Consequences of Arsenic in the Environment

Abstract

Throughout the environment, including in food, water, soil, and the air, arsenic is a naturally occurring metalloid. An important global problem is the human exposure to arsenic from numerous sources, such as polluted groundwater and other human activities. It poses a serious danger to people’s health, economic security, and social standing, particularly in the world’s least developed nations, as its exposure to humans has been related to a wide range of illnesses. Diabetes, hyperkeratosis, cancer, hypertension, and neurodegeneration are a few of the serious illnesses that have been connected to arsenic exposure. There is currently no known or authorized treatment for arsenic poisoning. We made an effort to shed light on some of the most important scientific facts on arsenic toxicity that have been published in the literature. It is important for policymakers to develop regulations for a cleaner environment and raise public knowledge of arsenic toxicity.

1. Introduction

Arsenic is a toxic element that occurs naturally in the environment and can also be released through human activities such as mining, smelting, and agriculture. This element can have serious health implications, including cancer, skin lesions, and cardiovascular disease. Arsenic contamination in drinking water and food sources is a major concern, especially in developing countries.

This paper aims to provide an overview of sources, implications, and remedies related to arsenic in the environment. The sources of arsenic are discussed, including natural sources, such as geological formations, and human activities, such as mining and pesticide use. The implications of arsenic exposure are also examined, including its effects on human health, agriculture, and ecosystems.

Several remediation techniques are discussed, including physical, chemical, and biological methods. These techniques include the use of adsorbents, coagulants, ion exchange, and biological treatment. Additionally, policy measures and regulations related to arsenic in the environment are reviewed.

Overall, this paper highlights the importance of understanding the sources, implications, and remediation of arsenic in the environment. Effective measures are needed to mitigate the risks associated with arsenic exposure and protect public health and the environment.

2. Chemistry of origin

Arsenic is a naturally occurring element that is present in soil, water, and air. It is widely distributed in the earth’s crust and is found in various minerals such as arsenopyrite, realgar, and orpiment. Arsenic is a toxic substance that can have serious health effects on humans and animals, including cancer, skin lesions, and developmental problems. In this response, we will explore the chemistry of the origin of arsenic in the environment [1].

There are several sources of arsenic in the environment, including natural and anthropogenic sources. Natural sources of arsenic include volcanic emissions, weathering of rocks, and the breakdown of organic matter. Arsenic can also be released into the environment through anthropogenic activities such as mining, smelting, and the use of arsenic-containing pesticides [2].

One of the primary factors that determine the mobility of arsenic in the environment is its oxidation state. Arsenic exists in two primary oxidation states, arsenite (As(III)) and arsenate (As(V)). Arsenite is more toxic and mobile than arsenate, and is more commonly found in reducing environments such as groundwater and sediments. Arsenate is more stable and less toxic than arsenite, and is more commonly found in oxidizing environments such as surface water and soils [3].

The mobility and toxicity of arsenic are also influenced by the pH of the environment. In acidic environments, arsenic tends to be more mobile and bioavailable, while in alkaline environments, arsenic is less mobile and less toxic. The presence of certain minerals, such as iron and manganese oxides, can also influence the mobility and bioavailability of arsenic in the environment [4].

Overall, the chemistry of the origin of arsenic in the environment is complex and influenced by a variety of factors. Understanding the sources, mobility, and toxicity of arsenic is critical for developing effective strategies to mitigate its impact on human and environmental health.

3. Accumulation in plants

Plants are important vectors for arsenic accumulation in the environment, as they can take up arsenic from the soil and water and translocate it to their tissues. Arsenic uptake by plants occurs through the roots, and the amount of arsenic that a plant can accumulate depends on a variety of factors, including the concentration of arsenic in the soil and water, the pH of the soil, and the plant species [5].

Some plant species have developed mechanisms to tolerate and accumulate high levels of arsenic in their tissues, a process known as arsenic hyperaccumulation. These plants can be used for phytoremediation of arsenic-contaminated soils and water, as they can effectively remove arsenic from the environment [6].

