorbital incisions. Subciliary (A), subtarsal (B), and infraorbital (C) approaches are shown in this picture.
Another popular periorbital approach because of its invisible scar is the transconjunctival technique (Figure 18). The incision is made parallel to the gray line through the conjunctive. This approach is divided into preseptal and retroseptal techniques based on the dissection plane. Lateral canthotomy and inferior cantholysis are used in some cases when the surgeon needs more access to the orbit.
\nTransconjunctival approach is used to expose the orbital floor fracture.
The mid-face is esthetically and functionally very important which makes repairing the deformities of this facial part very difficult. Diagnosing the exact injuries on the facial bones is the key step of deciding the treatment plan. The surgeon should have enough knowledge of facial anatomy and physiology to be able to reconstruct the fractured segments. Deformity following facial trauma is hard to repair on the second surgery. So the importance of managing almost all problems of mid-face fractures in the first surgery is pretty clear to all traumatologists.
\nThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. The photos not referenced in the text belong to the author.
Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy is the most important test for the diagnosis of esophageal disease. Accurate diagnosis is crucial for appropriate treatment of esophageal diseases, including surgical intervention. With advancements in the surgical treatment of esophageal diseases, the importance of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy has been increasing. In this chapter, the endoscopic techniques used in the examination of the esophagus are discussed.
During endoscope insertion, the cough or gag reflex is induced and the movement of the esophageal lumen increases, thereby making esophageal examination difficult. Therefore, proper endoscope insertion is essential for accurate examination of the esophagus.
The first obstacle encountered during endoscope insertion is the uvula. Access to the pyriform sinus can be gained without difficulty if the endoscope is carefully inserted to the right or left of the uvula, taking care not to make contact with the centrally placed uvula. The second and most difficult part of endoscope insertion is the insertion of the endoscope into the pyriform sinus. This part is sometimes problematic for beginners, as well as for board-certified endoscopists. Upon reaching the left pyriform sinus, a slight clockwise rotation of the scope with gentle pressure is recommended for insertion in the left pyriform sinus [1]. This technique is successful in most cases; however, in some patients with anatomical variations, endoscopists experience severe resistance that may lead to bleeding or even perforation. Two types of pyriform sinus are shown in Figure 1. In Figure 1a, there is no central ridge; thus, the clockwise rotation technique can be used. In contrast, in Figure 1b, a central ridge is present in the left pyriform sinus, and the true lumen is more medial than normal, but its path runs upward (i.e., medially). After traversing the pyriform sinus, the path goes downward (i.e., laterally). Thus, performing the clockwise rotation technique without checking for the central ridge can result in severe pyriform sinus injury. Further, air insufflation is needed to determine the presence of a central ridge.
Two types of pyriform sinus. (a) Left pyriform sinus without central ridge. (b) Left pyriform sinus with central ridge.
Chromoendoscopy entails the application of a chemical substance to the mucosal surface of the gastrointestinal tract to facilitate visualization and detection of dysplastic and malignant lesions [2]. Since the recent introduction and adoption of virtual chromoendoscopy methods such as narrow-band imaging (NBI), the importance of dye-based chromoendoscopy in day-to-day clinical practice has been decreasing [3]. Nevertheless, chromoendoscopy remains important in many clinical conditions. In this chapter, some chromoendoscopy methods still used in esophageal endoscopy will be discussed.
Acetic acid is a weak acid that breaks up the disulfide bridges of glycoproteins of the mucus layer, resulting in protein denaturation and surface pattern enhancement [2]. BE is a known risk factor of high-grade dysplasia (HGD) and esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC). Current nondysplastic BE surveillance guidelines recommend that random four-quadrant biopsy specimens be taken every 1–2 cm to check for dysplasia [4]. Due to the time-consuming and labor-intensive nature of the procedure, the American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy Technology Committee released the Preservation and Incorporation of Valuable endoscopic Innovations (PIVI) criteria for nondysplastic BE surveillance. These criteria help determine which advanced imaging technique with targeted biopsy can replace the current surveillance guidelines for the detection of HGD and EAC. The performance thresholds in the PIVI criteria are per-patient sensitivity ≥90%, negative predictive value ≥98%, and specificity ≥80% [1]. Based on these criteria, only acetic acid chromoendoscopy, NBI, and confocal laser endomicroscopy can replace the current guidelines [4]. However, the use of acetic acid chromoendoscopy is on the decline due to the long procedural time, uneven distribution of dye over the mucosa, and high interobserver variability due to lack of classification [5].
