Cumin (Cuminium cyminium L.): A Seed Spice Crop with Adopted Production Technology in Cumin Cultivated Regions

Abstract

Cumin is a seed spice which finds its place in variety of global cuisines, especially in Indian context. India leads in the world in production of cumin with 70% of world’s production and consumes 90% of this produce. It is a high potential crop with great demand around the world due to changing food consumption behavior, and increasing demand for value-added products such as oil and powder. Cumin has a distinct flavor and aroma owing to presence of essential oils. Cumin has different biological and biomedical properties and finds use in various ayurvedic preparations in different forms. Cumin has been found in three types of colours: amber, white, and black. Among this amber is widely accepted and black also have unique flavor. Cumin is a crop of tropical and subtropical regions and suitable for cultivation on wide variety of soils. Cumin production can be easily done with very few hindrances such as frost injury, wilt and powdery mildew. There is a lot of scope and prospectus regarding its cultivation which can be exploited in other cumin suitable regions of the world through various agronomical innervations, crop improvement programs and biotechnological tools.

1. Introduction

The cumin (Cuminium cyminium L.) commonly known as Jeera is an important seed spice crop belonging to family Apiaceae of the order Apiales. It holds more than 22% share of area under spice crops, and is the most widely grown seed spice in India with an area share of more than 48% among seed spices. In India cultivation of this spice is very popular in states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, along with some parts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh during Rabi season. During 2019–20, cumin was cultivated on 8.42 lakh hectares in India with total production amounting to 5.47 lakh tonnes. Rajasthan and Gujarat are the leading producers and contribute to nearly 99% of the total production of India. India as a leading producer has a world market share of 70%, followed by Syria (13%), Turkey (5%), and UAE (3%) [1]. These four countries produce about 91% of cumin of the world, while the remaining production comes from other tropical or sub-tropical Asian and African countries.

Cumin as a condiment is vital in composition of mixed spices, curry powders, and it also imparts good flavour to soups, sausages, pickles etc. Some of the bakery products such as breads and cakes are also seasoned with these seeds in Germany, while in some of the European countries it is used for flavouring cheese. This seed spice is an essential component of varied cuisines such as Iranian, Mexican, Turkish, Cuban, Indian, South East Asian and Egyptian. Cumin is a regular feature in confectionary, beverages, medicines, liquors, sausages, meat, perfumery and bread manufacturing. In food processing industries cumin is used as a preservative.

Cumin oil has a characteristic flavour and odour due to the presence of falvour component called cuminaldehyde. This seed spice possesses several medicinal properties [2] such as stomachic, carminative, antimicrobial, stimulant, and astringent properties. It is widely used traditionally for treatment of various ailments cold, fever, insomnia, flatulence, diarrhoea, and other digestive disorders [3, 4]. In Indian veterinary practice cumin is popularly used as a carminative. In lactating mothers this spice is said to enhance the secretion of milk after child birth. External application of mixture of powdered cumin, honey, salt and butter is a home remedy for scorpion bite. After essential oil extraction from cumin the by-product known as Ark Jeera has medicinal properties which aids in indigestion. The essential oil of cumin is known to have positive effects on nervous system, reproductive system, gastrointestinal system, and immune system. Apart from this the cumin essential oil also possesses chemoprotective, antimicrobial, hypoglycaemic, antioxidant, and hypolipidemic activity but therapeutic role of secondary metabolites remains unknown. Alcohol and water extracts of cumin have nutraceutical properties such as anti-platelet aggregation, antioxidant, anti-allergic, and hypoglycemic (Table 1).

1.1 Climate

Cumin grows well in tropical and subtropical areas of world ideally situated within the 20^o to 38^o north latitudes. Its cultivation is done best under moderately cold dry climate. Humidity during flowering and seed setting is deleterious as the crop is susceptible to fungal diseases [7]. It is requires temperature range from 9^oC to 26^oC for proper growth and development. Frost at the time of flowering and early fruit sett has an adverse effect on the crop. Overall, locations having low atmospheric humidity and mild winters are most suited for cumin cultivation. Frequent rains at the time of flowering, fruit setting, and maturity leads to incidence of blight and powdery mildew in the crop.