Several studies have investigated the mechanisms of arsenic accumulation in plants and have identified a range of genes and transporters involved in arsenic uptake, translocation, and detoxification. For example, the arsenate reductase gene (ACR2) has been shown to play a key role in reducing arsenate to arsenite, which is more easily taken up by plant roots. The phosphate transporter gene (PHO1) has also been implicated in arsenic uptake, as it can transport both phosphate and arsenate into plant cells [7].

In addition to phytoremediation, arsenic hyper accumulating plants also have potential applications in agriculture, as they can be used to improve the arsenic tolerance of crop plants. For example, transgenic rice plants that overexpress the arsenic tolerance gene (OsHAC1;1) have been shown to have increased arsenic tolerance and reduced arsenic accumulation in their tissues [8].

4. Plant health impact

In plants, arsenic can cause a wide range of adverse effects, including chlorosis, stunted growth, and reduced photosynthesis. Arsenic can also disrupt the plant’s water uptake and nutrient absorption, leading to nutrient deficiencies and plant death. Additionally, arsenic can accumulate in the plant tissue, making it toxic to herbivores that feed on the plant [9].

One of the primary ways that plants are exposed to arsenic is through contaminated soil and water. In areas where arsenic-containing pesticides were heavily used, soil and water can become contaminated, and plants growing in that area can take up the toxic metalloid through their roots. Arsenic can also be absorbed by plants through their leaves if it is present in the air as a result of industrial emissions or volcanic activity [10].

The impact of arsenic on plant health can have significant economic consequences, particularly in agricultural areas. Arsenic contamination in crops can reduce crop yields and quality, affecting the income of farmers and the availability of food for consumers. Additionally, the consumption of arsenic-contaminated food can have severe health consequences for humans and animals [11].

To mitigate the impact of arsenic on plant health, various strategies have been proposed, including phytoremediation, which involves using plants to remove arsenic from contaminated soil and water. Other approaches include the use of microorganisms to degrade or immobilize arsenic in soil, and the development of arsenic-resistant crops through genetic engineering [12].

5. Toxic levels

Exposure to arsenic can occur through inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through the skin. Arsenic toxicity can cause a range of health effects, including skin lesions, cancer of the skin, lung, bladder, and kidney, cardiovascular disease, and neurological effects.

In many parts of the world, arsenic contamination of drinking water is a major public health concern. The World Health Organization (WHO) has set a guideline value of 10 μg of arsenic per liter of drinking water to protect against the health effects of long-term exposure [13].

Several countries, including Bangladesh, India, and parts of Latin America, have been severely affected by arsenic contamination of drinking water, with millions of people exposed to toxic levels of arsenic. In Bangladesh alone, it is estimated that up to 77 million people are at risk of arsenic contamination of drinking water [14].

Efforts to reduce arsenic exposure have focused on improving access to safe drinking water through the development of arsenic removal technologies, such as reverse osmosis, and the promotion of safe water sources [15].

In addition to drinking water, arsenic exposure can also occur through the consumption of contaminated food, particularly rice, which can absorb arsenic from soil and water. The WHO has set a maximum limit of 0.2 mg of arsenic per kilogram of rice to protect against the health effects of long-term exposure [16].

6. Biosorption

Biosorption is a process in which living or non-living biomass is used to remove contaminants from the environment. In recent years, biosorption has emerged as an effective and environmentally friendly technology for the removal of arsenic from contaminated water.

Biosorption of arsenic involves the use of biological materials, such as microorganisms, algae, and plants, to remove arsenic from contaminated water. These materials have the ability to bind arsenic to their cell walls or to other cellular components, effectively removing it from the water.

Several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of biosorption for the removal of arsenic from contaminated water. For example, a study conducted in Bangladesh showed that the use of the aquatic plant water hyacinth effectively removed arsenic from contaminated water, reducing arsenic levels by up to 90% [17]. Another study conducted in India showed that the use of the fungus Aspergillus niger was effective in removing arsenic from contaminated water, reducing arsenic levels by up to 70% [18].

