Sustainable Ginger Production through Integrated Nutrient Management

Abstract

The spice ginger is one of the most extensively used species in the Zingiberaceae family. It is frequently used as a condiment with many different cuisines and drinks. In addition to being used as a spice, it is a key component in both conventional and modern medicine. It strengthens immunity and is a rich source of several minerals and physiologically active compounds. Since it can be grown in a variety of climatic circumstances, the production of this spice has been increasing in most regions of the world. Because it is a nutrient-exhaustive crop that needs an appropriate supply of nutrients at critical stages of its growth in the form of chemical fertilisers or organic manuring, or a combination of both. To obtain excellent quality and quantity of ginger rhizomes as well as protect soil health and environmental quality, effective nutrient management can aid in decreasing the abuse of chemical fertilisers. In this perspective, this chapter aims to depict Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) for the sustainable production of ginger, as INM is a crucial component of sustainable agriculture, which necessitates resource management in a way to satisfy changing human requirements without degrading the quality of the environment and conserving essential natural resources.

1. Introduction

Ginger is the root of the plant Zingiber officinale roscoe, which is a member of the Zingiberaceae family. It is among the most widely used spices and healing agents in the world. The plant is referred to as Sringavera in Sanskrit, and it is possible that this term evolved into Zingiberi in Greek and then Zingiber in Latin [1]. It is mostly employed in food as a spice and flavouring agent. It is widely used as an ingredient in gingerale, candies, pastries, and cakes in the food business [2]. In cookery, ginger is used in a variety of forms, including young ginger, mature fresh ginger, dry ginger, ginger oil, ginger oleoresin, dry-soluble ginger, paste, and ginger emulsion [3]. It has a lot of oleoresins, which are secondary metabolites and are important for flavour and pungency. Numerous studies have been conducted to learn more about this plant’s miraculous properties. It is a vital tropical agricultural crop and a significant source of spices, though its benefits are not just limited to cooking, but also in different pharmaceutical preparations [4], as it is a great source of several bioactive phenolics, including non-volatile pungent substances including gingerols, paradols, shogaols, and zingerones. Since antiquity (more than 2500 years) ginger has also been used in traditional oriental medicine (Ayurvedic, Chinese, and Unani systems of medicine) to treat a variety of illnesses, such as rheumatoid arthritis, sprains and muscular aches, sore throats, nausea, constipation, indigestion, fever, infectious diseases, and helminthiasis [5, 6].

Ginger is a versatile home remedy that can be used to treat a variety of conditions, including motion sickness, arthritis, diarrhoea, the flu, headache, heart, and menstruation difficulties. Numerous research has been conducted on ginger’s ability to treat complex illnesses like cancer and chronic migraines. Here are some of the ginger’s active ingredients that have a variety of medicinal uses (Table 1).

Active compound of ginger	Biological activities	References
Gingerol and gingerol related compound	The antioxidant activity.	[7]
	Anti-tumour activity via induction of apoptosis, modulation of genetic and other biological activity.	[8, 9]
	Anti-inflammatory and anti-analgesic activity.	[10]
	Anti-microbial activity.	[11]
	Hepato-protective activity.	[12, 13]
Paradol	Antioxidant and anti-cancerous activity.	[14, 15]
	Antimicrobial activity.	[16]
Shogoal	Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity.	[8]
	Shogaol showed anticancer activities through the inhibition of cell invasion reduction of matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression, anti-proliferation activity and anti-invasion.	[17, 18, 19]
Zingerone	Antioxidant activity.	[20, 21]
	Anti-inflammatory action.	[22, 23]
	Anti-bacterial activity.	[24]
Zerumbone	Anti-tumour activity.	[25]
	Anti-microbial activity.	[26]
1-Dehydro-(10) gingerdione	Regulation of inflammatory genes.	[27]
Terpenoids	Induce Apoptosis by activation of p53.	[28]
Ginger flavonoids	Antioxidant activity.	[29]

Table 1.

Biological activities of ginger active compounds.

Ginger has wide range of applications in food and pharmaceutical industries. Hence, there is a greater demand at global level. So, it is essential to increase the production rate by supplementing with balanced nutrients for their better growth and development.

