Lineage list.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"485",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Diagnosis and Treatment of Abdominal and Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms Including the Ascending Aorta and the Aortic Arch",title:"Diagnosis and Treatment of Abdominal and Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms Including the Ascending Aorta and the Aortic Arch",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book considers diagnosis and treatment of abdominal and thoracic aortic aneurysms. It addresses vascular and cardiothoracic surgeons and interventional radiologists, but also anyone engaged in vascular medicine. The book focuses amongst other things on operations in the ascending aorta and the aortic arch. Surgical procedures in this area have received increasing attention in the last few years and have been subjected to several modifications. Especially the development of interventional radiological endovascular techniques that reduce the invasive nature of surgery as well as complication rates led to rapid advancements. Thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm (TAAA) repair still remains a challenging operation since it necessitates extended exposure of the aorta and reimplantation of the vital aortic branches. Among possible postoperative complications, spinal cord injury (SCI) seems one of the most formidable morbidities. Strategies for TAAA repair and the best and most reasonable approach to prevent SCI after TAAA repair are presented.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-524-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6515-6",doi:"10.5772/996",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"diagnosis-and-treatment-of-abdominal-and-thoracic-aortic-aneurysms-including-the-ascending-aorta-and-the-aortic-arch",numberOfPages:220,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7643f2ff916be49ce4255ea9c55fa82d",bookSignature:"Reinhart T. Grundmann",publishedDate:"October 5th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/485.jpg",numberOfDownloads:41744,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:20,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 20th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 24th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 22nd 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"37604",title:"Prof.",name:"Reinhart",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Grundmann",slug:"reinhart-grundmann",fullName:"Reinhart Grundmann",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/37604/images/23_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Reinhart T. Grundmann works currently as an independent medical expert. He is a professor of surgery at the University of Cologne and he has the qualification of general and vascular surgery. He is the former medical director of the B.Braun company, one of the leading providers of healthcare solutions. In the last eight years he has been working as the medical director of the Clinics Altotting-Burghausen, Germany. Dr. Grundmann was from 1992 until 2008 the managing director of the Zentralblatt fur Chirurgie and he is currently a member of the Editorial Board of World Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery. He edited from 2001 to 2005 the Jahrbuch der Chirurgie- the book which provides an information on the latest developments in surgery. Dr. Grundmann already published more than 260 scientific publications, including books and the book chapters. His recent research interests lie in the field of efficiency and efectiveness in surgery. In this frame, he published a workflows on liver surgery, gastric cancer, obesity surgery and surgery for abdominal and carotide artery stenosis treatment.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Kreiskliniken Reutlingen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1138",title:"Abdominal Surgery",slug:"abdominal-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"21698",title:"Definitions, History and General Considerations Related to the Aortic Aneurysms",doi:"10.5772/19027",slug:"definitions-history-and-general-considerations-related-to-the-aortic-aneurysms",totalDownloads:2176,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Guillermo Careaga-Reyna",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21698",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21698",authors:[{id:"33340",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Careaga-Reyna",slug:"guillermo-careaga-reyna",fullName:"Guillermo Careaga-Reyna"}],corrections:null},{id:"21699",title:"Presentation of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm in Clinical Practice, a Review",doi:"10.5772/20175",slug:"presentation-of-abdominal-aortic-aneurysm-in-clinical-practice-a-review",totalDownloads:6373,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Simone Knaap and Wayne Powell II",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21699",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21699",authors:[{id:"37686",title:"MSc",name:"Simone",surname:"Knaap",slug:"simone-knaap",fullName:"Simone Knaap"},{id:"45585",title:"Dr.",name:"Wayne",surname:"Powell II",slug:"wayne-powell-ii",fullName:"Wayne Powell II"}],corrections:null},{id:"21700",title:"Screening for Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm",doi:"10.5772/17846",slug:"screening-for-abdominal-aortic-aneurysm",totalDownloads:1356,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sima Sayyahmelli and Rakhshandeh Alipanahi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/21700",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/21700",authors:[{id:"29623",title:"Dr.",name:"Sima",surname:"Sayyahmelli",slug:"sima-sayyahmelli",fullName:"Sima Sayyahmelli"},{id:"41265",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakhshandeh",surname:"Alipanahi",slug:"rakhshandeh-alipanahi",fullName:"Rakhshandeh Alipanahi"}],corrections:null},{id:"21701",title:"Color-Doppler Ultrasonography in the Monitoring of Endovascular Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair",doi:"10.5772/18593",slug:"color-doppler-ultrasonography-in-the-monitoring-of-endovascular-abdominal-aortic-aneurysm-repair",totalDownloads:3429,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Enrique M. 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Advances",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tCompetition for limited natural resources associated with climate changes effects, particularly on agri-food systems, increases the importance of research and knowledge of new approaches to Health, healthy animals, a healthy environment, and a sustainable and safe food supply for the growing global population.