Lugol solution is an iodine-based solution used in the detection of dysplasia and cancer in squamous epithelia. Since iodine binds to glycogen, which is abundant in nonkeratinized squamous epithelium, and neoplastic tissues have low glycogen levels, they are not stained by Lugol solution [2]. Lugol staining has long been regarded as the gold standard for the detection and delineation of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and squamous dysplasia [6]. However, Lugol solution can cause thyrotoxicosis in patients with thyroid disease, iodine hypersensitivity, and retrosternal discomfort [2]. Regarding the avoidance of these side effects, several studies have compared Lugol’s iodine chromoendoscopy and NBI. A recent meta-analysis revealed no significant difference in diagnostic sensitivity between the two methods (88% versus 92%); it also revealed that NBI has a significantly higher specificity than Lugol’s iodine chromoendoscopy (88% versus 82%) [7]. Furthermore, several observational studies reported no significant difference in complete resection rate between the two methods [8, 9].
Electronic chromoendoscopy involves endoscopic imaging technologies that provide detailed contrast enhancement of the mucosal surface and blood vessels in the form of electronic signals that can be analyzed using various image-processing techniques [10, 11]. There are various types of electronic chromoendoscopy, and they include NBI, i-SCAN, and flexible spectral imaging color enhancement (FICE).
NBI is an endoscopic optical image enhancement technology based on the penetration properties of light. An NBI filter in front of a xenon arc lamp produces two narrow bands of light with wavelengths of 415 nm and 540 nm [10]. Capillaries in the superficial mucosa are highlighted by the 415-nm-wavelength light band and appear brown. The longer 540-nm-wavelength light band makes deeper-lying veins appear blue-green [11]. Due to an abundance of blood vessels in the submucosal layer, a normal esophagus appears pale green on NBI [12]. Thus, lesions can be observed in great detail as a result of the color contrast effect at the mucosa of the gastroesophageal junction (GEJ) and in cases of early esophageal SCC (ESCC) [11].
i-SCAN (Pentax, Tokyo, Japan) is another postprocessing digital contrast technology that consists of three enhancement features: surface enhancement, which sharpens the image; contrast enhancement, where darker (depressed) areas look bluer; and tone enhancement, a form of digital narrowed-spectrum imaging [13]. It was reported in several studies that i-SCAN is superior to white-light endoscopy (WLE) in the detection of reflux esophagitis and dysplasia in BE [14, 15]. However, i-SCAN is a relatively recent technology compared with NBI, and further research is still needed.
The FICE system takes an ordinary endoscopic image of different parts of the gastrointestinal mucosa from the video processor and arithmetically processes and estimates it to produce an image of a given dedicated wavelength between 400 and 700 nm. Single-wavelength images are randomly selected and assigned the colors red, green, and blue to build and display virtually enhanced color images [16]. A previous study compared WLE and the FICE system for the diagnosis of BE, but additional research is needed [17].
In this section, understanding of the concepts of AI, machine learning (ML), deep learning (DL), and convolutional neural network (CNN) is essential. AI is the broadest term used in the description of machines that mimic human intelligence [18]. ML is a subfield of AI, and DL is a subfield of ML. ML is divided into supervised learning and unsupervised learning. In supervised learning, labeled datasets are used to train algorithms to classify data or predict outcomes accurately. In contrast, in unsupervised learning, unlabeled datasets are used to train algorithms [19]. In DL, unsupervised learning and neural networks are used. CNN is a type of artificial neural network used in image recognition and processing that is specifically designed to process pixel data [20]. AI is extensively used or studied with regard to the esophagus and will be considered at the end of the discussion of each disease.