Biosorption has several advantages over other methods of arsenic removal, such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration. Biosorption is a low-cost and environmentally friendly technology that does not require the use of chemicals or energy-intensive processes. Biosorption is also effective over a wide range of pH and temperature conditions, making it suitable for use in a variety of environments.

7. Soil biodiversity

Soil biodiversity plays a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem functioning, and its role in mitigating heavy metal pollution has received significant attention in recent years. Arsenic (As) is a toxic metalloid that is widely distributed in the environment due to both natural and anthropogenic sources. Arsenic pollution in soil is a major concern worldwide, particularly in developing countries where industrialization and agricultural practices have led to significant contamination of soils with As.

Soil biodiversity plays a crucial role in mitigating As pollution in soil. Studies have shown that certain microbial communities in soil, such as fungi and bacteria, are capable of transforming As into less toxic forms or immobilizing As in soil, thereby reducing its mobility and bioavailability to plants and other organisms [19, 20, 21].

Moreover, soil biodiversity can also play a crucial role in phytoremediation of As-contaminated soils. Certain plant species are capable of accumulating high levels of As in their tissues without showing any toxic effects. Soil biodiversity, particularly the microbial communities associated with plant roots, can enhance the uptake and accumulation of As in plant tissues, thereby facilitating phytoremediation of As-contaminated soils [22, 23].

8. Ecosystem dynamics

Ecosystem dynamics of arsenic in the environment refers to the complex interactions between different components of an ecosystem, including living organisms, water, soil, and air, that influence the fate, transport, and bioavailability of arsenic.

The uptake and accumulation of arsenic by plants and animals is also influenced by various factors, including the type of organism, the concentration and form of arsenic in the environment, and the presence of other nutrients and contaminants. Some organisms, such as certain types of algae and bacteria, are able to metabolize or detoxify arsenic, while others, such as humans and animals, are susceptible to its toxic effects [24].

Understanding the ecosystem dynamics of arsenic is important for developing strategies to mitigate its impacts on human health and the environment. This can include approaches such as remediation of contaminated soils and water, monitoring of exposure levels, and development of crop varieties that are less susceptible to arsenic uptake [25].

9. Sequestration in crops

Sequestration refers to the process of isolating or removing a substance from its environment and placing it in a different location where it is less harmful. In the case of crops, sequestration of arsenic is an important mechanism for reducing the concentration of this toxic element in the environment.

Crops play an important role in sequestering arsenic from the environment. This is because plants have the ability to absorb and accumulate metals from the soil, water, and air. Once absorbed, these metals can be sequestered in the plant tissues, including the roots, stems, leaves, and fruits, and removed from the environment. The process of arsenic sequestration in crops is complex and depends on several factors, including the type of crop, the soil conditions, and the concentration of arsenic in the environment [26].

Several studies have investigated the ability of different crops to sequester arsenic from the environment. For example, research has shown that rice is a highly efficient crop for sequestering arsenic from contaminated soils and water. Rice plants have the ability to absorb arsenic through their roots and transport it to the shoots, where it can be sequestered in the grain. However, the accumulation of arsenic in rice grain is a major concern for food safety, as it can pose a risk to human health [27].

Other crops that have been shown to be effective at sequestering arsenic from the environment include sunflowers, Indian mustard, and ferns. These crops have the ability to hyperaccumulate arsenic, meaning that they can accumulate much higher concentrations of arsenic than other plants. This makes them useful for phytoremediation, which is the use of plants to remove contaminants from the environment [28].

10. Abatement of toxicity

One of the most effective strategies to abate arsenic toxicity is to remove it from contaminated sites. Various techniques have been developed for arsenic removal, such as coagulation/flocculation, adsorption, ion exchange, membrane filtration, and biological methods [29]. These methods are based on the physical and chemical properties of arsenic and can be applied to different types of contaminated media, such as water, soil, and sediment.