\r\n\tAbout 25 percent of all foods produced globally are lost due to microbial growth. L. monocytogenes is a microorganism ubiquitously present in the environment and affects animals and humans. L. monocytogenes can enter a factory and is able to survive in biofilms in the food processing environment. The use of adequate sanitation procedures is a prerequisite in risk prevention. Moreover, effective control measures for L. monocytogenes are very important to food operators.
\r\n\tThe safety and shelf life maximizing of food products to meet the demand of retailers and consumers is a challenge and a concern of food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tTo obtain food systems more sustainable, several developments are ongoing to ensure safe food products with an extended shelf life and a reduction of food loss and waste. The problem of antimicrobial resistance is also a great issue that must be taken into consideration.
\r\n\r\n\tThe implementation of natural antimicrobials, using food cultures, ferments, or bacteriophages, is one approach to control L. monocytogenes in food products that meet the consumer preference for clean label solutions.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art about Listeria monocytogenes in terms of occurrence in humans, animals, and food-producing plants. Its control by more natural agents allows for more sustainable food systems and points future directions to transform challenges into opportunities.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) a member of the Coronaviridae family emerged in late 2019 in Wuhan, China, and has caused a global pandemic of acute respiratory disease in all ages of the population, ranging from mild symptoms to mortality [1]. It belongs to the family of coronaviruses (CoVs), sharing 79% of the genome sequence with SARS-CoV and 50% with Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), while the rest of its structure is shared with other betacoronavirus [1]. In this enveloped positive sense, single-stranded ribonucleic acid (RNA) with crown-like S-shaped spiked proteins virus [2], there is an incubation period of 1–14 days with a median onset time of 8 days [1]. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 is predominantly via droplets, aerosol, and airborne pathways [1]. It achieves invasion by using angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors and human proteases as entry pathways, eventually fusing with the cell membranes in the lung [1]. Mild clinical presentations of this virus include fever, dry cough, and pneumonia [3]. Most patients with mild manifestations of this infection recover [3]. More severe cases cause other issues besides respiratory problems, such as injury to the myocardial cells and heart arrhythmias [3]. Other reported problems caused by this virus are in the central nervous system (CNS), gastrointestinal tract (GIT), musculoskeletal system, hypercoagulability leading to stroke, and organ failure [3]. In the most critical cases, end-organ failure and acute respiratory distress have led to death, especially in those with comorbidities such as hypertension and obesity [2, 3].
Coronaviruses continuously evolve due to mutations that occur during the replication of their genome [4]. Variants that emerged throughout the pandemic differ from each other due to one or more mutations, such as the number and location of substitutions in the spike (S) protein that makes each unique [4]. The United States SARS-CoV-2 Interagency Group (SIG) defines four classes of SARS-CoV-2 variants which are: variants being monitored (VBM), variants of interest (VOI), variants of concern (VOC), and variants of high consequence (VOHC) [4]. Thirteen variations in the S protein of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been detected by late November 2020 [3]. On November 30, 2021, SIG classified Omicron as a VOC, replacing the Delta variant [4]. Currently, there is no VOI and the VBM are Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, Eta, Lota, Kappa, 1.616.3, Mu, and Zeta [4].