Esophagitis refers to inflammation or injury to the esophageal mucosa [21]. The types of esophagitis based on etiology include reflux esophagitis, infectious esophagitis, exfoliative esophagitis, eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE), and pill-induced esophagitis.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a condition in which stomach contents reflux into the esophagus or beyond (e.g., into the oral cavity, larynx, or lungs) causing troublesome symptoms and complications [22]. The extent of mucosal breaks due to erosion or ulceration is the sole determinant of severity grade [23]. Grade A refers to one or more mucosal breaks no longer than 5 mm that do not extend beyond two mucosal folds. Grade B refers to one or more mucosal breaks more than 5 mm long that do not extend beyond two mucosal folds. Grade C refers to one or more mucosal breaks that extend beyond two or more mucosal folds but involve less than 75% of the esophageal circumference. Grade D refers to one or more mucosal breaks that involve at least 75% of the esophageal circumference. Currently, due to lack of interobserver agreement, minimal changes are not included in the GERD Los Angeles (LA) classification [23]. Recently, a DL model that uses CNNs for automatic classification and interpretation of routine GERD LA grades was proposed [24]. However, given that the available data are limited, more studies are needed.
Esophageal candidiasis is the most common type of infectious esophagitis [25]. Immunocompromised patients are most at risk, and the most common symptoms are odynophagia, dysphagia, and retrosternal pain. Endoscopic examination is the best approach to diagnosing esophageal candidiasis, and multiple white plaques adherent to the mucosa are considered definitively diagnostic of the disease (Figure 2). The most common treatment is systemic and oral administration of fluconazole, an antifungal agent [25].
Esophageal candidiasis.
The two most common causes of viral esophagitis are herpes simplex virus (HSV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV). HSV esophagitis ulcers are circumscribed ulcers with raised edges that are described as volcano-like ulcers [26]. CMV esophagitis ulcers are well-demarcated vertical or horizontal linear shallow ulcers that occur in the middle and distal portions of the esophagus [27]. It is sometimes difficult to differentiate between HSV esophagitis and CMV esophagitis because their endoscopic characteristics often overlap [28]. Recently, an ML model for differentiating CMV esophagitis from HSV esophagitis was developed. It was developed based on the analysis of 87 patients with HSV esophagitis and 63 patients with CMV esophagitis using 666 endoscopic images of HSV esophagitis and 416 endoscopic images of CMV esophagitis. The sensitivity and specificity of the model were 100% [28].
Sloughing esophagitis is characterized by superficial necrotic squamous epithelium and endoscopic plaques or membranes (Figure 3) [29]. The symptoms include dysphagia, odynophagia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, heartburn, chest pain, hematemesis, and obstructive symptoms secondary to the accumulation of casts in the esophageal lumen [30]. The pathogenesis is thought to involve exposure to drugs that cause esophageal damage or autoimmune conditions accompanied by esophageal damage. Such drugs include dabigatran, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, bisphosphonates, and iron. The autoimmune conditions include celiac disease, pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, and lupus [30]. Prognosis is usually favorable, and long-term complications are rare. Treatment includes discontinuation of the offending agent and administration of proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs). Steroids may be helpful when a patient has an autoimmune condition [30].
Sloughing esophagitis.
EoE is a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory condition of the esophagus. Its symptoms are mainly related to esophageal dysfunction and include vomiting, dysphagia, and feeding difficulties. Diagnosis of EoE requires endoscopy with biopsy. The endoscopic findings include furrows (i.e., vertical lines in the mucosa), concentric rings, white plaques, edema, and stricture (Figure 4). The American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) recommends a minimum of six biopsies. A finding of 15 or more eosinophils per high-power field in the maximally affected area is required for diagnosis [31]. The treatment options are PPIs, topical corticosteroids, and allergy testing–directed elimination diet. A previous study presented a graphical representation of a suggested management algorithm [32].
Eosinophilic esophagitis.
Pill-induced esophagitis may present as erosions, kissing ulcers, and multiple small areas of ulceration with bleeding mainly in the middle third of the esophagus [33]. Treatment of pill-induced esophagitis consists of discontinuation of the offending drug and use of PPIs or sucralfate to hasten esophageal mucosal healing [34].