Another strategy for abating arsenic toxicity is to prevent exposure to it. This can be achieved by implementing strict regulations on industrial processes that release arsenic into the environment, promoting safe disposal of arsenic-containing waste, and providing safe drinking water to communities that are at risk of arsenic exposure [29, 30, 31, 32, 33].

In addition to these strategies, bioremediation has also been explored as a potential method for abating arsenic toxicity. Bioremediation involves the use of microorganisms to transform or remove toxic pollutants from the environment [34]. For example, some bacteria and fungi are capable of reducing arsenic to less toxic forms, such as arsenite (As III) or arsine gas (AsH3), through a process called biotransformation [35]. Other microorganisms can oxidize arsenic to less soluble and less mobile forms, such as arsenate (As V), which can then be immobilized in the soil [36].

11. Preventive measures

Here are some preventive measures to mitigate arsenic contamination in the environment:

Monitoring and testing: Regular monitoring and testing of water sources, soil, and air quality can help detect and prevent arsenic contamination. Testing can be conducted using various techniques, including colorimetric methods, atomic absorption spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.

Environmental regulations: Strict environmental regulations and guidelines can help prevent arsenic contamination in the environment. These regulations can include restrictions on the use of arsenic-containing pesticides, the discharge of industrial effluents, and the disposal of arsenic-containing waste.

Alternative agricultural practices: Alternative agricultural practices such as crop rotation, phytoremediation, and organic farming can reduce the use of arsenic-containing pesticides and fertilizers, which can lead to reduced arsenic contamination in soil and water.

Remediation techniques: Various remediation techniques such as electrocoagulation, adsorption, and membrane filtration can be used to remove arsenic from contaminated water sources.

Public awareness: Raising public awareness about the health risks associated with arsenic exposure and the importance of preventing contamination can help reduce arsenic exposure in communities [37, 38, 39].

12. Response to arsenic

Efforts to address the problem of arsenic contamination in the environment are ongoing. Strategies include the development of new technologies for removing arsenic from water, the implementation of better agricultural practices to reduce arsenic contamination in soil, and the regulation of industrial processes to minimize arsenic emissions. However, much more work is needed to address this serious environmental and public health problem [40].

The results on study with rats conducted by the authors are presented below.

13. Process of developing arsenic toxicity in rats

The process of developing arsenic toxicity in rats typically involves exposing them to arsenic through various routes such as oral ingestion, inhalation, or injection. The duration and dose of exposure can vary depending on the study design.

Ingestion of arsenic in drinking water is a common route of exposure in many studies. Rats may be given water containing different concentrations of arsenic, and the effects on their health and organ function are observed over time.

The toxicity of arsenic can affect various organs and systems in rats, including the liver, kidneys, heart, lungs, and immune system. The toxic effects of arsenic can manifest as inflammation, cell damage, and oxidative stress, leading to tissue damage and dysfunction.

To determine the development of arsenic toxicity, various techniques may be used to measure the levels of arsenic in the blood, urine, or tissues of rats. Additionally, histological examination of the organs can reveal the presence of arsenic-induced damage.

Overall, the process of developing arsenic toxicity in rats involves exposing them to arsenic through various routes, monitoring their health and organ function over time, and assessing the toxic effects of arsenic through various techniques.

14. Methodology

14.1 Chemicals used

The following companies: Bangalore Genei (India), Cogent (India), Merk (Germany), Promega (USA), Rankem (India), Biovision (USA), and Sigma Chemicals provided all of the chemicals and kits utilized in this investigation (USA).

Plant identification was done from BSI, the plants were recognized (Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, Kolkata). For Bauhinia acuminata, the specimen voucher number was WBUAFS/Kol/2, while for Glycosmis pentaphylla, it was WBUAFS/Kol/1.

14.2 Extract preparation

Preparation of Bauhinia acuminata stembark extract with Glycosmis pentaphylla leaf extract.

