Summary of selected research on rubberized concrete.
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\r\n\tThey are hypersensitive to chemical pollution, habitat degradation, a variation of river and groundwater quality, climate change and even the sun's ultraviolet radiation, amphibians are among the vertebrate groups most endangered by human activity, and their abundance in wetlands is always one of the best indicators of good environmental conservation.
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\r\n\tIn this book, we have considered all aspects of amphibians biology, diversity, conservation and potential use of amphibians as environmental indicators.
\nStaphylococcus epidermidis is a commensal inhabitant of human and animal skin that rarely causes disease in healthy persons and animals. In recent years, however, S. epidermidis has been the most prevalent species isolated from device-associated infections [1]. The ability of biofilm formation by S. epidermidis is an important reason that investigators pay more attention to this emerging pathogen in recent years. It is reported that the major pathogenicity of S. epidermidis is attributed to its biofilm formed on the surface of infected tissues, which enhances bacterial resistance to antibiotics [2]. Biofilm formation by S. epidermidis involves two major steps. After finishing initial attachment, bacteria accumulate and form a multilayered architecture [3]. Bacteria develop biofilm by producing high-viscosity extracellular matrices including polysaccharides (EPS), proteins, and DNA (eDNA).
\nThere is an increasing amount of biofilm research aimed at exploring how bacteria control their biofilm formation and to discover nontoxic compounds that can attenuate biofilm formation without allowing bacteria to develop drug resistance [4]. Special plants and Actinomycetes are both rich sources of bioactive substances, notably antibiotics, enzymes, enzyme inhibitors, and pharmacologically active agents [4, 5]. Moreover, some Actinomycete species were reported to produce inhibitors against biofilm formation by Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [6–9].
\nWith this background, we aim to present the current knowledge on biofilm formation of S. epidermidis and review the control strategies to biofilm.
\n\nS. epidermidis infections are regarded as prototypic biofilm infections. The process of biofilm formation by S. epidermidis is periodically dynamic. Also, surface adhesion between planktonic bacterial cells is a key for biofilm formation. Once several cells succeed in adhering on a surface, named initial attachment of cells, surface motility and binary division result in an aggregation of attached cells. These primary cell aggregates produce exopolymers, including exopolysaccharides and extracellular proteins, which form extracellular matrix. Some of those factors may also originate from lysed cells, such as extracellular DNA (eDNA) [10]. Subsequently, there is development of a multicellular, multilayered biofilm architecture. In the later phase of biofilm formation, biofilm cells and clusters can detach. This detachment process is of key importance for the dissemination of biofilm-associated infection [10].
\nNonspecific adhesions between bacterial cells, which are mainly attributed to the composition of compounds on the surface of bacterial cells and their hydrophobicities, play an important role in biofilm formation. Additionally, autolysin (AtlE) and teichoic acids have influences on biofilm formation [11, 12]. It is reported that lots of autolysin enhanced the cell surface hydrophobicity and increased the biofilm formation. Also, teichoic acids correlated with increased cell surface hydrophobicity, so they contributed to biofilm formation [11, 12].
\nIn vivo primary attachment occurs to host tissue or host matrix proteins. S. epidermidis produces a variety of surface proteins binding host proteins in a specific manner. Bacterial surface proteins with such capacities have been termed microbial components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules (MCRAMM) [13]. The C-terminus of such bacterial surface proteins consists of an LPxTG (Leu-Pro-x-Thr-Gly) motif containing Gram-positive cell wall anchor, which covalently links to the cell wall [1]. According to genomic analyses, S. epidermidis has at least 14 MCRAMMs with an LPxTG motif. Many of those belong to the serine-aspartate (SD)-repeat-containing protein family (called Sdr). The SD-repeat region spans the cell wall and extends the ligand-binding region from the surface of the bacteria [14]. Adequate SD repeats within proteins are essential for outstanding from bacterial cell surface, which are covalently anchored to the peptidoglycan of Gram-positive bacteria.
\nThe SD repeat family protein Sdr G in S. epidermidis, which is very similar to a fibrinogen-binding protein (Fbe), is necessary and sufficient for binding to fibrinogen-coated material. SdrG knock-out mutant showed less adhesion on fibrinogen-coated surfaces. It is reported that in vivo anti-SdrG antibody decreased the numbers of S. epidermidis cells adherent to biomaterials [14]. One of Sdr proteins, SdrF, mediates binding to type I collagen via one or both ɑ1 chains, named collagen-binding protein [15].