Of the two VOCs, Delta and Omicron, the Delta variant has been shown to cause a more severe illness in the unvaccinated as compared to the vaccinated [5]. November 2021, the Omicron variant was first discovered in Botswana [5]. Omicron was designated as a VOC by the World Health Organization (WHO), which stated that early research suggests that it carries a higher risk of reinfection than other variants [5]. Currently, in the United States, the Omicron variant is the most common [5]. In December of 2020, the Delta variant was first found in India but has since spread across 178 countries [5]. Changes to the S protein may render the Delta variant up to 50% more transmissible than other prior COVID-19 variants, according to research [5].
Significant advances have been made toward “real-time” generation and sharing of SARS-CoV-2 data throughout the pandemic [6]. As a result, a computational tool, Phylogenetic Assignment of Named Global Outbreak Lineages (Pangolin) was developed to assign the most likely lineage to a genome sequence for managing and interpreting the rapid generation and sharing of data worldwide, at either a national or regional level [6]. Hence this nomenclature was developed to name and track global transmission lineages of SARS-CoV-2 [6]. Nextstrain and GISAID focus on the prevalence and persistence of a variant by ‘clades’ [6]. Thus, the WHO has established a structure for nomenclature using GISAID, Nextstrain, and Pangolin (Pango) nomenclature, so that the scientific community may be able to name and track the variants of SARS-CoV-2 [7].
According to the WHO situation report as of March 22, 2022, there has been a 7% rise in COVID-19 positive cases for the week of March 14–20, 2022, versus the week before [8]. However, there has been a 23% decrease in mortality in comparison to the week before [8]. About 12 million new cases and slightly below 33 thousand deaths have been reported in this period among the six WHO regions [8]. Approximately 468,000,000 COVID-19 positive cases and slightly over 6,000,000 deaths have been disclosed universally as of March 22, 2022 [8].
COVID-19 has become a continuously evolving disease due to rapid changes in the viral variants and despite mitigation strategies such as facial masks, social distancing, hand hygiene, vaccine therapies, and other therapies [2]. One of the earliest VOCs was the Alpha variant (B.1.1.7), which had a high transmissibility rate [2]. Recently, Omicron (B.1.1.529) appears to be at least two times more transmissible than Delta, with Delta variations being 50–70% more transmissible than earlier variants such as Alpha [2]. VOCs remain prevalent, particularly among unimmunized persons [2]. VBM were more problematic earlier in the pandemic and were more notable for high transmission and increased virulence [2]. These include B.1.1.7 (Alpha), B.1.351 (Beta), and P.1 (Gamma), and of lesser concern, Epsilon (B.1.427 and B.1.429), Eta (B.1.525), Iota (B.1.526), Kappa (B.1.617.1), 1.617.3, Mu (B.1.621, B.1.621.1), and Zeta (P.2) [2].
The two other categories described by the WHO include VOI, which are variants that are widely circulating within a population or have the potential to have an impact on a population, and VOHC, which are mutations that elude vaccines and current therapies that are in place. Currently, there are no circulating VOI and VOHC [2]. Given the continuous evolution of SARS-CoV-2, the impact of variants on public health may be reclassified based on their attributes and prevalence. VOCs and VOIs may differ from those of other reporting agencies because of the impact the variants may cause by location. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the genetic lineages of SARS-CoV-2 that have emerged as variants and circulated globally during the 2 years since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.
PubMed, Google Scholar, EBSCOhost, Mendeley, and MedLine Plus were used to conduct the electronic literature search. The search was confined to relevant publications and articles published between January 2020 and April 2022. If a manuscript was relevant to the issue of genetic mutations or variations of SARS-CoV-2, it was chosen. To narrow and guide the search process, the listed keywords were sought after. COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, variants of interest (VOI), variants of concern (VOC), genetic variances, and genetic mutations are among them.