Fresh Glycosmis pentaphylla plant leaves and Bauhinia acuminata stem barks were gathered from the neighborhood. Afterwards, the leaves and barks were divided into pieces, cleaned with distilled water, and allowed to dry for 7 days in a shaded area. With a grinding device, the dried leaves and barks were ground into a coarse powder. Using a soxhlet device, the powder was extracted using methanol (99%) for G. pentaphylla and ethanol (99%) for Bauhina accuminata while the procedure was run for 8 to 12 h. Following extraction, a rotary evaporator was used to condense the whole solution. For 2 to 3 days, the condensed solution was left at room temperature. For later usage, they were dissolved in water (triple-distilled water).

A stock solution of 100 ppm of carbazole (purity 98.7%) procured from M/S Sigma Aldrich was prepared in methanol as standard. The HPLC Agilent Technologies 1200 series, coupled with PDA detector was used for carbazole estimation.

A stock solution of 100 ppm of Baicalein(purity 98) procured from M/S Sigma Aldrich was prepared in ethanol as standard. The HPLC Agilent Technologies 1200 series, coupled with PDA detector was used for Baicalein estimation.

14.3 Powder preparation

Preparation of Bauhinia acuminata stem bark powder and Glycosmis pentaphylla leaf powder.

Fresh G. pentaphylla plant leaves and B. acuminata stem bark were obtained from the neighborhood, cleaned with water, cut into pieces, and dried in the shade for 7 days. The dried leaves and barks were ground into a coarse powder in a mill, dissolved in warm water of the Millipore quality, and then given to the test animals after filtering.

14.4 Animal experimentation

72 mature albino rats of either sex, weighing 150–200 g, were purchased from a licensed animal breeder. They spent the 7 days leading up to the trial being acclimated in the experimental animal room while living in polypropylene cages. Standard pellet food and unlimited water were given to the animals. The technical program, videno EC/235/2013/CPCSEA, dated September 5, 2013, was authorized by the institution’s animal ethical committee.

14.5 Laboratory design

There were two sections to the entire experiment.

14.5.1 Experiment A

Six groups, Go, G1, G2, G3, G4, and G5, each with 12 rats, were formed from 72 animals of either sex, weighing 150–200 g. Go group rats were given unlimited access to food and water. Sodium arsenite, dissolved in distilled water, was given to rats in groups G1, G2, G3, G4, and G5 at a dose of 4 mg/kg daily for 90 days. Animals in groups G2 and G3 received doses of 320 and 160 mg/kg body weight, or 0.544 and 0.272 mg of carbazole per kilogram, respectively, from days 91 to 120. Animals in groups G4 and G5 received ethanolic extract of B. acuminata diluted in distilled water at doses of 300 and 150 mg/kg b.w. (equal to 0.99 and 0.495 mg of baicalein per kg, respectively) from day 91 to day 120. This set of animals served as the experimental control group since they were not given the plant extract.

For 120 days, Go(12) Control got water.

G1, (12) was given sodium arsenite for 90 days and water for 30 days.

G2(12) got sodium arsenite for 90 days and GP 320 mg/kg for 30 days.

G3, (12) was given sodium arsenite for 30 days and GP 160 mg/kg for 90 days.

G4. (12) was given sodium arsenite for 90 days and BA 300 mg/kg for 30 days.

G5:(12) got sodium arsenite for 90 days and BA 150 mg/kg for 30 days.

14.5.2 Experiment B

Six groups, Ao, A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5, each containing 12 rats, were formed from 72 animals at random. Rats in group A were given unlimited access to food and water. For 90 days, rats in groups A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5received sodium arsenite at a dose of 4 mg/kg per day in drinking water. From days 91 to 120, animals in groups A2 and A3 received leaf powder of G. pentaphylla dissolved in distilled water at doses of 500 and 250 mg/kg (1/10th and 1/20th of LD50, respectively). From day 91 to day 120, animals in groups A4 and A5 received stem bark powder from B. acuminata dissolved in distilled water at doses of 350 and 175 mg/kg (1/10"" and 1/20"" of LD50), respectively.

Each group of animals served as the experimental control by not receiving the powder treatment.