\nSome of surface proteins on bacterial cell wall are adherent to host cells via noncovalent interaction, such as hydrophobic bonds and Van der Waals’ force, which of process are involved into the polymers on bacterial cell surface, e.g., teichoic acids. Teichoic acids are main components consisting of the cell wall of Gram-positive. They bind to peptidoglycan of cell wall and influence the activity of autolysin (AtlE). AtlE, encoded by the atlE gene, is a bifunctional autolysin: one is able to mediate bacterial adhesion, and the other is to promote bacterial cell autolysis, which releases DNA out of cells, named extracellular DNA (eDNA) [16].
\nFollowing the primary attachment of cells to a surface, bacterial cells occur to accumulate with the help of a variety of associated-accumulation factors, such as polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA), accumulation-associated protein (Aap), and so on.
\nIn the process of biofilm formation by S. epidermidis, PIA plays an important role in cell aggregation. Studies with S. epidermidis mutant revealed that the accumulation-defective mutants were unable to form a biofilm as they were unable to display intercellular aggregation or to produce PIA [17]. Further characterization of this S. epidermidis mutant showed that a deletion of icaR gene was found to upregulate PIA expression, providing evidence that this gene negatively regulates the PIA expression [17]. However, it is reported that there is no ica operon in some of clinical S. epidermidis strains, which have capacity of biofilm formation, named ica or PIA-independent type. In these strains, the accumulation-associated protein (Aap) is a major factor contributing to exopolysaccharide-independent biofilms of S. epidermidis [1]. Aap protein promotes cell-cell adhesion via a Zn2+-dependent mechanism [18]. It is reported that 90% of isolated S. epidermidis strains contain aap gene, which is implicated in both PIA-dependent and PIA-independent biofilm formations of S. epidermidis [18]. S. epidermidis ATCC 35984 is a ica+ strain and a biofilm former, whose biofilm formation mainly depends on PIA consisting of reducing polysaccharides in which dihydroxyl groups are unsubstituted. However, exopolysaccharides in ica−\nS. epidermidis mainly consist of nonreducing polysaccharides [19].
\nCellular aggregation constantly occurs and subsequently forms biofilm. Disruptive molecules create channels in the biofilm, which are essential for nutrient accessibility in deeper biofilm layers and give the biofilm its characteristic structure, often described as mushroom-like shapes [10]. The characteristic structure of mature biofilms with mushroom-like shapes and channels is dependent on the production of phenolsoluble modulins (PSMs) in S. epidermidis.
\nOf primary importance for dissemination of biofilm-associated infection, cells or cell aggregates may detach from a mature biofilm to reach the next infection sites. This may occur by mechanical forces under flow, such as present in a blood vessel, in a process often called sloughing [10]. Additionally, the bacteria can trigger detachment by PSM production. These surfactant-like molecules work by decreasing noncovalent adhesion between bacterial cells.
\nSeveral in vitro studies have demonstrated that bacteria within biofilms are more resistant against antibiotic treatment as compared to planktonic cultures of the same strains [20].
\n\nS. epidermidis and other bacterial species produce an extracellular matrix called glycocalyx or slime, which is a highly hydrated complex composed of teichoic acids, proteins, and exopolysaccharides. In biofilms, poor antibiotic penetration, nutrient limitation and slow growth, and formation of persister cells are hypothesized to be responsible for drug resistance.
\nBiofilms are typically characterized by dense, highly hydrated clusters of bacterial cells enclosed in a self-produced polymeric matrix that is primarily composed of exopolysaccharides such as polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) in staphylococci and adherent to a surface. This matrix, also termed slime or extracellular polymeric substance (EPS), impairs the access of antimicrobial agents to the bacterial cells [21]. Additionally, either a reaction of EPS with or its adsorption to the components of the biofilm matrix can delay penetration of the antibiotics through the biofilm matrix. The effective diffusion coefficients of solutes in biofilms average about 40% of the respective diffusion coefficient in pure water [20]. S. epidermidis slime has been found to remarkably decrease the activity of the glycopeptides vancomycin and teicoplanin. The efficacy of cloxacillin, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, imipenem, cefpirome, erythromycin, roxithromycin, clindamycin, fusidic acid, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, doxycycline, gentamicin, tobramycin, netilmicin, amikacin, isepamicin, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and daptomycin is also moderately affected by the exopolysaccharide matrix of S. epidermidis. Other studies have suggested that S. epidermidis glycocalyx reduces susceptibility to pefloxacin and moderately affects the activity of daptomycin, linezolid, and quinupristin/dalfopristin [22, 23]. The role of biofilm matrix in retarding the penetration of antibiotics is thereby contributed to the drug resistance of S. epidermidis biofilms.
\nSlow cell growth of the bacterial has been found in mature biofilms [17]. This phenomenon is responsible for the decreased susceptibility of bacteria in biofilms to antibiotics requiring growing organisms for their bactericidal effects. For example, penicillins and cephalosporins prefer to killing the growing bacterial cells, and the rate of killing cells is proportional to the growth rate [17]. It is well known that most antimicrobial agents act on certain types of macromolecular synthesis to exert antimicrobial activities, such as the synthesis of enzymes, proteins, and nucleic acids (DNA or RNA). Thus, these antibiotics have little effects on bacteria with stagnant macromolecular synthesis, which leads to bacterial drug resistance.