BE is a condition characterized by metaplasia of normal esophageal squamous epithelium to specialized columnar epithelium with goblet cells [35]. The ACG guidelines recommend considering BE when the length of the columnar mucosa is at least 1 cm. When BE is suspected, at least eight random biopsy samples should be taken if the BE segment length is <2 cm, and in patients with suspected long-segment BE, four biopsy samples should be taken for every 2 cm of BE segment [36]. Based on the length of salmon-colored mucosa proximal to the GEJ, BE is classified into two groups: short-segment BE and long-segment BE (Figure 5). Long-segment BE is defined as BE with segment length ≥ 3 cm, and short-segment BE is defined as BE with segment length < 3 cm [36]. Screening endoscopy is recommended for patients with chronic GERD symptoms and three or more additional risk factors of BE (e.g., male gender, age > 50 years, white race, tobacco smoking, obesity, and history of BE or EAC in a first-degree relative) [35]. If screening endoscopy does not reveal dysplasia, surveillance endoscopy should be repeated in 3–5 years. Further, a histological grade of “indefinite for dysplasia” should be confirmed by a second pathologist with gastrointestinal expertise, PPI therapy should be initiated, and endoscopic biopsy should be repeated within 6 months [35]. When the histological grade is low-grade dysplasia (LGD), endoscopic mucosal resection or endoscopic submucosal dissection of all visible lesions should be performed, followed by ablation of the remaining BE segment (i.e., endoscopic eradication therapy [EET]) with the goal of complete eradication of intestinal metaplasia (CEIM). Alternatively, surveillance can be performed every 6 months for the first year and annually thereafter [36]. When the histological grade is HGD or intramucosal carcinoma (T1a), EET with the goal of CEIM should be performed. It is recommended to enroll patients with LGD or HGD for surveillance and reflux control after CEIM is achieved [35]. Surveillance at 1 year after CEIM and every 2 years thereafter is recommended for patients with LGD. Surveillance at 3, 6, and 12 months after CEIM and annually thereafter is recommended for patients with HGD or intramucosal carcinoma [35]. Esophagectomy is typically recommended for patients with EAC and submucosal invasion (T1b). Alternatively, EET can be considered for patients with superficial submucosal invasion (sm1, to a depth < 500 μm) and low-risk features such as negative deep margin, well-moderate differentiation, and absence of lymphovascular invasion [35]. Regarding neoplasia detection, the sensitivity and specificity of AI are >90% and > 80%, respectively. Further, regarding neoplasia characterization, the sensitivity and specificity of AI are 90% and 88%, respectively [37].
Barrett’s esophagus. (a) WLE. (b) NBI.
ESCC is the most common type of esophageal cancer worldwide; it is especially common in Asia and Africa (Figure 6) [38]. The risk factors for ESCC include long-standing exposure to tobacco and alcohol, achalasia, head and neck squamous cell cancer, tylosis, history of lye ingestion, celiac sprue, and hot liquid ingestion [39]. In addition, the etiological role of human papilloma virus infection is under study [39]. Endoscopic screening should be considered in the presence of risk factors. Infiltration depth prediction is important since it is primarily associated with lymph node metastasis [40]. The Japan Esophageal Society uses a simplified classification of vessel irregularities known as intrapapillary capillary loops (IPCLs) to predict infiltration depth. Type A vessel refers to a normal or abnormal microvessel without severe irregularity, that is, a microvessel with normal epithelium or inflammation and low-grade intraepithelial neoplasia [41]. Abnormal microvessels with severe irregularity or highly dilated abnormal vessels are classified as type B1, B2, or B3. Type B1 vessels have loop-like formations and a predicted invasion depth of epithelium (EP) or lamina propria mucosae (LMP). Type B2 vessels do not have loop-like formations, and their predicted invasion depth is muscularis mucosae or submucosa (SM1). Type B3 vessels have highly dilated vessels and a predicted invasion depth of the submucosa (SM2) or deeper [41]. ESD is recommended for lesions with invasion depth of T1a-EP/T1a-LMP, noncircumferential lesions, and circumferential lesions with lengths ≤5 cm. Furthermore, ESD can be used to remove noncircumferential lesions with invasion depth of T1a-MM/T1b-SM1. Surgery or chemoradiation should be considered when the invasion depth is T1a-EP/T1a-LMP and lateral extension is circumferential with length > 5 cm. It should also be considered when the invasion depth is T1a-MM/T1b-SM1 and lateral extension is circumferential [39]. In a recent study by Everson et al., it was reported that the sensitivity and specificity of AI using CNN for the classification of abnormal IPCL patterns were 89.3% and 98%, respectively [42].
Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. (a) WLE, (b) tone enhancement mode with i-scan.
Esophageal diverticula are a rare condition that causes dysphagia, regurgitation, and chest pain [43]. They are classified into two: pulsion diverticula and traction diverticula. Pulsion diverticula are associated with increased intraluminal pressure, which causes herniation. Zenker’s diverticulum, which is a pulsion-type pharyngoesophageal pseudodiverticulum, is the most common type of esophageal diverticulum (Figure 7) [44]. Surgery can be considered for the management of Zenker’s diverticulum. However, the current first-line treatment involves cutting the entire septum and creating a common cavity between the esophagus and the diverticulum [45]. There are two methods of endoscopic septum division. The first is conventional flexible endoscopic septum division, which entails full-thickness incision of the mucosa, submucosa, and the muscular fibers to create a common cavity between the esophagus and the diverticulum. The second is Zenker’s diverticulum per-oral endoscopic myotomy, which entails minimal mucosal incision to advance the endoscope into the submucosal space of the septum. Complete septotomy is then performed, and the mucosal incision site is securely closed with several endoclips [45].
Zenker’s diverticulum.
Esophageal inlet patches (IPs) are well-circumscribed areas of mucosa that are salmon-pink in color, variable in size, and oval-round or even geographically shaped (Figure 8) [46]. Most IPs are located just below the upper esophageal sphincter or in the postcricoid region of the esophagus [46]. Since most IPs present with no symptoms and are located in the upper esophagus, where endoscopists tend to pass the endoscope quickly, it is difficult to identify and observe IPs in detail. However, since adenocarcinomas sometimes arise in IPs, careful observation is necessary [47]. It is recommended that WLE be used first when inserting the endoscope and NBI be used to observe the esophagus up to the pyriform sinus when retracting the endoscope.
Esophageal inlet patch. (a) WLE. (b) NBI.
Esophageal stricture is an abnormal narrowing of the esophageal lumen (Figure 9). It can be benign or malignant. The etiology of benign esophageal stricture includes corrosive substance ingestion, EoE, radiation injury, and drug-induced esophagitis. Treatment includes mechanical or balloon dilation, esophageal stents, or surgical management [48].
Esophageal stricture: (a) with a bean stuck in the stricture; (b) after bean removal.
Hiatal hernia is a condition in which the upper part of the stomach bulges through an aperture in the diaphragm (Figure 10). There are four anatomical classifications of hiatal hernia: types 1, 2, 3, and 4. Type 1 or sliding hernias are associated with symmetrical ascent of the stomach through the diaphragmatic crus. A patient with type 1 hernia who has reflux symptoms can first undergo PPI therapy with lifestyle modification. In contrast, a patient with symptomatic paraesophageal hernia (types 2, 3, and 4) is at high risk for obstruction, and surgery should be considered for such a patient [49].
Esophageal hiatal hernia: (a) sliding-type hiatal hernia; (b) paraesophageal hernia (mixed type).
Esophageal squamous papilloma is a wart-like exophytic mass located in the middle to distal esophagus (Figure 11). Most papillomas are benign, small, and can be easily removed during forceps biopsy. However, owing to the few reported cases of carcinomatous transformation of these lesions, definite removal is necessary if a papilloma bleeds, is unusually large, elicits foreign-body sensation, or shows atypical changes on histological examination [50].
Esophageal squamous papilloma.
Esophageal sentinel polyps (or sentinel folds) are inflammatory polyps at the GEJ associated with recurrent GERD (Figure 12) [51]. Although sentinel polyps are benign, biopsy is indicated if a lesion is discovered for the first time or if it changes in size or shape.