2. The significance of the nutrients in ginger

The availability of nutrients, which is controlled by their distribution and rates of cycling in the soil, has an impact on crop primary production. Nutrient components play key roles in the physiological activities of plants. The two key nutrients that are most deficient in Indian soils are nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Deficits in potassium (K) and sulphur (S) can arise in particular regions and soil types. Acidic soils lack calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), which must be supplemented for excellent agricultural yields. Micronutrient deficiencies of zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (b), molybdenum (Mo), and sulphur (S) have been discovered to be widespread in Indian soils [30]. In order to sustain soil fertility, it is crucial to replenish the minerals and sequester organic C. The information in this chapter covers a wide range of topics related to managing nutrients for ginger crops. It should be noted that managing nutrients based on soil testing is an effective management tool that should be used to make fertiliser recommendations and maintaining soil quality based on site-specific nutrient management techniques should be one of our top priorities.

Nutrient management is essential in achieving the best growth and productivity in ginger, in addition to soil type. Because it is a crop that exhausts nutrients, it needs a sufficient supply during key growth periods [31]. Chemical fertilisation (also known as “chemical nutrient management” or “CNM”), organic manuring (also known as “organic nutrient management” or “ONM”), or a combination of both (also known as “integrated nutrient management” or “INM”) are all alternatives for managing the crop’s nutrients [32].

However, reports indicate that depending on the crop variety, soil type, and geographic region, different amounts of nutrients may be needed, whether through organic or chemical methods. The recommended dose of fertilisers (RDF) should ideally be applied in splits to satisfy the crop’s requirement at different phases of growth, and a good nutrient management plan can significantly reduce the discrepancy between prospective yield and actual output. The usage of chemical fertilisers can be reduced as a result, protecting the environment’s quality [33, 34, 35, 36, 37].

3. Fertilisers recommendations for ginger

Ginger is an exhausting crop and benefits greatly from the application of nutrients at particular dosage. The need for nutrients varies according on the soil type, crop growth stage, variety and location. The NPK values for ginger have so been standardised by certain experimental trials.

For the entire nation, the AICRP (All India Coordinated Research Project) on spices has recommended 100 kg of nitrogen and 50 kg each of phosphorus and potassium. Application of 1/3 N, full P₂O₅, half or full K₂O, and 1/3 N 1 month or 40–60 days after planting are recommended. The final 1/3 N should be applied 2–3 months after planting [3]. According to ref. [38], the application of 60 kg N, 40 kg P₂O₅, and 60 kg K₂0/ha produced good results. According to ref. [39], the effect of N and P on ginger output was inconsequential. Ref. [40] reported that N at 50–100 kg/ha had significantly increased the yield of ginger by 18 to 32 per cent. For a superior yield of ginger under Kerala conditions, ref. [41] advised using 60 N, 60 P₂0₅, and 150 K kg/ha. The optimal application was 100 kg of N, 50 kg of P₂0₅, and 50 kg of K₂0 per hectare, according to ref. [42]. According to ref. [43], the highest yield of 43 tonnes of green ginger per hectare was achieved with 100 kg N, 100 kg P₂0₅, and 200 kg K₂0 per hectare. The need of N application for ginger at the active development stage, or 120–135 days after planting, and the tillering stage, or 200–210 days after planting, was emphasised by ref. [44]. With NPK at 60:60:120 kg/ha, ref. noticed a modest increase in yield. They also stated that when K₂0 was increased from 80 to 120 kg/ha, the yield of ginger increased. The NPK dose of 80:30:40 Kg per acre was found to be ideal in studies done at Kerala Agricultural University Vellanikkara. It was discovered that the combination application of N and K had a stronger effect than each compound acting alone. N and K recorded the maximum yield at N-180 K–160 kg/ha [45].

3.1 Drawbacks of fertilisers use alone

Inorganic fertiliser usage typically necessitates more frequent fertilising. Plants can easily take the nutrients, but they do not stay in the soil for as long. This issue can be addressed by using a slow-release fertiliser, but typically, inorganic fertiliser needs to be applied to the soil often. Although inorganic fertilisers are frequently less expensive, the cost savings may be offset by the need for several applications because it depends on the amount of nutrients in soil. Plants can be burned or scorched if too much fertiliser is used because the nutrients are concentrated and easily accessible. High salinity is also more likely when using inorganic fertilisers. Saline soils contain an excessive amount of salt and can impair a plant’s ability to absorb nutrients and water. The soil’s surface may develop a crust as a result of these fertilisers.