Viruses are known to change over time. SARS-CoV-2 has undergone multiple modifications since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in Wuhan in late 2019 [9]. Comparing the SARS-CoV-2 pathogenic S protein sequence to the Wuhan-Hu-1 reference protein sequence showed about 96.5% of the original S protein sequence has undergone mutations [9]. These mutations lead to genetic differences, which results in the emergence of new variants of the virus [9]. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in collaboration with the SIG, added a fourth class of variant classification named VBM on September 21, 2021, as depicted in Table 1 [22]. The other classes include VOI, VOC, and VOHC [22].
Lineage | Predominate Countries Affected | Date of Designation | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Alpha B.1.1.7 Q Lineages | United Kingdom (UK) 24.0%, United States of America (USA) 20.0%, Germany 9.0%, Sweden 6.0%, and Denmark 6.0% | September 3, 2020. | First detected in the UK and has spread to over 52 countries including the USA [10, 11, 12] |
Beta B.1.351 | South Africa 18.0%, Philippines 10.0%, USA 9.0%, Sweden 8.0%, and Germany 7.0% | September 9, 2020 | South African lineage [10, 11, 13] |
Gamma P.1 | Brazil 56.0%, USA 29.0%, Chile 3.0%, Argentina 2.0%, and Spain 1.0% | October 1, 2020 | Brazilian lineage with functionally significant spike mutations [10, 11, 13] |
Epsilon B.1.429 | USA 98.0%, Mexico 1.0%, Aruba 0.0%, and Argentina 0.0% | January 26, 2020 | USA lineage, predominantly in California [10, 11, 14] |
Eta B.1.525 | Canada 20.0%, USA 15.0%, Germany 9.0%, France 8.0%, and Denmark 7.0% | March 25, 2020 | International lineage [10, 11, 15] |
Iota B.1.526 | USA 97.0%, Ecuador 1.0%, Canada 1.0%, Puerto Rico 1.0%, and Spain 0.0% | January 28, 2020, | Predominately in New York, with S mutation E484K [10, 11, 16] |
Kappa B.1.617.1 | India 72.0%, UK 6.0%, Canada 6.0%, USA 5.0%, and Ireland 3.0% | March 3, 2020 | Indian lineage [10, 11, 17] |
N/A B.1.617.3 | India 89.0%, UK 4.0%, USA 3.0%, Malawi 2.0%, and Russia 1.0% | January 1, 2021 | Indian lineage [10, 11, 18] |
Zeta P.2 | Brazil 56.0%, USA 25.0%, Canada 5.0%, Argentina 2.0%, and Paraguay 2.0% | April 13, 2020 | Brazilian lineage [10, 11, 19, 20] |
Mu B.1.621 | USA 42.0%, Colombia 27.0%, Chile 9.0%, Spain 5.0%, Mexico 3.0% | December 15, 2020 | Predominantly in Columbia [10, 11, 21] |
Lineage list.
The VBM class includes variants under surveillance for mutations leading to increased receptor binding, reduced neutralization by host immune systems, decreased efficacy of treatments, and an increase in disease severity and transmissibility but have not yet been deemed a public health threat by SIG at this time [22]. The VBM class also includes previously designated VOIs and VOCs that are no longer detected or have a decreased prevalence in the population [22]. The variants belonging to the VBM class do not pose a significant risk to public health [22]. Regardless of the minimal risk presented by the VBM class, they are closely monitored for new data [22]. VBM class that warrants more concern can have their classification changed to VOI or VOC if required by SIG [2].