\nNutrition restriction is one of reasons that are responsible for slow cell growth. The mechanism of nutrition restriction is closely related to the osmotic restriction. Due to the existence of biofilm osmotic restriction, nutrients are not easy to pass through biofilm, which leads to the lack of nutrition in biofilm and slows down the growth rate of inner layer bacteria. This slow growth state of inner layer bacteria also forms a protective mechanism, which reduces the susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics [24].
\nWhen the biofilm cells are exposed to antibiotics, the bacteria on the surface of the biofilm are killed by the drug, and the cells in the middle and deep layers of the biofilm are not affected. After the antibiotic treatment stops, the remaining bacteria will use dead bacteria as nutrients to reproduce rapidly, which can only take a few hours to reproduce [25, 26].
\nDelayed penetration of the antibiotics through the biofilm matrix and slow rate of bacterial reproduction in biofilm cannot explain entirely the resistance of biofilms to one important class of antibiotics, namely the fluoroquinolones. This class of antimicrobial agents equilibrates across bacterial biofilms and exerts bactericidal effect on nondividing cells [17]. Although a dose-dependent bactericidal action was observed in P. aeruginosa biofilms by the fluoroquinolones ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin, a further increase in the antibiotic concentration or a prolonged drug action period did not improve killing rates after an initial 3- to 4-log drop bacterial counts. This result suggested that a small portion of “persister” cells occurs after administration of fluoroquinolones [17, 27, 28]. The most significant difference between persisters and mutant resistant strains is that the drug resistance of persisters is only a phenotypic variation without gene mutation, so this phenotype is not genetic. These strains were collected, recultured, and detected the drug resistance. It was intriguing that the drug resistance disappeared, and the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were the same level as those of parent strains. Meanwhile, the resistant strains caused by mutation showed a stable genetic drug resistance, and MICs were higher than those of parent strains [28].
\nPersister cells in biofilms are considered to the key in the extraordinary survival properties of biofilms. The dynamic features of biofilm formation and shedding of cells from one biofilm to form a new biofilm may also explain the chronic nature of biofilm infections and the need for extending antimicrobial agent treatment to disturb the dynamics of biofilm formation [17].
\nBecause the expression of toxins and other virulence factors is less in S. epidermidis, the biofilm forming capacity is its major virulence factor. Biofilm growth is characterized by high resistance to antimicrobial agents and host immune responses, making biofilm eradication tremendously difficult. The increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant S. epidermidis strains additionally hampers antimicrobial therapy. Therefore, targeting factors expressed at different phases in biofilm formation might offer new tools to combat S. epidermidis infections.
\nThe first step of biofilm formation is bacterial adherence to the host cell surface. Direct binding to host cell surface is mediated by electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals forces and affected by physicochemical variables [29].
\nFound in our research, after investigating the antibiofilm activities of spent media from 185 Actinomycete strains using two S. epidermidis strains (ATCC 35984 and a clinical strain 5-121-2) as target bacteria, three strains of tested Actinomycete (TRM 46200, TRM 41337, and TRM 46814) showed a significant inhibition against S. epidermidis biofilm formation without affecting the growth of planktonic cells. Effect of Actinomycete supernatants on cell surface hydrophobicity (CSH) of S. epidermidis was measured by Microbial Adhesion to Hydrocarbon (MATH) assay. The adhesion of staphylococci to n-hexadecane was used to measure the hydrophobicity of S. epidermidis. All the crude proteins from spent media showed a reduction in the CSH against S. epidermidis ATCC 35984 and 5-121-2, which explain at least in part the inhibitory effect of Actinomycete supernatants on biofilm reduction [19].
\nMoreover, apart from physico-chemical determinants, it was demonstrated that the major autolysine AtlE is involved in attachment to polystyrene surfaces. Therefore, AtlE may be indirectly involved in cell adhesion via releasing DNA. Treatment of S. epidermidis cells with DNaseI was found to inhibit biofilm formation at an early time point, suggesting that release of DNA also contributes to the attachment of S. epidermidis to artificial surfaces [30]. In our research, we performed the degradation of the crude proteins from spent media against S. epidermidis DNA. The crude protein from spent media of TRM 46200 showed a significant DNA-degradation activity. Importantly, the crude protein from spent medium of TRM 41337 possessed the highest DNA-degradation activity as that of the positive control, 10 μg/ml of DNaseI [19].