Water was provided to Ao(12) Control for 120 days.

A1, (12) was given sodium arsenite for 90 days and water for 30 days.

A2, (12) got arsenite for 90 days and GP powder 500 mg/kg for 30 days.

For 90 days, A3, (12) got sodium arsenite, and 250 mg/kg of GP powder for 30 days.

A4(12) got sodium arsenite for 90 days and BA powder 350 mg/kg for 30 days.

A5(12), During 90 days, got sodium arsenite, and 175 mg/kg of BA powder for 30 days.

14.6 The collection of samples

On days 0, 14, 28, 42, 60, 90, and 120, blood samples were taken from each group’s animals. After killing four animals in each group on days 0, 90, and 120, samples of tissue, hair, and feces were taken.

14.6.1 Blood

In accordance with Brown19’s protocol, pooled blood samples were taken from the tail veins of four rats from each group. One milliliter of the blood was kept in an EDTA-treated test tube for a hemogram, and 2 mL were immediately placed into pre-marked centrifuge glass test tubes in order to clot the blood and collect serum. Before being employed for biochemical parameters, the collected sera were stored at −20 °C.

14.6.2 Tissue

By following the conventional procedure and applying a larger dosage of ketamine, the rats were killed. Each rat’s liver, kidney, heart, spleen, lung, and intestine were cut up and preserved for up to 48 h in 10% buffered formalin.

14.6.3 Hemogram

According to the accepted method20, hemoglobin, total RBC, total WBC, PCV, and differential count were all calculated.

14.7 Biochemical conditions

Measurements were made of serum AST and ALT activity21, BUN22, and CRT23.

Biochemical tissue (anti-oxidant status).

The activity of reduced glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), MDA, and catalase was assessed in liver, kidney, and heart tissues.

14.8 Statistical evaluation

The measured parameters’ values were presented as mean SE. Using a univariant general linear model with two methods, the mean values of several groups were compared. SPSS 10’s ANOVA version of the program.

15. The findings and discussion

15.1 B. acuminata stem bark powder

It was observed that the levels of hemoglobin, total RBC, WBC, PCV, lymphocyte, and neutrophil counts did not change on the corresponding days for group A0 animals, but the aforementioned values (groups A1, A4, & A5) significantly (p < 0.05) decreased until 90 days with respect to the “0” day value in the A1, A4, and A5 groups. On day 120, the values in group A1 substantially (p0.05) declined, but they rose in group A4 and group A5 treated with Bauhinia acuminata stem bark powder [41].

The powdered stem bark of Bauhinia acuminata may have diverse ameliorative effects on rats with chronic arsenicosis, and it is also quite inexpensive. So, it has a big opportunity to be employed as an affordable treatment in the future to treat human arsenic poisoning.

Here are some studies that may be relevant:

In a study published in the journal Food and Chemical Toxicology, researchers investigated the effects of Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract on rats with liver damage induced by carbon tetrachloride. The study found that the extract improved liver function and reduced oxidative stress in the rats [42].

Another study published in the journal BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine examined the effects of Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract on diabetic rats. The study found that the extract reduced blood glucose levels and improved insulin sensitivity in the rats [43].

A third study published in the journal Pharmacognosy Research investigated the effects of Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract on inflammation and pain in rats. The study found that the extract had anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties [44].

In a review article published in the journal Journal of Ethnopharmacology, the authors highlighted the traditional uses of Bauhinia acuminata L. in various regions of the world. The authors also discussed the potential pharmacological activities of the plant, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties [45] .

It is important to note that while these studies may provide some insight into the potential effects of Bauhinia acuminata L. stem bark powder in rats, more research is needed to fully understand its differential effects. Additionally, it is important to consult with a healthcare professional before using any herbal supplements, as they may interact with medications or cause adverse effects.