1.2 Soil

Although cumin cultivation can be done on all type of soils, most suitable are sandy soils with low organic matter, and clay or clay loam with fair organic matter. Soil drainage is very crucial as water stagnation and excessive moisture are harmful for the crop. High soil pH also has adverse effect on the crop and preferred range of 6.8–8.3 [8], while soil suspension EC of 14 dSm⁻¹ is suitable for cumin cultivation. Saline soil or saline irrigation water results in better seed filling in cumin. Apart from deep, and shallow soil, gravely soils with good porosity and drainage are also suitable for this crop.

1.3 Improved varieties

Listed below are some of the important improved varieties in India which are recommended for main growing states i.e., Rajasthan and Gujrat (Table 2).

Sr. No	Contents	mg/100 g
1	Moisture	8.1
2	Protein	17.8
3	Fat	22.3
4	Carbohydrate	44.2
5	Fiber	10.5
6	Calcium	931
7	Potassium	1788
8	Phosphorus	449
9	Sodium	168
10	Magnesium	366
11	Vitamin B1	0.73
12	Vitamin B2	0.38
13	Vitamin C	17.20
14	Vitamin A	175 IU
15	Niacin	2.5

Table 1.

Nutritional composition of cumin seeds.

Sources: [5, 6]

Variety		Description
Developed by Sri Karan Narendra Agriculture University, Jobner
RZ-19	:	Important characteristics: Erect plants with bold seeds; Time to maturity: 120–140 days; Average yield: 5–6 q ha^−1
RZ-209	:	Important characteristics: Wilt tolerance; Time to maturity: 140–150 days; Average yield: 6.5 q ha^−1
RZ-223	:	Important characteristics: Wilt tolerance, essential oil content 3.2%; Average yield: 6.0 q ha^−1
RZ-341	:	Important characteristics: Bushy plant, semi erect growth, long and bold seeds, and tolerance to wilt, blight and powdery mildew; Time to maturity: 120–130 days; Average yield: 4.5 q ha^−1
RZ-345	:	Important characteristics: Semi erect bushy plants, long and bold seeds, and tolerance to wilt, blight and powdery mildew; Time to maturity: 120–130 days; Average yield: 6.07 q ha^−1
Developed by Sardar Krushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Spice Research Centre, Jagudan
GC-1	:	Important characteristics: Erect plants, bold seeds, and wilt tolerance; Time to maturity: 105–110 days; Average yield: 7.0 q ha^−1
GC-2:	:	Important characteristics: Bushy plants, profuse branching and attractive seeds; Time to maturity: 100 days; Average yield: 7.0 q ha^−1
GC-3	:	Important characteristics: Wilt resistant, essential oil content 3.5%; Time to maturity: 100 days; Average yield: 7.0 ha^−1
GC-4	:	Important characteristics: Resistant to Fusarium wilt; Average yield: 8.75 q ha^−1
GC-5	:	Important characteristics: Early maturing; Time to maturity: 92 days; Average yield: 6.86 q ha^−1

Table 2.

The details of varieties.

2. Cultural practices

2.1 Nutrient management

Soil analysis based fertilizer application is best for obtaining good growth of crop along with optimum use of fertilizers. For a good soil structure and soil properties, 10 t ha⁻¹ FYM or 5 t ha⁻¹ compost can be applied three weeks prior to sowing. Using the organic wastes such as FYM provides us with an option of climate resilient crop management module while reducing the chemical fertilizer load [9]. Biofertilizers can also be used as they enhance biological activities of useful microbes in the soil along with improving the crop yield and quality [10]. As the crop responds well to fertilizer, basal application of 15 kg N, 20 kg P, and 20 kg K₂O ha⁻¹ can be done, and remaining 30 kg N can be applied as top dressing 60 days after sowing.

2.2 Land preparation

Well prepared land aids in good germination and growth of the plant. Bring the soil to a fine tilth through 2–3 harrow ploughings and then level the field with a plank. At the time of third ploughing, incorporate FYM/compost in the soil. The beds of convenient size should be prepared with adequate placement of irrigation channels.

2.3 Sowing time

Time of sowing while having no influence of cost of production, has immense influence on disease and pest incidence. Therefore, it is crucial to complete sowing at appropriate time so that flowering stage escapes the period of high atmospheric humidity. For better germination, optimum temperature required is 30^oC. In order to achieve good and healthy growth of the crop sowing can be done between mid-November and first week of December.