4. Influence of biofertilizers on nutrition in the production of ginger

To restore the soil’s fertility, biofertilizers are necessary. Use of chemical fertilisers over a lengthy period damages the soil and reduces crop output. On the other side, biofertilizers improve the soil’s ability to hold water while also adding vital minerals like nitrogen, vitamins, and proteins. Since they are a natural source of fertiliser, agriculture uses them extensively. Crop yields are said to be increased by bioinoculants like Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) and Trichoderma, which have growth-promoting properties. They are said to enhance root growth, which results in improved crop nutrient uptake and higher yields. With the application of these bio inoculants, tolerance to abiotic stress and resistance against plant diseases have also been reported [46]. Additionally, AMF inoculation aids in the selective activation of advantageous soil bacteria [47]. The members of the Glomeraceae family provided greater protection from pathogen incursions, while the AMF belonging to the Gigasporaceae family showed noteworthy nutrient absorbing capacity [48]. According to ref. [49], the use of IISR Power Mix G @ 0.5% at 2 and 3 months after planting increased the production of ginger by 11% compared to control. Higher fresh ginger production was achieved in Kerala by using the microbial inoculants AMF (5 g/plant) and Trichoderma (1 kg combined with 90 kg FYM and 10 kg neem cake and 250 g of the combination utilised) during planting time and Trichoderma 1 month after planting. In Himachal Pradesh, India, Azospirillum inoculation with VAM (Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizal) and Glomus mosseae improved ginger plant growth and yield [50].

5. Foliar sprays’ nutritional impact on ginger production

A foliar application is when liquid fertiliser is sprayed on top of leaves rather than the soil to feed plants. Through their stomata and epidermis, the absorption happens. Although total absorption may be just as great through the epidermis, transport is typically faster through the stomata. Most crops experience periods of elevated nutrient need during regular seasonal development. Typically, this increase involves a wide range of macro, meso, and micro factors. The following important growth phases of ginger’s life cycle require an immediate supply of nutrients:

• Rapid seedling development following germination

• Tillering

• Vigorous clump growth

• Increased requirement for B and Ca during flowering, which is necessary for the growth and development of pollen tubes and

• Rhizome development

During these critical growth stages, the rapid nutrient supply to the plants is essential, where this cannot be achieved rapidly through soil application, where foliar spray can.

There are reports of increased ginger growth and yield when ZnSO₄ (0.5%) spray is used [51]. Foliar fertilisers with moderate release rates can therefore effectively offset the decreased Zn bioavailability and mobility [52]. In comparison to soil application of higher levels of fertilisers, foliar application of lower levels of fertilisers, particularly urea, results in higher yields for several crops. Additionally, it aids in raising the produce’s quality. In 2021, ref. [53] reported on the usage of growth substances like NAA to enhance growth and development as well as yield. The performance of enhanced varieties like Rio-de Janeiro and Baruwa Sagar with single and mixed application of urea and NAA was evaluated in a field trial under the aforementioned conditions. The yield per plant demonstrated the variety, urea, and NAA primary effects, as well as the interaction impact of urea and NAA. Baruwa Sagar’s diversity was vastly superior. The combination of NAA 400 PPM and urea 2% produced the highest rhizome production per plant. Higher yield was produced using urea at 2% and NAA at 400 PPM. However, best response was reported in case of urea 2%. Spraying urea (2.0%) and planofix (200 ppm) was proven to increase the output of dry ginger. The seed rhizomes were exposed to 250 ppm ethephon for 15 minutes, and this resulted in a noticeable increase in shoot and root growth at the early stage. When applied as a foliar spray every 15 days beginning at 70 DAP, ethrel (200 ppm) increases the quantity of tillers and leaves. We can use CCC (50–125 ppm) to prevent shoot growth while it’s being stored. According to one assay, ginger plants have very little gibberellin, and their rhizomes contain cytokinins and auxins that have an impact on the start and growth of rhizomes. Auxin and cytokinin levels are raised by CCC spray. Shadap [54] based on growth, yield and net returns and benefit: cost ratio point of view, reported that spraying with Zn 0.5%. followed by B 0.3% is best to get maximum yield. Clumps supplied with 100 per cent RDF (NPK) as soil application along with BA spray at 75 ppm recorded maximum growth and yield in transplanted ginger at Mudigere, Karnataka [55]. Supplemental foliar nourishment is a booster to attain better yield by correcting soil limitations (51).

6. Cultural practises and its nutrients influence on ginger cultivation

Mulching the ginger beds with green leaves is an essential operation to enhance germination of seed rhizomes and to prevent washing off soil due to heavy rain.