Sentinel polyp.
Hyperplastic polyps are uncommon lesions that most commonly occur at the GEJ (Figure 13) [52]. There are no reported cases of malignant transformation of esophageal hyperplastic polyps [52]. However, when the polyp size is larger than 10 mm, it is difficult to determine if the polyp originated from the GEJ or from the gastric cardia; in such cases, complete removal of the polyp should be considered [53].
Hyperplastic polyp at the GEJ.
Subepithelial lesions (SELs) of the gastrointestinal tract are tumors that originate from the muscularis mucosa, submucosa, or muscularis propria [54]. The most common (70–80%) benign esophageal SEL is leiomyoma [55]. However, carcinoid tumors, lymphomas, glomus tumors, and gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are malignant or have malignant potential and must be considered [56]. The 2022 European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) guidelines do not recommend WLE or advanced imaging techniques for the characterization of SEL subtypes. Furthermore, the guidelines recommend endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) as the best tool for the characterization of features of SEL (e.g., size, location, originating layer, echogenicity, shape), but EUS alone cannot distinguish between the types of SEL. Tissue diagnosis is required for SELs with features suggestive of GIST, size >20 mm, high-risk stigmata, or requirement of surgical resection or oncological treatment. The ESGE suggests esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) surveillance at 3–6 months if asymptomatic SELs are found on EGD. EGD is recommended at intervals of 2–3 years for lesions <10 mm and at intervals of 1–2 years for lesions 10–20 mm in size. For asymptomatic unresected SELs >20 mm in size, the ESGE recommends surveillance with EGD plus EUS at 6 months, and then at intervals of 6–12 months [54].
Esophageal varices are dilated submucosal veins of the distal esophagus that connect the portal and systemic circulations (Figure 14) [57]. General rules for describing endoscopic findings of esophageal varix were proposed by the Japan Society for Portal Hypertension [58]. The rules define six main categories: location (L), form (F), color (C), red color (RC) signs, bleeding signs, and mucosal findings. Regarding location, Ls, Lm, and Li stand for Locus superior, Locus medialis, and Locus inferior, respectively. Regarding form, F0 denotes no varicose appearance, F1 denotes straight small-caliber varices, F2 denotes moderately enlarged and beady varices, and F3 denotes markedly enlarged, nodular, or tumor-shaped varices. Regarding color, Cw denotes white varices, Cb denotes blue varices, CwTh denotes thrombosed white varices, and Cb-Th denotes thrombosed blue varices. Regarding RC signs, RWM denotes red wale markings, CRS denotes cherry red spots, HCS denotes hematocystic spots, and Te denotes telangiectasia. Nonselective beta-blockers (e.g., nadolol, propranolol, carvedilol) should be considered if small (≤5 mm) varices with RWM or medium/large (>5 mm) varices are found on screening endoscopy [59].