2.4 Seed rate

Optimum seed rate is essential in order to ensure ideal plant population which allows proper growth of plants leading to higher yield. Seed rate is determined by the type of variety and sowing method. Optimal seed rate ranges from 10–20 kg per hectare, where bold seeded varieties need higher seed rate.

2.5 Seed treatment

In order to control seed borne diseases, treat the seed with Trichoderma culture (10 g/kg seed) or alternatively with Thiram/carbendazim @ 2.5 g/kg. Inoculation with Azospirillum or Azotobactor and seed priming for 8 hours and drying of seed in shade is known to enhance the germination [11]. While, Lal et al. [12] reported improved germination after seed treatment with Bavistin @2.5 g/kg, and Trichoderma viride @4 g/kg.

2.6 Method of sowing

Cumin can be sown by two methods, viz. in lines or by broadcasting the seed, where former requires a drill while latter can be done by manual labour. Conventionally farmers go for sowing through broadcasting as it is an easier and cheaper alternative. On the other hand sowing in lines facilitated intercultural operations at all the stages of the crop. For line sowing the spacing between lines should be 25 cm, with seed sown of 1.5 cm deep covered with thin layer of soil. In case of broadcasting, cover the seed with light layer of soil with the help of a teeth rake. Avoid sowing the seed too deep, to prevent germination problems.

2.7 Crop geometry

Crop geometry is an important aspect which influences proper sunlight interception which leads to optimum physiological activities of plants. Optimal plant population aids in proper translocation of photosynthates in the plant. In case of higher than optimum plant population, competition for water, space, light, and nutrient increases which results in reduced accumulation of dry matter in plants. Therefore, optimum plant geometry is an important requirement to realise higher production of crops [13, 14]. Crop geometry in case of cumin within row spacing of 22.5–30 cm, within plant spacing of 15–30 cm.

2.8 Irrigation

Right amount of irrigation at appropriate time is essential for good germination and growth of the crop. For good germination of crop, a light irrigation should be given after sowing. Avoid heavy irrigation at this stage to avoid dislocation of the seed. After 10–12 days of sowing germination becomes visible, typically after second irrigation. In case of high temperature during day and dry weather another irrigation can also be given after an interval of 4–5 days. As per the prevailing weather and soil type irrigation is given at an interval of about 30 days. However, at the maturity stage avoid irrigation so as to prevent adverse effects on quality of seed. Sprinkler irrigation is also good in case the crop shows symptoms of wilting [15, 16]. Alternatively, drip may also be used but it is a very costly set up.

2.9 Intercultural operations

Weeds are an important problem in cumin cultivation as they compete with the crop for resources while contaminating the seed. So, in order to achieve a robust growth of the crop weed management should be done at appropriate times. First weeding and hoeing should be done when the crop has attained 4–5 cm height which happens at 30–40 days after sowing. To keep the crop free of weeds and to break the soil crust, another 2–3 weedings are needed. Some of the common weeds infesting cumin fields are zeeri (Plantago pumila), piazi (Asphodellus tenifolius), bathua (Chenopodium album), pili sanjee (Melilotus indica), khartua (Chenopodium murale) [17]. Among these weeds, zeeri is of serious concern as it bears close resemblance to cumin plant, and can easily become a contaminant thus reducing its crop’s market value [18]. Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin (0.77–1.00 kg) or Basalin (2.5 kg) or Stamp F-34 (3.33 kg) per hectare can be done. Besides this, pre-emergence application of Oxidiagal @75 g ha⁻¹ has been found to yield very effective results for weed control at NRCSS, Ajmer.

2.10 Harvesting

Cumin generally attains maturity in about 90–120 days. Physiological maturity as indicated by yellowing of plant is the most appropriate stage to obtain produce of high quality. Complete drying of plants has adverse effect on the crop quality. Apart from this prolonged sun drying of the crop prior to threshing is not advisable as it lowers the crop quality and has deleterious effect on oil content of seed. Harvest the crop early in morning to avoid grain shattering, followed by beating and trampling it on a clean threshing floor. In case of large scale cultivation threshing can also be with the help of a thresher which is very popular among the farmers now days. There have been attempts to design modified seed harvesters for cumin [19]. After harvesting cumin is cleaned and graded with the help of mechanical devices. The thoroughly cleaned cumin seeds can be stored with 7–8% moisture level at 40% equilibrium relative humidity. Seeds can be stored in polythene film lined gunny bags in a well ventilated, dry and cool place till next sowing season.