Several employees from various sections of the country have cited the advantages of mulching ginger. A total of 20 tonnes of green leaves were used as leaf mulch during planting and 6 weeks later, yielding a crop that was 200% more productive than one that wasn’t mulched [41]. Under Wynad circumstances, 15 tonnes of green leaves were sufficient for mulching [40]. Mulching was deemed necessary by ref. [42] at rates of 2.5, 5.0, and 5.0 t/ha for the first, second, and third mulchings, respectively. Heavy mulch, according to ref. [45], may alter the soil’s physical and chemical environment, increasing the availability of phosphorus and potassium. In Bihar, it was discovered that mulching with shisan leaves was superior to mulching with paddy straw, mango leaves, or neither. Shisan acted as an organic manure to increase the output . Mulching with dry sal leaves was advised by the CPCRI at Kasaragod, Kerala State, India. With a treatment of FYM at 30 t/ha, intercropping ginger under Ceiba pentandra produced a greater yield and revenue than the main crop did when it was 25 per cent trimmed. Since ginger is a crop that prefers shade, it produces well with the addition of organic matter when planted in the best shade [56]. Paddy straw and Schima wallichii dry leaf mulches, which are both locally accessible organic mulches, enhanced ginger yield in Meghalaya by 43.6 and 39.7%, respectively, when applied at a rate of 16 t/ha. Both using live soybean intercrops as mulch and mulching three times with leaves were found to be equally efficient. The recommended mulching rates for ginger cultivation are 12.5, 5.0, and 5.0 t/ha for the first, second, and third mulchings, respectively (Table 2) [42].

Mulch	Yield (Q/ha)
Shisan leaves	78.25
Mango leaves	72.76
Paddy straw	52.39
No mulch	28.25

Table 2.

Effect of mulching on ginger.

7. Nutritional influence of organic nutrients on ginger cultivation

The use of organic manures held a very prestigious position with farmers in the past but subsequently, the introduction of high analysis chemical fertilisers cast a shadow on their spread [57]. It is well known that addition of organic manures has shown considerable increase in crop yield, quality and exert significant influence on physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. Use of organic and biofertilizers not only improve soil health but also help to sustain crop productivity.

Ginger must be grown organically in areas that are 25 metres wide apart from conventional farms on all sides. This isolation belt’s produce must not be treated as organic. Being an annual crop, a two-year conversion period will be needed. Ginger can be produced organically as a companion or mixed crop as long as all the other plants are also grown that way. It is preferable to rotate ginger with a leguminous crop. You can adopt ginger-banana-legume or ginger-vegetable-legume (recommended by Tamilnadu Agricultural University). When planted with coconut, arecanut, mango, leucaena, young rubber plantations, etc., recycling of farm waste can be done successfully. Ginger can be the best component crop in agri-horticulture and silvi-horticulture systems. It can be grown or rotated as a mixed crop with green manure, legumes, or trap crops to effectively build up nutrients and manage pests and diseases. Every crop in the field must be treated to organic production practises when cultivated in a mixed farming system. For the organic production of ginger cultivated as an intercrop in coconut gardens, several organic manures including FYM, vermicompost, neem cake, and green leaf manures, as well as microbial inoculants including AMF and Trichoderma and their mixtures, were tested. FYM (30 t/ ha) + neem cake + AMF + Trichoderma and FYM + AMF both generated noticeably greater yields than other treatments among the many combinations tested [58].

Ginger needs organic matter, which can be obtained from a variety of sources, including mulches and green/organic manures. This was well demonstrated by the successful crop production in the high fertility conditions of Wayanad, Kerala State, India, which received 15 t of green leaf mulch and 10 t of organic manure per hectare, all without the use of chemical fertilisers [39]. When humus and organic matter are available, ginger grows well and has a favourable relationship with yield [59]. Most of the organic manures are applied in basal doses, while they are occasionally used as mulch after a crop has emerged in some regions. However, farmers in Maharashtra use a lot of FYM—40–50 t/ha on average. The recommended amount of organic manure for Kerala is 30 t/ha of green leaf mulch and 25–30 t/ha of FYM applied in three separate applications. Kerala had the highest yield and benefit-cost ratio from applying FYM up to 48 t/ha [60]. The AICRP conducted field tests on spices at several sites in India, and the results showed that the use of multiple organic sources, including FYM, pongamia oil cake, neem oil cake, stera meal, rock phosphate, and wood ash, produced results comparable to those of the standard method. Farmyard manure may be applied at a rate of 25–30 t/ha, together with vermicompost at a rate of 4 t/ha and green leaf mulching at a rate of 12–15 t/ha every 45 days. The fertility and production will also be increased by adding oil cakes like neem cake (2 t/ha), composted coir pith (5 t/ha), and suitable microbial cultures of Azospirillum and phosphate-solubilising bacteria. To promote growth and control disease, the use of the PGPR strain of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (GRB 35) is also advised. To obtain the necessary amount of phosphorus and potassium, it may be necessary to apply lime/dolomite, rock phosphate, and wood ash depending on the results of the soil test. For a higher production within the parameters of standard setup of certifying organisations, restricted use of foliar spraying of micronutrient mixture specifically for ginger is recommended (dosage @ 5 g/L) twice, at 60 and 90 DAP. Ref. [61] reported highest yield/ha (32.88 t/ha) was noticed in poultry manure @ 2 t/ha followed by Mustard cake @ 0.75 t/ha. The highest curcumin % and oleoresin % were noticed in Vermicompost @ 5 t/ha over control in the Gangetic Alluvial Plains of West Bengal. Ref. [62] reported that, organic manures in the forms of cow dung, poultry and pig manures have great tendency to increase growth characters and yield of ginger in a rainforest zone, Nigeria.