Viruses constantly undergo mutations resulting in new variants [23]. Table 2 shows the Delta variant of COVID-19, formally known as B.1.617.2 [4, 19]. Part of the AY lineage, this variant appeared in late 2020 from India and had spread to over 179 countries by late 2021 [4, 24]. By late 2021, the Delta variant was the most transmissible, spreading more easily than the first identified Alpha variant - roughly two times more contagious than the original virus [24]. Mutations of the S protein in the Delta variant have not been analyzed in detail, though the following substitutions identified are T19R, (V70F*), T95I, G142D, E156-, F157-, R158G, (A222V*), (W258L*), (K417N*), L452R, T478K, D614G, P681R, and D950N [4]. The Delta variant is thought to have a distinct receptor-binding interface than the other forms [24]. The replication capacity of the Delta variant has been noted to be more efficient, leading to increased rates of transmission, infectivity, and viral load in comparison to other strains [24].
Lineage | WHO Label | GISAID Clade | Nextstrain Clade |
---|---|---|---|
B.1.617.2 | Delta | G/478 K.V1 | 21A, 21I, 21 J |
B.1.1.529 | Omicron | GR/484A | 21 K → BA.1, BA.1.1 21 L → BA.2 Recombinant lineages → XE, XF, and XD |
Circulating variants of concern.
Antiviral medication has been developed to minimize symptoms and lessen the duration of viral infection. There are no less than 13 vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 being used [25]. Each vaccine has been developed with the aim of the immune system recognizing the immunodominant S protein [26]. Although the development of vaccines has proven successful in decreasing fatalities, reports suggest that mutations continue to increase - proposing that the administration of these vaccines does not eradicate disease spread [24]. Therefore, the attributes for the Delta variant suggest that monoclonal antibody therapies with Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) are effective against nearly all Delta lineages [4]. The AY.1 and AY.2 lineages are resistant to several monoclonal antibody treatments [4]. In addition, research has shown a decrease in post-vaccination sera neutralization [4].
The Omicron variant (B.1.1.529, BA lineages, and other recombinant lineages, respectively depicted in Table 2) of SARS-CoV-2 was initially reported to the WHO in late November 2021, by South Africa [4, 7, 27, 28]. By December 2021, the United States reported its first case of COVID-19 connected to the Omicron variant [4, 27, 28]. Numerous mutations not previously seen in the original SARS-CoV-2 strain have been recognized in Omicron [29]. Omicron possesses greater than 30 mutations on its surface within the S protein, one insertion, and three deletions which allows the virus to infect cells, rendering elusive characteristics [27, 29].
A substantial number of amino acid substitutions are in the receptor-binding domain (RBD) with several alternative changes in other genomic regions [27]. Mutations to the S protein of the Omicron variant increase the affinity of binding to receptors, allowing the virus to circumvent antibodies against previous variants and remain infectious [30]. Factors influencing the transmissibility and infectivity of the Omicron variant are dependent on genetic variability and the location of the mutation [31].
Monoclonal antibody treatments aid the immune system in recognizing and responding more effectively to the virus [32]. The attributes for the Omicron variant suggest that some monoclonal antibody treatments with EUA may reduce neutralization [4]. In addition, post-vaccination sera may also reduce neutralization [4].
A comprehensive list of the lineages can be cross-referenced from Table 1 [4, 7].
Viruses regularly undergo mutations, sometimes creating a lineage of virus progeny known as variants. SARS-CoV-2 has mutated several times since its discovery. Using the original Wuhan-Hu-1 protein as a reference, researchers discovered that the genes encoding the pathogenic S protein had mutated to the point that just 3.5% of the original coding sequence remains [9]. The SIG was founded by the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). SIG and the CDC collaborated on a report that accounted for these variants and their classification [33]. In terms of population impact, the VBM are quite a minimal risk. Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Epsilon, Eta, Iota, Kappa, Mu, and Zeta are the varieties under the VBM class as of December 2021, with B.1.617.3’s structure being unique when comparing other progenies: B.1617.1 and B.1.617.2 [2]. As per the CDC, the VBM class poses no significant and imminent risk to public health in the United States; in addition, there are no VOI or VOHC for SARS-CoV-2 [4].