\n\nS. epidermidis foreign-associated infections occurring early are thought to involve direct interactions of the bacterial surface with host extracellular matrix (ECM). Specific binding to surface ECM proteins involves cell wall-associated adhesins known as MSCRAMMs (microbial surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules) [31, 32]. The recent studies have shown that antibodies against cell surface components of S. epidermidis can affect the rate of biofilm formation or adherence of these bacteria to medical devices in vitro. Using polyclonal antibodies against a fibrinogen-binding protein from S. epidermidis (Fbe) could block adherence of S. epidermidis to fibrinogen-coated catheters in vitro [33, 34]. Consequently, all these surface-located components are good candidates for vaccine development aiming at the inhibition of the initial attachment step of biofilm formation.
\nAfter adherence to the host cell surface, biofilms develop through intercellular aggregation. The major factor involved in intercellular adhesion is polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA). The de-acetylation of PIA is not only essential for biofilm formation but also crucial for S. epidermidis virulence [29]. Hence, PIA was one of the first targets evaluated in view of biofilm-inhibiting S. epidermidis vaccine development. Pier and coworkers have significantly contributed to the evaluation of PIA as vaccine target. Following the evidence, high-molecular-weight PIA could elicit an antibody response accompanied by opsonophagocytic killing of the PIA-dependent biofilm-forming S. epidermidis M187 and three S. aureus strains. The PIA-specific antibodies can prevent biofilm formation or retard already initiated biofilm development [35].
\nPIA biosynthesis depends on the expression of the icaADBC operon, which is controlled by a complex regulatory network. Gomes et al. studied the effect of rifampicin+gentamicin and rifampicin+clindamycin combinations on the expression of icaA and rsbU genes, responsible for poly-N-acetylglucosamine/polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PNAG/PIA) production. The results demonstrated that this combinatorial therapy can cause a lower genetic expression of the two specific genes tested and consequently can reduce biofilm formation recidivism [36, 37].
\nNevertheless, S. epidermidis strains lacking icaADBC but still producing biofilm were isolated, indicating the existence of an ica-independent mechanism of cell accumulation. A proteinaceous intercellular adhesin involved in cell accumulation during biofilm formation was discovered. The accumulation-associated protein (Aap) can functionally substitute PIA as an intercellular adhesin, and there is good evidence that additional proteinaceous intercellular adhesins must exist. They showed that monoclonal antibodies against Aap can significantly reduce the accumulation but not initiation phase of S. epidermidis biofilm formation in vitro [38].
\nBiofilm formation is a result of bacterial interactions and group behavior. Quorum sensing (QS) is one of the regulatory mechanisms suggested to be involved in coordinating biofilm formation. The QS system is a cell-to-cell communication system used by many bacteria to assess the cell density. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSI) could be a novel way to fight biofilm-associated infections. The study has identified furanones and thiophenones as inhibitors of quorum sensing and biofilm formation. In this study, the effect of both the furanone and the thiophenone could be abolished by the synthetic Autoinducer-2 (AI-2) molecule (S)-4,5-dihydroxy-2,3-pentanedione (DPD), indicating that furanone and thiophenone affect biofilm formation through interference with bacterial communication [39].
\nFor the biofilm that has been formed on the surface of the host, if the biofilm can be separated by antibacterial oranti-biofilm substances, the bacteria in the biofilm can be released, and the planktonic bacteria are more easily to be killed if the biofilm is exposed to antibiotics. Biofilms are composed primarily of microbial cells and extracellular polymeric substance (EPS). EPS may account for 50–90% of the total organic carbon of biofilms and can be considered the primary matrix material of the biofilm. The components of EPS include polysaccharides, nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins [36].
\nWe initially determined the dependent type of biofilm formation by S. epidermidis ATCC 35984 and 5-121-2. The biofilm formation by S. epidermidis ATCC 35984 mainly depends on EPS consisting of reducing polysaccharides in which dihydroxyl groups are unsubstituted. Thus, sodium-meta-periodate, which specifically destroys sugars containing unsubstituted dihydroxyl groups, significantly decreased biofilm formation in S. epidermidis ATCC 35984. However, not only EPS but also proteins, eDNA, are responsible for the biofilm formation of S. epidermidis 5-121-2. Moreover, EPS in S. epidermidis 5-121-2, which mainly consists of nonreducing polysaccharides, is distinct with those in S. epidermidis ATCC 35984. Thus, three enzymes specific to nonreducing glycosides, amylase, β-glucanase, and β-glucosidase, worked effectively in the degradation of EPS, resulting in biofilm reduction in S. epidermidis 5-121-2 [19].