The primary approach used in an organic system for managing insect pests and diseases is the use of biocontrol agents in conjunction with cultural and phytosanitary measures. The shoot borer can be controlled with an integrated strategy that includes trimming and removing newly infested shoots from July through August (at fortnightly intervals) and spraying Neemgold 0.5% or neem oil 0.5% from September through October (at 21-day intervals). To control the rhizome rot disease, it is possible to choose healthy rhizomes, solarize the soil and add Trichoderma, treat the seeds, and then apply biocontrol agents like Trichoderma, PGPR, or Pseudomonas multiplied in suitable carrier media like coir pith compost, well-rotten cow dung, or high-quality neem cake to the soil. Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent may be sprayed to control various foliar diseases, but only in an amount not to exceed 8 kg of copper per hectare per year. To control the nematode population, apply the high-quality neem cake indicated earlier and the bioagent Pochonia chlamydosporia.

Trials on different management systems on ginger at the IISR, Calicut, Kerala State, India, showed that higher soil nutrient build-up with the highest organic carbon content (2.33%) was in the organic system, which was on par with the integrated system of nutrient management and among the different systems of nutrient management. The maximum soil P, Ca, Mg, Zn, and Cu availability was found in the organic management method. The impact of various cropping systems on the microbial community in soil also revealed that the organic nutrient management system had the highest concentrations of Pseudomonas fluorescens, Azospirillum, and phosphobacteria. The activities of enzymes, such as dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, cellulase, and urease, were significantly higher under the organic system of nutrient management as compared to the exclusive inorganic system or integrated system of nutrient management. However, during the initial years, 15–20% reduction in yield under the organic system of nutrient management was encountered [63].

There is lot of scope to popularise the organic ginger produce for export in foreign country. Commercially the ginger is produced at north eastern states organically by default because the farmers of the region neither apply the chemical fertilisers nor chemical pesticides in ginger crop. They are only applying the locally available farmyard manures (cow dung, pig manure, poultry manures, rabbit manure, etc.,) in whole north-eastern region. In this way, the ignorance of the farmers about the technological advances is turning out to be a key to prosperity. Considering the increasing demand for organic produce all over the world, the farmers can hope to get better returns for their produce [64].

7.1 Limitations in use of organic manures alone

• Limited effectiveness of organic fertilisers as they release nutrients into the soil with the help of microorganisms that break down the fertilisers slowly. And for the microorganisms to break down the organic fertilisers effectively, they need warmth and moisture. If the soil is not warm or moist enough, the breakdown of the organic fertiliser will take time and its effects will be limited.

• Slow breakdown of the organic fertilisers in the soil

• Organic fertiliser is more expensive than chemical fertiliser

8. Integrated nutrient management (INM) in ginger

It is crucial to provide the soil with sufficient levels of vital nutrients in a balanced proportion at the proper time and in the right manner for the cultivation of any crop. The combined effect of organic and inorganic fertilisers in integrated nutrient management strategies would be a useful approach to acquire higher yield and higher-quality produce, as described above, both of which have their own downsides. Every crop should use integrated nutrient management strategies, which combine different inorganic, organic, and biological sources of nutrients. The methods used in conventional and organic production differ fundamentally [65, 66]. In addition to the biomass yield of a crop, the nutrient management techniques used for its cultivation are likely to have an impact on the crop’s quality, the soil’s fertility, and the overall economics of its cultivation. Talk about the modern idea of “farming for health,” the sustainability of natural resources, notably soil, and lastly the stability of the farming community’s financial situation. Numerous investigations on INM in ginger have been published.