3. Post-harvest technology

After harvest cumin seeds are dried under partial shade in order to keep the moisture up to 9% for storage. Higher moisture content in seeds increases the chances of fungal contamination during storage. The cleaned, dried, and graded seed is packed in the standard size packaging with appropriate labelling. Storage of dried seeds is done in environment friendly plastic film lined gunny bags. While processing cumin, care should be taken to maintain the vitality of the organic ingredient. Selection of processing method should be in such a manner that number and quantity of additives as well as processing aids is kept to a minimum. Essential oil extraction is done by distillation of mature dried seeds, and generally it is done by hydro or steam distillation. For oil extraction, dried seeds can be crushed or steam distilled wholly to yield 2.5 to 4.5% oil content. In International market, there is a good demand for oleoresin obtained from cumin. After processing, various products are produced such as cumin powder, essential oil, cumin oleoresin and fixed oil. Volatile oil after extraction should be stored in well sealed containers.

3.1 Crop protection

Crop protection covers all biotic and abiotic aspects damaging crop. In the cumin growing regions frost is the major concern affecting the production. Cumin is mainly susceptible to frost which occurs from flowering to seed development stage of crop. It can be managed by proper irrigation during frost incidence with smoke or wind breaker.

3.2 Biotic stress

Blight, wilting and powdery mildew are three main diseases which hamper cumin production.

Disease	Symptoms	Control measures
Blight:	Symptoms appear mainly on leaves and stem in form of dark brown lesions which results in withering of plants	Spray of Mancozeb (0.2%) or Azoxystrobin (0.1%) or Difenoconazole (0.05%) in 500 l water per hectare at disease appearance. Repeat after 15 days if needed. Spray scheduling: At 45–60 days of sowing spray Mancozeb, followed by 2–3 need based sprays of difenoconazole or azoxystrobin at fortnightly interval.
Wilt	Wilt infection ususally occurs in patches and leads to drooping of leave and epinasty. Disease is very difficult to manage and severly infected plants usually wither and die	Ploughing during summer season to sterlize soil 3 year crop rotation with non-host plants Disease free seed Application of Trichoderma species @ 10 g/kg for seed treatment and for soil application mix 2.5 kg of consortia 50 kg FYM per hectare
Powdery mildew	In initial infection, leaves and twigs show appearance of white powdery spots, and upon severe infection the powdery mass covers whole plant	Sulphur dusting @ 20–25 kg/ha or foliar spray of Wettable Sulphur 0.2% at fortnightly interval commencing from disease appearance in the field

3.3 Insect pests

Insect-pest	Damage	Management
Aphid (Aphids gossypii and Myzus persicae)	Aphids affect the crop by sucking sap of the plant. Populations build up initiates at vegetative stage and peak build up occurs during flowering (February) to seed formation. In case of unprotected crops, more than 50% yield loss can occur.	For monitoring and trapping use yellow sticky traps Timely sowing of crop in desired geometry. Application of recommended nitrogenous fertilizer doses as higher dose increases succulency. Foliar spray of Neem oil (2%) or Neem Seed Kernel Extract (5%) Spray of Verticillium lecanii (108 spores/g) at the dose of 5.0 g/lire of water For severe infestations spray Metasytox (0.03%) or Dimethoate (0.03%) or Imidacloprid (0.005%) or Emamectin benzoate (10 g ai/ha)
Thrip (Thrips tabaci)	Attack of the insect is first visible during early vegetative growth of crop and continues up to flowering stage. Thrips damage the crop by sucking the sap from plant which ultimately results in leaf yellowing and drying. Higher population resulted drying of whole plants.	Use of botanicals and chemical pesticides same as that for aphids. Besides that Thiomethoxam (0.025%) has also been recommended for control of thrips.

4. Conclusion

Cumin finds wide use in kitchen as well as in traditional medicine. It a nutritionally rich crop, with a distinct flavour as a virtue of the essential oil present in it. Flavour of cumin is direct function of its essential oil content. Also in recent times, popularity of cumin along with other spices and condiments have risen, which has led to increase in its demand. India the global leader in production of cumin, and a major consumer of this produce. All these factors make cumin an active cash crop which can be explored further in areas where it is not grown presently. So, we have outlined the successful cultivation operations which are practised in the main cumin growing areas of India. Adoption of scientific package of practices for cultivation will boost the production, while dealing with the constraints in an effective way.