\nSince extracellular polysaccharides are the main compounds in biofilm matrices, namely in S. epidermidis, antimicrobial substances able to disrupt or inhibit EPS are of major interest. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is an amino acid with strong antioxidant, antimucolytic, and antibacterial properties. As observed by researchers, NAC decreased biofilm formation and reduced the formation of extracellular polysaccharide matrix while promoting the disruption of mature biofilm. NAC has demonstrated not only to reduce adhesion but also to detach bacterial cells adhered to surfaces and to inhibit bacterial growth in vitro. The possible action of NAC in the biofilm matrix can result in the release of cells either individually or in cell clusters, becoming the biofilm and loose cells more exposed and susceptible to the host immune system and to other antimicrobial agents [40]. Kaplan et al. found an enzyme called dispersin B, which can promote biofilm detachment from Actinobacillus actinomycetemconitans, which rapidly and effectively removes biofilms formed by S. epidermidis on the host surface. Dispersin B is a β-1,6-N-Acetylglucosaminidase that causes S. epidermidis to detach from the biofilm matrix by degrading PIA [41].
\nOur results showed that EPS in S. epidermidis ATCC 35984 and 5-121-2 was degraded by crude proteins from three Actinomycete strains (TRM 41337, TRM 46200, and TRM 46814) supernatants. Specifically, for the strain ATCC 35984 when treated with crude proteins from spent medium of the strain TRM 41337, arabinose (Ara) was absent in the monosaccharide composition compared with the control. Furthermore, the proportion of mannose (Man) was decreased, while the proportions of glucosamine (GluN), galactosamine (GalN), and galactose (Gal) were increased. When treated with crude proteins from spent medium of the strain TRM 46814, three new monosaccharides, rhamnose (Rha), glucuronic acid (GluA), and galacturonic acid (GalA), appeared. Additionally, the proportions of Man and glucose (Glu) decreased obviously. For the strain 5-121-2, when treated with crude proteins from spent media of TRM 41337 and TRM 46814, a new monosaccharide, Rha, was present [19].
\nThis work was supported by the Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University (grant number NCET-11-1071) of China, a NSFC (National Science Foundation of China) Grant 31260026, and a Fund for PhD in Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (grant number 2009JC07) to W. Chen, a NSFC-Xinjiang joint Grant U1703236 to L. L. Zhang, and a Microbial Resources Utilization Innovation Team in Key Field of Xinjiang Production and Construction Crops (grant number 2017CB014) to C. X. Wan.
\nNo conflict of interest declared.
Investigation of rubberized concrete has received considerable attention since late twentieth century, when exploration of the idea of adding rubber particles to the concrete matrix began. The intriguing idea for many has been the combination of an ultra-flexible material to an ultra-rigid material to enhance ductile performance of the composite material. In addition, the idea of incorporating a waste material that may otherwise end up in a landfill is attractive for sustainable development. The main constituent of rubberized concrete is tire-derived aggregate (TDA), incorporated in a cementitious matrix through replacement of fine or coarse aggregate as a percentage of volume or weight. This application redirects a significant amount of waste rubber from landfills to infrastructure industries.
The idea of repurposing a waste material for use in concrete has roots in concerns regarding the amount of waste tires in landfills. The United States alone generates 289 million scrap tires on an annual basis as of 2006 [1]. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identifies stockpiled tires as an “ideal incubator for mosquito larvae” and connects this to the spread of the West Nile Virus from 1999 to 2005 [1]. As of 2012, tires were being recycled at a rate of 44.6% with rubber and leather contributing 6.18 million tons of waste after accounting for recycling and recovery [2]. The idea of reducing the number of waste tires that accumulate in landfills through recycling rubber for use in concrete has continued to attract the attention of researchers.
The general focus of research on rubberized concrete is the evaluation of mechanical properties of the concrete. The basic properties include compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths. The performance of TDA concrete subject to dynamic loading is another essential property of TDA concrete. In addition, application of supplementary cementitious materials and admixtures, such as silica fume and fly ash, has potentials to enhance various characteristics of TDA concrete. Research seems to be in support of the fact that the lower strength and enhanced dynamic properties of the TDA concrete mixtures are valuable in certain practical applications such as traffic barriers and other impact-resistant systems.
Other than the inclusion of the rubber particles, the rubberized concrete mix is virtually the same as most other concrete including cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, and water. Some researchers have incorporated super plasticizers, in order to achieve better workability. Others have experimented with the use of silica fume and fly ash in order to achieve enhanced strengths. Further, researchers have experimented with pretreating the rubber particles using chemical washes in attempts to develop better bonds between the rubber particles and the cementitious matrix. Following sections discuss individual components making up the rubberized concrete matrix.