The Kerala Agriculture University (KAU) has suggested a general nutrient dosage for ginger for the state of Kerala. Well-decomposed cattle manure or compost must be applied at the time of planting, either by disseminating it over the beds prior to planting or applying it in the planting pits. Neem cake, applied at a rate of 2 tonnes per hectare during planting, aids in decreasing the prevalence of rhizome rot disease/nematode and improving production. Two to three separate applications of the fertilisers are required. At the time of planting, a full amount of phosphorus is sprayed as basal. At 45, 90, and 120, equal split doses of N and K are top dressed (120 DAP. A basal application of zinc fertiliser up to 6 kg/ha (30 kg of zinc sulphate per hectare) in soils lacking in zinc produces good yield. For a greater yield, foliar treatment of a micronutrient mixture tailored for ginger is also advised (dosage @5 g/L) twice, at 60 and 90 DAP.

By considering different soil features, plant production and quality, crop and soil quality, and economics, ref. [67] thoroughly assessed the various nutrient management strategies used in ginger from 2015 to 2019 in Punjab. Farmyard manure (FYM), vermicompost (VC), urea, single superphosphate, and muriate of potash were among the 14 nutrient management techniques used. According to the study’s findings, applying 75% RDN plus 25% N through VC resulted in higher crop yield and crop quality, with yields rising by 103.1%, 21.9%, and 75.7%, respectively, above absolute control, RDN, and organic management. Under this treatment, the maximum harvest index (71.4%) and crop quality index (20.0) were obtained. According to reports, 25 to 30 tonnes of bovine dung and an 8:8:16 fertiliser mixture applied at 450 kg/ha were helpful in Kerala to increase production.

Ref. [57] conducted a field experiment to know response of organic manures and fertilisers to yield and nutrient uptake of ginger (Z. officinale Rosc.)” was conducted at Agronomy Farm, College of Agriculture, Pune during summer 2006. The data revealed that recommended dose of fertiliser +25 t FYM/ha favourably influenced yield and uptake of nutrients by ginger followed by the application of 50% N through recommended dose +50% N through poultry manure. It is, therefore suggested that application of recommended dose of fertiliser +25 t FYM/ha to ginger planted on flat bed in clay loam soil is best combination.

The highest fresh rhizome yield (1.87 t/ha), lowest rhizome rot (11%) and oleoresin content (5.82%), were obtained with 100% recommended rates of fertilisers, along with Azospirillum application at a rate of 10 kg/ha combined with FYM at 10 t/ha [68]. Soil application of Gigaspora at the time of planting (2.5 g/ rhizome) was also found to increase the yield as in the case of pine needle organic amendment and seed treatment with T. harzianum. Also, the effects of humic acid fertiliser on soil urease activity and available N content, N uptake, and rhizome yield were reported [69]. Ref. [69] reported that the highest yield of rhizome in tribal areas of Orissa as obtained with farm yard manure at 25 t + NPK 75, 50 and 50 kg/ha respectively. The yield of ginger was more when 20 t of FYM and 125 months gave maximum green ginger yield [70].

In ginger, oil content did not vary significantly among the treatments, as shown in Table 3. However, the fibre content was significantly reduced in the organic system of nutrient management. Interestingly, both oleoresin and starch contents were the maximum in the organic system of nutrient management, and, in both cases, there were statistically significant differences among the three systems of nutrient management. The maximum yield and oleoresin content was obtained with the application of 10 t/ha of FYM + 1.25 t/ha of compost +20 kg/ha of Azospirillum, which also showed higher nutrient uptake [71].

Management system	Oil content (%)	Oleoresin content (%)	Starch (%)	Fibre (%)
Organic	1.20	3.96	70.07	1.69
Inorganic	1.20	3.15	62.21	1.90
Integrated	1.25	3.36	55.82	1.90
LSD (95%)	NS	0.23	9.89	0.08

Table 3.

Effect of different nutrient management systems on the quality of ginger.

8.1 Soil quality under INM in ginger

It is critical to investigate how integrated nutrient management regimes affect the biochemical and microbiological characteristics of soils used for ginger growth [72]. There are, however, very few papers that examine the effects of various nutrition regimens on ginger yield and quality while also involving a number of field tests. However, it is crucial to simultaneously determine how they affect a variety of soil physicochemical and biological properties [73].