Countries such as the United Kingdom, South Africa, Brazil, and India have growing variants of concern [23]. These mutations have a pedigree that includes N501Y (i.e., B.1.1.7 and several lineages), D614G (i.e., B.1 lineage and the initial dominant variant of 2020), N439K (i.e., arising from the B.1 lineage of the mutated D614G), Y453F (i.e., Cluster 5 and mink variant), and additional mutations that are dominated by clades [23]. Clades are classified according to the year they first appeared and are given a new alphabetical letter depending on their discovery: 19A (first emerging in 2019), 19B (appearing after 19A), 20A (new appearance at the start of 2020), 20B, and 20C, so on and so forth [23]. Delta (i.e., of clades 21A, 21I, and 21 J) and Omicron (i.e., of clades 21 K and 21 L) were designated as VOCs by the CDC and SIG in late 2021 [7]. The Delta variant was discovered to be the most infectious version, with an estimated transmission rate double that of the original virus. Its evolved receptor-binding interface may be the reason for its success when compared to the other variants [24]. Where Delta may have been the fastest transmissible variant, Omicron was the most clandestine [27, 29, 34]. First seen in late November of 2021, researchers found over 30 mutations within the S protein. These mutations increased the affinity of receptor binding, allowing the virus to circumvent antibodies against previous variants and remain infectious [30]. It was also reported that monoclonal antibody treatments were found to be effective against Omicron [34].
The S protein is found on the external surface of the virus and is categorized into two subunits, S1 and S2 [24]. The S protein is the main virulence factor that moderates host infection by binding to the ACE2 receptors prominent on type II alveolar epithelial cells found in the respiratory epithelium [24]. Once the S protein binds to the host cell, it undergoes a conformational change in its structure from the inactive “down” state into an active “up” state, which signals a cascade of cleavages to the S1/S2 subunits by the host enzymes and other proteases [24]. This change further alters the S protein into an amino N-terminal S1 subunit containing an RBD and a carboxyl (C)-terminal S2 subunit for virus and host cell membrane fusion [24]. Much of the SARS-CoV-2 genome is made of ORF1ab (one large open reading frame), and when the virus penetrates the host cell, it gets translated into polypeptides pp1a or pp1ab [24]. These polypeptides primarily make non-structural proteins nsp1-nsp16 that mediate ssRNA replication [24]. Approximately one-third of the SARS-CoV-2 genome is responsible for synthesizing structural proteins such as the S (spike) protein, E (envelope) protein, M (membrane) protein, and N (nucleocapsid) protein, as well as accessory proteins ORF3a, ORF6, ORF7a, ORF7b, ORF8, and ORF10 [24].
During viral replication, mutations in the ssRNA genome can be classified as synonymous with no changes to the amino acid being synthesized or non-synonymous with modifications to the amino acid [24]. The S protein has two regions that are susceptible to mutation, the N-terminal domain, and the receptor-binding domain, which directly interacts with host ACE2 and is a region that contains a heightened number of amino acid substitutions [24].
The mutation K417N has lysine (K) being substituted with asparagine (N) [35]. This mutation is found close to the RBD and has displayed the capability of impairing the RBD inactive “down” state [24]. Recent data also indicates that multiple combination mutations are possible and can generate an even more significant decline in neutralization attempts, such as mutation K417N in conjunction with mutations E484K and N501Y [24].
The mutation E484K has arisen from multiple lineages, such as Beta and Gamma [24]. This variant indicates an amino acid substitution in position 484 with glutamic acid (E) substituting for lysine (K) [35]. In addition, this mutation is close to the tip of the spike [24]. This substitution alters the shape of the S protein and grants resistance to several antibodies and the ability to evade the immune response [24].