TDA refers to the rubber particles, processed from multiple types of tires differing in composition and fiber type, used for replacing the mineral or rotary kiln expanded lightweight aggregates in many mixtures (Figure 1). Descriptive classification of rubber particles relies on the size and manufacturing processes of materials [3]. The first and largest classification of TDA is shredded tire chips, which are typically results of mechanical shredding. Resulting tire chips may be as large as 460 mm long by 230 mm wide to as small as 150 mm long. A combination of both primary and secondary shredding processes is also common to produce smaller shredded chips. The next classification is ground rubber; with a typical range of 19–0.1 mm in size. Ground rubber is subject to two stages of magnetic separation and screening to remove the steel fibers from the rubber particles. The smallest classification of TDA is crumb rubber, obtained through micro-milling, cracker-milling, and granular processes. Crumb rubber particle sizes range from 4.75 to 0.075 mm. Another method is a cryogenic method, in which the rubber is frozen using nitrogen and then shattered [3].
Crumb rubber manufactured through mechanical shredding of recycled tires.
The common fine aggregate used in most research studies on rubberized concrete is natural sand with a gravel coarse aggregate. The cement used is either Type 1 or Type 2 cement, with no significant evidence suggesting one type of cement performing better. Other admixtures incorporated into rubberized concrete include the addition of silica fume and fly ash by replacement of cement. This enhances the strength of rubberized concrete and bond between the rubber and cement. Further, rubber particles may also replace lightweight aggregates (LWA), such as rotary kiln expanded shale, clay, and slate, in various lightweight concrete materials, where, the similarity between the volume weights of TDA and LWA enhances the ease of mixing and placing operations [4].
Table 1 lists selected research projects and their characteristics. Existing literature indicates that an increase in rubber content results in a systematic decrease in the compression strength of the concrete material (Figure 2). The substitution of mineral aggregates with TDA is generally between 0 and 100% of the total aggregate volume in increments of 20%. The relationship between the compressive strength and rubber content in the mix is not linear [22]. Further, the size of the particles has an impact on this relationship. While, inclusion of 100% crumb rubber may reduce the compressive strength by more than 90% [8], substitution of fine aggregates by less than 25% appears to have no significant impact on this strength [13]. In particular, research has shown that application of fine crump rubbers has less negative impact on the compressive strength of the mix [5, 6, 15, 20]. A comparison between applications of coarse rubber particles versus fine rubber particles indicate that coarse and fine rubber particles are more effective at substitution ratios of less and more than 25%, respectively [14]. Using larger sizes of TDA, also known as tire chips, provides an opportunity to keep the steel belt wires after shredding in order to lower the costs, even though, they may not provide any specific advantage for the mix [25]. On the same line, application of fiber reinforcement by adding polypropylene fibers has shown to be effective in reducing crack propagation due to shrinkage [12].
Reference | Rubber aggregate | Replaced conventional aggregate | Specimen type/size | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aiello and Leuzzi [5] | Tire shreds 20 mm w/ Steel Fibers Included | Coarse aggregate 12.5–20 mm | Cube 150 mm Beams 250 × 250 × 900 mm | |
Al-Tayeb et al. [6] | Crumb rubber 1 mm | Sand fine aggregate | Cylinder 100 Beams 100 × 50 × 400 mm | |
Atahan and Sevim [7] | Shredded tire chips 11–22 mm | Crushed limestone coarse aggregate 4–16 mm | Cylinder 150 Full Scale Barriers 1000 × 450 × 250 mm | |
Atahan and Yucel [8] | Large rubber 13 mm and crumb rubber #10-20 | Crushed Stone 19 mm and Sand | Cylinder 100 | |
Bignozzi and Sandrolini [9] | Scrap and crumb tires 0.05–2 mm | Fine aggregate sand 0–4 mm | Cube 150 mm | |
Ganjian et al. [10] | Chipped rubber 25 mm | Crushed siliceous coarse aggregate | Cube 150 mm Beams 100 × 100 × 500 mm | |
Guneyisi et al. [11] | Crumb rubber similarly graded to sand and tire chips 10–40 mm | Natural sand 4 mm and crushed limestone 20 mm replaced equally | Cube 150 mm Cylinder 150 (90-day strength) | |
Hernandez-Olivares et al. [12] | Rubber strip fibers 8.5–21.5 mm | No material removed | Cylinder 150 Beams 150 × 150 × 600 mm | |
Issa and Salem [13] | Crumb rubber (similar to sand used) | Crushed sand | Cylinder 150 | |
Khaloo et al. [14] | Coarse tire chips | Crushed stone gravel 20 mm | Cylinder (50-day strength) | |
Khatib and Bayomy [15] | Tire chips from mechanical shredding 10–50 mm | Coarse aggregate gravel | Cylinder 150 Beams 152 × 152 × 50 mm | |
Li et al. [16] | Truck & car tire chips and fibers with and w/o steel belt 25–51 mm | Coarse aggregate gravel | Cylinder 150 | |