Organic and integrated nutrient management resulted in a decrease in bulk density and consequent increase in soil porosity. While subsequent modifications brought about by organic nutrient management were in the scale of a 9.2% drop in bulk density and an 11.6% increase in porosity, integrated nutrient management led to a 5.7% decrease in bulk density and a 7.0% increase in porosity. These findings are supported by the fact that the decomposition of organic materials generated organic acids, which directly altered soil pH and indirectly affected bulk density by forming soil aggregates and increasing soil porosity.

By taking a variety of soil conditions into account, ref. [66] thoroughly assessed the various nutrient management strategies used in ginger from 2015 to 2019 in Punjab. The study found that the highest soil quality index (SQI) was achieved with the 100% recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN) and FYM, whereas 100% NPK through FYM increased the soil’s organic carbon, physical qualities, and microbiological characteristics. SQI grew to 0.63 with integrated nutrient management and to 0.36 with organic management.

Cropping requires ploughing, which upset the stability and distribution of soil aggregates [74], exposing soil organic C to quick oxidation. So, when ginger was grown without organic supplementation, soil organic carbon decreased by 4.1% under control nutrient management, whereas SOC (Soil Organic Carbon) increased by 24.3% under integrated nutrient management. Also, plant residue C would have been deposited as a result of INM because of its favourable effects on root, vegetative growth, and yield. The results showed that FYM was more effective at raising SOC than VC among INM treatments (Vermicompost). This is because FYM has more lignin, polyphenols, and a greater C/N ratio than VC. Thus, the FYM-C was more resistant to breakdown than the VC due to greater lignin and polyphenol concentrations that resulted in the formation of stable complexes with proteins of plant origin. Due to this fact, FYM-treated plots outperformed VC-treated plots in terms of maximal breathing capacity (MBC). MBC and microbial activity in these soils increased due to the application of organics, either alone or in combination with inorganics, which created a more suitable environment for rapid microbial growth. The direct addition of nutrients through organic manures and enhanced activity of soil microorganisms, which converted organically bound nutrients to inorganic/available forms in the soil, may be blamed for an increase in available nutrients through INM over organics and control [68]. By momentarily immobilising the chemical fertiliser, the organic manures would have also improved its effectiveness by lowering the leaching of plant nutrients. The solubilisation effect of organic acids generated from the breakdown of organic manures on applied SSP (20% Ca) and native soil Ca may also be responsible for the increased exchangeable Ca under INM treatments compared to control. All micronutrient cation (Mn, Cu, and Zn) contents were strongly impacted by the combination of organic and inorganic sources, with the exception of Fe [37]. The creation of higher solubility organic chelates and mineralisation of organically bound forms, which reduces the susceptibility of the micronutrients to adsorption, fixation, and/or precipitation, could also be the cause of this rise in micronutrients in comparison to the control treatment, the application of cow dung and poultry litter enhanced the soil’s pH, organic matter, total nitrogen content, accessible P and K contents, and exchangeable K, Ca, and Mg contents [75].

8.2 Nutrient removal, absorption, usage effectiveness, and indices of INM in ginger

Rhizomes of ginger primarily remove N and K, remove P and Mg to a lesser extent, and remove Ca to the least extent [76]. According to ref. [77], a buildup of macronutrients in the decreasing sequence of N, K, Ca, Mg, S, and P, as well as micronutrients in the order of Fe, Mn, Zn, B, and Cu. However, nutrient uptake varies greatly depending on the kind of soil, the climate, the amount of nutrients in the soil, and the variety or cultivar grown. Three unique growth phases can be used to categorise ginger’s development: active growth (90–120 DAP), sluggish vegetative growth (120–180 DAP), and senescence (180 DAP), during which the rhizome continues to develop up to harvest. According to ref. [78], ginger shoots and leaves are the areas where the majority of the assimilated carbon (C) is transported at the seedling stage. Following that, as the plant grew, the distribution rate into the rhizome gradually dropped while it steadily increased for shoots and leaves. The rhizome becomes the growth centre during the rhizome’s stage of rapid growth because C is mostly transferred from the leaves to the rhizomes at this time. N was absorbed and used in the same ways that C assimilates were. At seedling stage, the shoots and leaves received around 48.41% of the nitrogen (N) absorbed from the fertiliser applied. While 65.43% of the N came from fertiliser applied at different. At seedling stage, the shoots and leaves received around 48.41% of the nitrogen (N) absorbed from the fertiliser applied. While 65.43% of the N from the fertiliser provided at different phases of the rhizomes’ growth went to the rhizomes, only 32.04% went to the shoots and leaves. The findings showed that delayed application boosted the rate of fertiliser N consumption.