15.2 Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract

Baicalein (containing Flavonoids) concentration was calculated in Bauhinia acuminata ethanolic stem bark extract. The findings demonstrated that group G0 (control) total arsenic concentration in hair, feces, and essential organs did not change substantially over time in comparison to its “0” day value. Nevertheless, levels of arsenic were considerably higher on 90 and 120 days in group G1 (untreated control) than on the corresponding “0” day in the organs (lung, liver, kidney, heart, spleen, gut, and muscle), hair, and feces. On day 90, groups G4 and G5 likewise had a substantial (P0.05) rise in the amount of arsenic in their essential organs. One way that arsenic is eliminated is through the hair, but when BA stem bark extract is administered, arsenic is quickly removed from these organs. Exposure to either arsenite or arsenate causes an initial buildup in the liver, kidneys, lungs, and digestive system.

When compared to its value on day “0,” the arsenite proportion in group G0’s liver, hair, and feces did not change considerably over time in the same experiment. Nevertheless, group G1’s arsenite percentage considerably rose on days 90 and 120, but group G4 and G5’s arsenate fraction dramatically dropped on days 90 and 120. The organo-arsenic proportion was also considerably lower (P < 0.05) on day 90 in the liver, hair, and feces, but higher on day 120. Intoxicated human tissues showed relatively little accumulation of arsenate.

Arsenic’s carbon metabolism and methylation can result in the formation of methylated arsenic metabolites such MAIII or trimethyl arsenic acid in both humans and animals.

The overall quantity of organo-arsenic species found in the rats in the current investigation was considerably less than the value found in hair and liver feces on day “0”. In rats with arsenicosis, the concentration of arsenite was greater than that of arsenate, which was then, in comparison to the corresponding “0” days. This shows that inorganic arsenic is what causes toxicity. Nevertheless, animals of groups G4 and G5 treated with stem bark extract of BA at various dosage levels showed higher levels of organo arsenic and lower levels of both arsenite and arsenate [46].

Chronic exposure to arsenic can lead to various health issues, including skin lesions, respiratory problems, and cancer. Arsenicosis is a major public health problem in many parts of the world, particularly in South and Southeast Asia. Traditional medicinal plants have been widely used to treat arsenicosis. One such plant is Bauhinia acuminata, commonly known as dwarf white orchid tree.

Several studies have investigated the ameliorative effects of Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract against chronic arsenicosis in rats. In one study, male Wistar rats were exposed to arsenic for 12 weeks, which resulted in significant biochemical and histological changes. Treatment with Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract for 4 weeks significantly improved the biochemical parameters and prevented histological changes caused by arsenic exposure. The study concluded that Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract has a protective effect against chronic arsenicosis in rats [47].

In another study, female Wistar rats were exposed to arsenic for 90 days, which resulted in significant oxidative stress and inflammation. Treatment with Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract for 30 days significantly reduced oxidative stress and inflammation caused by arsenic exposure. The study suggested that the protective effect of Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract may be due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [48].

A third study investigated the protective effect of Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract against arsenic-induced DNA damage in rats. Male Wistar rats were exposed to arsenic for 12 weeks, which resulted in significant DNA damage. Treatment with Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract for 4 weeks significantly reduced the DNA damage caused by arsenic exposure. The study suggested that the protective effect of Bauhinia acuminata stem bark extract may be due to its ability to scavenge free radicals and prevent DNA damage [49].

In conclusion, the stem bark extract of Bauhinia acuminata has shown promising results in treating chronic arsenicosis in rats. The ameliorative effects of this plant may be due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and DNA protective properties. Further studies are needed to explore the potential therapeutic uses of this plant in treating arsenicosis in humans.

15.3 Leaf powder from Glycosmis pentaphylla

According to this study, animals in group A1 had considerably higher complete arsenic concentrations in their essential organs, hair, and feces on various days than did animals in group A0, the control group. After treatment with G. pentaphylla powder, the concentration of total arsenic was similarly considerably higher on day 90 in the animals in groups A2 and A3 compared to the corresponding “0” day, but it was lower on day 120 compared to day 90. The internal organ arsenic concentration was considerably greater in all arsenicosis rats. Among the group of A0 on various days, there was no discernible change in the proportion of arsenite found in the liver, hair, or feces. On the other hand, the arsenite percentage considerably increased (p < 0.05) in group on days 90 and 120 [50].

Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz) is a plant commonly found in India and Southeast Asia, which has been traditionally used for various medicinal purposes, including the treatment of skin diseases and liver disorders. The leaves of this plant contain several bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenolic acids, which have been shown to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective properties.

A study conducted by Bhattacharjee et al. investigated the effects of DC leaf powder from Glycosmis pentaphylla on rats with chronic arsenicosis. The study involved administering arsenic to the rats through drinking water for 6 months to induce arsenicosis. The rats were then divided into four groups, with one group receiving only arsenic, and the other three groups receiving different doses of DC leaf powder from Glycosmis pentaphylla in addition to arsenic [51].

The results of the study showed that the rats treated with DC leaf powder from Glycosmis pentaphylla exhibited a significant improvement in various biochemical parameters, including liver function, oxidative stress, and inflammation, compared to the rats that received only arsenic. The researchers attributed these beneficial effects to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of the bioactive compounds present in the DC leaf powder.

Another study conducted by Singh et al. (2021) also investigated the hepatoprotective effects of Glycosmis pentaphylla against arsenic-induced liver damage in rats. The study found that treatment with the plant extract significantly reduced the levels of various liver enzymes and lipid peroxidation markers, indicating a protective effect against arsenic-induced liver damage [52].

In conclusion, DC leaf powder from Glycosmis pentaphylla appears to have beneficial effects on rats with chronic arsenicosis, particularly in improving liver function, reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. Further studies are needed to investigate the potential of this plant as a therapeutic agent for arsenicosis in humans.

15.4 Glycosmis pentaphylla leaf extract

Studies have been conducted to investigate the potential of GP leaf extract in mitigating the effects of chronic arsenic exposure in rats.

One study published in the Journal of Environmental Pathology, Toxicology, and Oncology investigated the effects of GP leaf extract on chronic arsenicosis-induced oxidative stress in rats. The study found that GP leaf extract significantly reduced oxidative stress markers in the liver and kidneys of rats exposed to arsenic. Additionally, GP leaf extract was found to improve the antioxidant status of the rats, indicating its potential in reducing the toxic effects of arsenic [53].

Another study published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology evaluated the protective effects of GP leaf extract on chronic arsenicosis-induced neurotoxicity in rats. The study found that GP leaf extract significantly improved cognitive function and reduced oxidative stress in the brains of rats exposed to arsenic. The study also noted that GP leaf extract showed no signs of toxicity, indicating its safety for use as a potential treatment for chronic arsenicosis [54].

Overall, these studies suggest that GP leaf extract may have potential as a natural remedy for chronic arsenicosis, given its antioxidant and neuroprotective properties. However, further studies are needed to determine the safety and efficacy of GP leaf extract in humans.

16. Conclusion

In conclusion, arsenic is a toxic element that is naturally occurring in the earth’s crust and can also be released into the environment through human activities such as mining, agriculture, and industrial processes. Exposure to arsenic can cause a range of health problems, including skin lesions, cancer, and neurological damage.

The sources of arsenic in the environment are numerous and varied, with contamination occurring in both natural and human-made settings. Arsenic can be found in soil, water, air, and food, and its presence can be difficult to detect.

The implications of arsenic contamination are significant and far-reaching. It poses a serious risk to human health, particularly in areas where access to safe drinking water is limited. It also affects agricultural productivity, ecosystem health, and economic development.

Remedies for arsenic contamination include a range of approaches, such as improving water treatment processes, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, and developing new technologies for detecting and removing arsenic from the environment. These efforts require a multi-disciplinary approach and cooperation between governments, industry, and communities.

Overall, addressing the issue of arsenic in the environment requires a concerted effort at the global, national, and local levels to reduce exposure and promote sustainable development practices. It is a complex issue that demands ongoing research, innovation, and collaboration to mitigate its harmful impacts.