Liu et al. [17] | Crumb tire rubber 0.178 mm | River sand fine aggregate 5 mm | Cubes 150 mm Cylinders 35 (SHPB Impact) | |
Miller and Tehrani [4] | Crumb rubber | Coarse lightweight expanded shale aggregate | Cylinder 150 Beams 152 × 152 × 50 mm | |
Mohammed et al. [18] | Crumb rubber 600 μm | River sand fine aggregate | Cube 100 mm | |
Son et al. [19] | Crumb rubber particles 1 mm | Total aggregate weight (coarse & fine) | Cylinder 100 | |
Topcu [20] | Rubber particles from mechanical grinding 6 mm | Crushed limestone coarse aggregate 4–16 mm | Cylinder 150 | |
Topcu and Avcular [21] | Large rubber particles 2.2 mm | Limestone coarse aggregate | Cylinder 150 | |
Toutanji [22] | Tire chips 12.7 mm | Crushed stone coarse aggregate 19 mm | Cylinder 100 Beams 100 × 100 × 350 mm | |
Xue and Shinozuka [23] | Crumb Rubber 6 mm | Gravel coarse aggregate 12 mm | Cylinder 100 Lumped Mass Columns | |
Zheng et al. [24] | Crushed rubber with steel belt wires 4–15 mm | Crushed stone coarse aggregate 31.5 mm | Cube 150 mm 60-day Beams 100 × 160 × 1000 mm | |
Zheng et al. [25] | Ground rubber 2.6 mm and crushed rubber with steel belt wires 4–15 mm | Crushed stone coarse aggregate 31.5 mm | Cylinder 150 |
Summary of selected research on rubberized concrete.
Selected reported relative changes in the compressive strength of rubberized concrete.
Similar to conventional concrete, application of supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fumes has shown to be effective on increasing the compressive strength of TDA concrete containing high water-to-cement ratios [11]. Replacing 7% of cement with silica fume has shown to increase the compressive strength between 3 and 7 MPa [23]. Tire-derived aggregates are also applicable to self-compacting concrete, which utilizes fine filler materials, admixtures such as superplasticizers, and viscosity modifying agents. Combination of shredded tire and crumb rubber has the potential to replace nearly 20–30% of the sand with a similar grain size [9]. Further, it is also possible to replace cement with ground rubber. Substitution of 5% of cement has shown to reduce the compressive strength by 5% [10]. Tire-derived aggregate concrete with enhanced characteristics due to admixtures and supplementary cementitious materials has applications in hollow concrete blocks. The recommended rubber contents for loadbearing and non-loadbearing systems are 6.5 and 40.7%, respectively [18].
Research shows that increasing the rubber content in concrete decreases the static modulus of elasticity [6, 7, 8, 19]. However, there is not much agreement on the amount of reduction at high rubber contents (Figure 3). Generally, Tire-derived aggregates influence the stress-strain relationship and enhance the ductility of the concrete [14]. Some comparative studies on the size of rubber aggregates suggest that using tire chips have more impact on the reduction of elastic modulus than using waste tire fibers do [16]. However, there are also evidences that the reduction of modulus of elasticity is only a function of the rubber content [10].
Selected reported relative changes in the static modulus of elasticity of rubberized concrete.
Further, using tire chips containing steel belts increases the stiffness of TDA concrete [16, 24, 25]. In addition, application of fly ash and silica fume can also enhance the modulus of elasticity [11, 23].
Figure 4 indicates how increasing the rubber content reduces the splitting tensile strength. However, existing research agrees that capacity of rubber in absorbing energy enhances the toughness of the TDA concrete [6, 16, 20]. Application of fiber reinforcement using polypropylene fibers has shown to improve the toughness further [12]. Comparison of results for compressive and tensile strengths suggests that the rate of reduction for split-tensile strength is less than the same rate for compressive strength [11]. Further, there are reports indicating that specimens with ground tires perform better in tension than specimens containing large tire chips [10].
Selected reported relative changes in the split-tensile strength of rubberized concrete.
The relationship between flexural strength and TDA content is similar to other mechanical properties (Figure 5). However, there are variations in this relationship. Studies generally indicate that reduction of flexural strength parallels an increase in the ductility of specimens [22]. Some research indicates that the rate of reduction for the flexural strength is much steeper than other mechanical properties, particularly at lower rubber contents [15]. Application of smaller rubber particles improves the observed flexural strength [5, 10]. Adding polypropylene fibers has also shown to be effective in crack control, but not necessarily in enhancement of the strength [12].
Selected reported relative changes in the flexural strength of rubberized concrete.
Rubberized concrete has also applications in composite floors. Research shows that floors with 10% rubber content have smaller failure load due to flexure in large spans, but nearly the same failure load caused by shear in short spans. The capability of TDA composite floors in withstanding larger deformations has a significant impact on the ductility of the system [26].