Increased fertiliser availability, use efficiency, and uptake, improved soil physicochemical qualities, improved growth, and yield attributes, and greater HI (Harvest index) of economically valuable portions were the results of reducing RDF by 25% and replacing that 25% with VC [66]. By enhancing the availability and uptake of these nutrients, the application of 75% RDF and 25% organic manures raised the nutrient harvest indices in ginger. Higher crop harvest indices also indicate that the plant’s economic portion contributed to a higher biomass production and, as a result, accumulated more nutrients than other portions. Under 75% RDF with organic manures, higher nutrient usage efficiency was seen in ginger [79].

Due to better nutrient availability, as well as the subsequent impact of integrated nutrient management on crop quality characteristics and higher yield over organic and control practices, higher nutrient removal and NPK uptake under integrated nutrient management practices over organic management were obvious. The direct input of N through inorganic fertilisers and its consistent availability from FYM and VC applied to the soil may be responsible for the increase in N uptake. The production of organic acids during the breakdown of organic manures may have helped to increase the solubility of both applied and native P, which may have contributed to the increase in P absorption under INM. The fact that the combination leads to a rise in root proliferation and, thus, higher nutrient uptake, may also serve as evidence for the higher nutrient uptake under INM. Additionally, INM’s contribution to bettering soil aggregation would have resulted in a rise in root biomass and absorption rate. Using the full recommended amounts of NPK from organic sources resulted in noticeably low N, P, and K concentrations in ginger at harvest. This could be as a result of organic matter mineralizing slowly and less nutrients being available for crop growth and development. 35–50 kg P/ha are removed from a heavy ginger crop. Ca concentrations as low as 2 ppm are adequate to produce 90% of the maximum yield in the leaves of healthy ginger plants, which contain 1.1–1.3% Ca. Ref. [79] suggested using the fifth pair of leaves during the 90–120 DAP stage for foliar diagnosis of N, P, and K in order to determine the crop’s nutritional needs.

8.3 Economics of INM in ginger

The primary cash crop for small farmers nationwide is ginger. Despite being one of the major industries in some parts of India, growing ginger has little knowledge regarding its economic feasibility and sustainability under integrated nutrient management. In comparison to organic nutrient management, integrated nutrient management systems produced higher values for a variety of economic factors. This demonstrates that organic nutrient management is the least profitable for farmers, which is clear given lower yields but higher input costs because more sources are needed to meet the nutrient need. Given its better yields, integrated nutrient management is undoubtedly advantageous. A combination of FYM with various doses of RDN in INM treatments produced greater BCRs (Benefit Cost Ratios), but lower net returns than VC. The results showed that replacing 25% of the fertiliser dose with VC would greatly benefit the farmers. Cheaper BCR was caused by the lower cost of FYM in comparison to VC, while greater NRR (Net Return Ratio) with VC integration could be attributed to significantly higher yields. At Pottangi, in the Indian state of Odisha, Azospirillum, FYM, and their combinations were studied for their effects. The application of Azospirillum at a rate of 10 kg/ha together with FYM at a rate of 10 t/ha resulted in the highest benefit-cost ratio of 2.4, according to ref. [68].

Based on major coefficient analysis, weighting, and ranking of various nutrition management methods, 100% RDN + RD of FYM received the top ranking because of its substantially greater SQI. Although 75% RDN + 25% N through VC on similar basis + pine mulch was given the second place because to increased biomass and rhizome yield, CQI, MRR, NUE, and harvest index. Thus, the optimum nutrient management module is created by saving 25% of fertiliser and subsequent input costs, which results in increased productivity. This is achieved by comparing the economic and efficiency superiority of 75% RDN + 25% N through VC to 100% RDN + RD of FYM [66].

9. Conclusion

The chapter has shown that the nutrient management systems has a significant impact on crop production, crop quality, soil health, and overall cultivation economics. In terms of yield, quality, utilisation efficiency and returns, the integrated method outperformed organic nutrient management significantly, increasing the overall output: input ratio and productivity. By increasing soil C, reduced bulk density, enhanced porosity, aggregation, and soil nutrient status, integrated nutrient management methods aid in improving and sustaining soil quality which has reported by several findings. As a result, this technology is superior and ideal for harvesting a bigger yield of ginger rhizomes of superior quality with profitable market returns.