A recent study conducted by Lu et al., which used transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) to isolate variant Omicron strains HKU691, and HKU344-R346K from patients indicated that the Omicron variant has an extra spike R346K mutation that is seen in 8.5% of strains reported in the GISAID database [36]. The study also indicated that both strains were less susceptible to neutralization, and many patients did not demonstrate neutralizing antibodies to Omicron variant isolates [36]. The R346K mutation is also found in the receptor-binding domain and the mu variant [36].
Coronaviruses often recombine; therefore, a single phylogenetic tree will not necessarily depict SARS-CoV-2’s evolutionary history accurately [10]. While this complicates the phylogenetic analysis, recombination is made possible with the approach of lineage nomenclature and assignment [10]. Conversely, the co-infection of both Delta and Omicron, although rare, happens [34, 36]. If a different recombination event initiates continuous transmission, it will result in the formation of a new viral lineage with a distinct common ancestor. Because this new lineage lacks a specific or clear ancestor, it will be given the next available alphabetical prefix [10]. For example, XE, a cross between two Omicron strains that are now well-known: BA.1 (the original Omicron strain) and BA.2 (the more contagious strain that is now prominent in the United States and other countries) [4, 7, 10].
SARS-CoV-2 first appeared in late 2019 in Wuhan, China, as a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus with crown-like S-shaped spiking proteins; and has since spread throughout the world, resulting in a global pandemic of acute respiratory illness in people of all ages, with symptoms ranging from mild to fatal. It can undergo mutations, creating a lineage of virus progeny. It has become a continuously evolving disease due to rapid changes in the viral variants. They differ from each other due to one or more mutations, such as the number and location of substitutions in the S protein that makes each unique. This article discusses the genetic lineages of SARS-CoV-2 that have emerged as variants and circulated globally during the two years since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. There are four classifications by SIG of which the most alarming is classified as VOC. Important VOCs are Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron. Some of the lineages of these mutations are N501Y, D614G, N439K, Y453F, and others, which are globally dominated by clades 20A, 20B, and 20C. Of these, Alpha was the earliest and most infective initially. Variants have mostly emerged from countries like the United Kingdom, South Africa, Brazil, and India. The mutations are thought to appear due to massive human-to-human transmission, which is why prevalence is particularly higher among unimmunized persons. Other classifications are defined as VBM, VOI, VOC, and VOHC but most of these are at lower risk for infectivity, although they are still being monitored for new data. To date, no SARS-CoV-2 variants are designated as VOI or VOHC. Of note, further research is required to fully understand these variants and increase the accuracy of treatments. The public should consider vaccination along with preventative measures, such as wearing a mask, washing hands frequently, and practicing social distancing for the best chance of avoiding contact and increase in the variants.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. 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He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. 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For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",annualVolume:11421,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111683/images/system/111683.jpg",institutionString:"De La Salle University",institution:{name:"De La Salle University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Philippines"}}},{id:"106873",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongwei",middleName:null,surname:"Ge",fullName:"Hongwei Ge",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"171056",title:"Dr.",name:"Sotirios",middleName:null,surname:"Goudos",fullName:"Sotirios Goudos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9IuQAK/Profile_Picture_1622623673666",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"15895",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuremoto",fullName:"Takashi Kuremoto",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLrqQAG/Profile_Picture_1625656196038",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"125844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wellington",middleName:"Pinheiro Dos",surname:"Santos",fullName:"Wellington Santos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125844/images/4878_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Pernambuco",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",annualVolume:11422,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",fullName:"W. David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",annualVolume:11423,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"275140",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinh Hoa",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Hoa Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRbnKQAS/Profile_Picture_1622204093453",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kyushu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"20259",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongbin",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Hongbin Ma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRhDJQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-05-02T08:25:21.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"28640",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Kambayashi",fullName:"Yasushi Kambayashi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOQxQAO/Profile_Picture_1625660525470",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nippon Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/9370",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"9370"},fullPath:"/chapters/9370",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()