Esophageal varix.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Developing nations are a broad term that includes countries that are less industrialised and have lower per capita income levels than developed countries. This chapter will discuss clean water for drinking water purposes. Pollution concerns of water in developing countries will be categorised in terms of physical, chemical and biological pollutants such as turbidity, organic matter and bacteria. Natural and anthropogenic pollution concerns linking with seasonal factors will be outlined. The multi-barrier approach to drinking water treatment will be discussed. Abstraction points used will be researched. Water treatment systems, medium- to small-scale approaches, will be discussed. The processes involved in removing the contaminants including physical processes such as sedimentation, filtration such as slow-sand filtration, coagulation and flocculation, and disinfectant processes such as chlorination will be reviewed. Other important methods including solar disinfection, hybrid filtration methods and arsenic removal technologies using innovative solid phase materials will be included in this chapter. Rainwater harvesting technologies are reviewed. Safe storage options for treated water are outlined. Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"44219",doi:"10.5772/54973",title:"Disaster Management Discourse in Bangladesh: A Shift from Post-Event Response to the Preparedness and Mitigation Approach Through Institutional Partnerships",slug:"disaster-management-discourse-in-bangladesh-a-shift-from-post-event-response-to-the-preparedness-and",totalDownloads:4124,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"C. Emdad Haque and M. Salim Uddin",authors:[{id:"163390",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Emdad",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"c.-emdad-haque",fullName:"C. Emdad Haque"},{id:"168399",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed S",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"mohammed-s-uddin",fullName:"Mohammed S Uddin"}]},{id:"59705",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74943",title:"Augmented Reality Trends in Education between 2016 and 2017 Years",slug:"augmented-reality-trends-in-education-between-2016-and-2017-years",totalDownloads:2513,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to review literature regarding using augmented reality (AR) in education articles published in between 2016 and 2017 years. The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. 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Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Abílio",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8293,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8832,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"58894",title:"Research Ethics",slug:"research-ethics",totalDownloads:3371,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Research ethics is closely related to the ethical principles of social responsibility. This research covers a wide context of working with people, so the researchers raised a task not only to gain confidence in the respondents’ eyes, to receive reliable data, but also to ensure the transparency of the science. This chapter discusses the theoretical and practical topics of research, after evaluation of which ethical principles of organization and conducting the research are presented. There is a detailed description of how and what ethical principles were followed on the different stages of the research.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"23",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83112",title:"Anomalies in Nigeria Presidential Election Data and the Way Forward",slug:"anomalies-in-nigeria-presidential-election-data-and-the-way-forward",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106657",abstract:"Nigeria presently runs a presidential system of government and the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) is saddled with the responsibility of conducting elections, every four years. A fraud-free and credible election is a necessary ingredient to the growth of democracy. However, election fraud has become a major challenge in the Nigerian political system. Till date, reports show that elections in Nigeria have been marred with vote buying, falsification of results, underage voting, and the use of security forces to intimidate voters, among others. Hence, the authors suggest the need for transparency in the voting process and in the collation of results. There is also a need for an electoral reform to address the issue of electronic voting and electronic transmission of results. Electronic voting should be supported and encouraged by all stakeholders. The INEC, executive and legislative arms of government are advised to work in tandem to provide credible electoral process and improve on the conducts of elections in Nigeria. The chapter concludes with suggestion on the possibility of adopting election forensic techniques to address anomalies in Nigeria electoral results. The authors believe that this chapter contribution will be of great benefit to Nigeria and Africa as a whole.",book:{id:"11435",title:"Election and Democracy in the Digital Age - Status, Challenges, and Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11435.jpg"},signatures:"Sunday Tunmibi and Wole Olatokun"},{id:"83121",title:"Social Media and Democracy",slug:"social-media-and-democracy",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106660",abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the implications of freedom of speech regarding political discussions on social media platforms, such as Facebook. The paper will look at the following aspects: the occasion when social media users have to discuss politics as a hobby and as a means to keep their ideas out of the view of face-to-face social circles, to engage in social issues and even be part of protests, to discuss politicians’ public image, and attempt to change some users’ perception about it. Within social media, we witness debates or simple displays of emotions, allowing users to speak their minds and interact with other users, showing empathy toward them. The benefits of this are related to the therapeutic effects of speaking about what upsets them or angers them and finding like-minded users.",book:{id:"11435",title:"Election and Democracy in the Digital Age - Status, Challenges, and Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11435.jpg"},signatures:"Irina-Ana Drobot"},{id:"83113",title:"Agoraphobic Dispositions towards Action Research: Teacher Education Students’ Perceptions and Experiences",slug:"agoraphobic-dispositions-towards-action-research-teacher-education-students-perceptions-and-experien",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106188",abstract:"One of the contemporary global education thrusts in teacher education is the generation of context-based theory through engagement in action research. While practicing in the classroom, the teacher education student is essentially in the laboratory creating procedural knowledge. Action research in the classroom involves reflective practice, which is indispensable to praxis. Despite the efficacy of action research in facilitating mathetics (learning how to learn), there are some militating situations that are fuelled by diehard traditional perceptions and practices. An exploration of teacher education students’ perceptions and experiences with action research was done with 16 informants who were selected purposively and exposed to in-depth interviews. The data were thematically analyzed and the findings were that some students develop agoraphobic dispositions toward action research due to some miseducative experiences that are largely attributed to traditional educational practices. The teacher education students are exposed to vices like technical rationality instead they should be oriented toward epistemic and pragmatic rationalities that are the linchpins of professional development. The experiences that precipitate agoraphobic dispositions in action research should be known and subsequently obliterated.",book:{id:"11481",title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice for STEAM and social sciences education",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg"},signatures:"Davison Zireva"},{id:"83053",title:"Apologies in L2 French in Canadian Context",slug:"apologies-in-l2-french-in-canadian-context",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106557",abstract:"This article presents the results of an analysis of apology strategies in native and non-native French in Canadian context. The data used were obtained through a Discourse Completion Task questionnaire that was completed by a group of native French speakers (FL1) and a group of learners of French as a second language (FL2). The goal was to identify and compare pragmatic and linguistic choices made by both groups when apologizing in three different situations. Several differences and similarities emerged between the two groups regarding the use of exclamations to introduce apologies, direct apologies, indirect apologies, and supportive acts. For instance, it was found that the FL1 speakers used “expressions of regret”, “offers of apology” 15 and “requests for forgiveness” to apologize directly, while the FL2 speaking informants used 16 only “expressions of regret” and “offers of apology”. While the respondents of both groups 17 mostly chose “offers of repair” to apologize indirectly, they displayed divergent preferences 18 regarding the use of other indirect apology strategies. Differences were also documented 19 with respect to the use of intensification devices in direct apologies and the use of supportive acts. Implications of the findings for L2 French pedagogy were also discussed.",book:{id:"11480",title:"Second Language Acquisition - Learning Theories and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11480.jpg"},signatures:"Bernard Mulo Farenkia"},{id:"83049",title:"An Ethnographic Study on Sense of a Community: The “Awramba” Experience",slug:"an-ethnographic-study-on-sense-of-a-community-the-awramba-experience",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105953",abstract:"The study was conducted on “Awramba” Community who are living in “Amhara” region, south “Gondor” Zone, Ethiopia. The general objective of this study was to capture an understanding of sense of community in “Awramba” community. The study tried to answer the following questions: How the community was established? What are the criteria to be part of the community? What are the shared values of social practice that has survived for the test of time? What is the historical background of the “Awramba” Community? The researcher used realist ethnography method to achieve the above objective and to answer the questions. In-depth interview and observational guide techniques were applied to collect reliable data for the study. The observation and in-depth interview data were analyzed qualitatively. The study showed the following themes: Membership criteria of the community are based on adhering to the community norm. They have a strong sense of community based on shared story, cooperative work, marriage and mourning values, religious view, gender equality, commitment to be honest, and solving their problem by themselves. The emotional connection of the “Awramba” community is strengthened by their common celebration of the yearly anniversary of New Year and scheduled meeting.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Nassir-Maru Yesuf"},{id:"83014",title:"Culture: A Pillar of Organizational Sustainability",slug:"culture-a-pillar-of-organizational-sustainability",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106523",abstract:"Sustainability is a concern that permeates all levels of society and is premised on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. More recently, policies and research have emerged that guide organizations to align their activities with the broader sustainable development agendas, including cultural issues, not just economic, social, and environmental ones. Culture is the material and immaterial attribute of society. It incorporates social organizations, literature, religion, myths, beliefs, behaviors and entrepreneurial practices of the productive segment, use of technology, and expressive art forms on which future generations depend. Thus, cultural sustainability is a fundamental issue and is configured as the fourth pillar of sustainability, equal to social, economic, and environmental issues, which has to do with the ability to sustain or continue with cultural beliefs and practices, preserve cultural heritage as its entity, and try to answer whether any culture will exist in the future. The importance of cultural sustainability lies in its power to influence people. Their beliefs are in the decisions made by society. Thus, there can be no sustainable development without including culture.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Clea Beatriz Macagnan and Rosane Maria Seibert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:149},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 16th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:21,paginationItems:[{id:"83000",title:"Purine and Pyrimidine Pathways as Antimalarial Targets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106468",signatures:"Yacoba V.T. Minnow and Vern L. 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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón 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