Figure 6 contains selected reported data on the relationship between toughness and rubber content in TDA concrete. Toughness is generally a measure based on the area covered by the load-deflection diagrams, thus, it relates to both ductility and strength. As a result, reported data points on toughness are scattered, as rubber contents increases the ductility, but reduces the strength. This explains how some studies have shown a reduction of toughness because of increasing the rubber content, even though subjected specimens have shown significant increase in ductility [20]. Nevertheless, most reported data show a general increase in toughness with the increase in rubber content [5, 22]. Some research studies have also suggested that a maximum toughness value exist for the optimum rubber content and proper TDA gradation [14]. Measuring toughness from the brittleness index using the stress-strain hysteresis loops also confirms the positive effect of rubber on the toughness [25]. In addition, the toughness of TDA concrete subject to impact load also increases with the increase in strain rate [17]. Furthermore, application of fibers, particularly in tensile specimens, significantly enhances the toughness [16].
Selected reported relative changes in the toughness of rubberized concrete.
Some of the most beneficial properties of rubberized concrete include its behavior under dynamic loading, making the enhancement of these properties desirable in comparison with the brittle and rigid behavior of plain concrete. Research suggests that rubberized concrete may have practical applications as traffic barriers, vibration mitigation, and seismic force mitigation among others. There are various techniques for investigation of these behaviors. Figures 7 and 8 show two significant parameters, energy absorption and damping, respectively, measured for TDA concrete at different rubber contents. As shown in these figures, there are limited studies as the basis for each of these relationships.
Selected reported relative changes in the damping ratio of rubberized concrete.
Selected reported relative changes in the absorbed energy of rubberized concrete.
The full-scale New Jersey-shaped safety barriers subject to non-severe impact loads indicate a gradual increase in the energy absorption when rubber content changes from 0 to 100% by volume [7]. These results are qualitatively comparable with similar collision testing studies [21]. However, impact testing on hybrid beams, containing a layer of TDA concrete on top of plain concrete has resulted in significant increase in energy absorption for only 20% rubber content [6]. Similar tests using falling weights confirms the effectiveness of TDA concrete in reducing the severity of the impact at only 20–40% rubber contents, even though, the pest performance is achieved at rubber contents larger than 60–80% [8].
Similarly, the damping ratio of TDA concrete measured by elastic wave method showed a moderate increase because of the increase in the rubber content in concrete [24]. However, the shake-table studies on TDA concrete columns indicated much higher damping ratios [23]. These comparisons indicate how TDA becomes more effective in post-peak performance of concrete specimens. Further, same shake table studies have shown that increasing rubber content in the TDA concrete reduces the natural frequencies and the response acceleration by 28 and 27%, respectively [23].
Non-destructive tests using ultrasonic pulses confirm that rubber reduces the velocity of waves, which is in correlation with lower dynamic modulus of elasticity [14]. Dynamic compression tests confirm the capability of TDA concrete in dissipating energy and show that increasing the load frequency or strain rate increases the dynamic modulus of elasticity [12, 17]. However, the age of the specimens has an adverse impact on the energy dissipation [12].
Nonstructural mechanical properties of TDA concrete have been subject to studies for specific applications. Non-loadbearing wall elements often require proper thermal and electrical insulation as well as sound absorption. Studies indicate that TDA improves the sound absorption of concrete, reduces the thermal conductivity coefficient, and increases the electrical resistivity [13, 18, 27].
A typical model for the behavior of TDA concrete is a modification of Holmquist-Johnson-Cook (H-J-C) constitutive model. The original H-J-C model contains 21 modifiable parameters to present characteristics of TDA concrete, which was simplified to ten parameters in the modified form [17].
Numerical simulations using finite element analysis are also available to model mechanical properties of TDA concrete. The basis for these simulations is generally an elastoplastic model for the behavior of materials. Successful modeling of beam specimens has been reported using hexahedron elements with standard shape functions [6]. Using a two-phase composite material helps to define the dispersion of TDA in the cementitious matrix. This model utilized three-node triangular elements to simulate split-tensile tests [16].
Figure 9 shows a comparative view of the relationships between mechanical properties of TDA concrete and the TDA content volume. This figure suggests that developing a simple model for practical design of TDA concrete elements may be possible, as various strengths follow similar trends in respect to TDA content.
Selected reported relative changes in the dynamic properties of rubberized concrete (marked data) and their general trends (trend-lines).
Eq. (1) presents a proposed model to find the strength reduction factor [15]:
In this model, SRF is the “strength reduction factor”; R is the rubber content as a volumetric ratio by the total volume of aggregates; and a, b, and m are modeling parameters. This equation is equal to unity at a rubber content of 0% and reaches an asymptote at higher rubber content values. The m parameter indicates the degree of curvature of the reduction and is a function of the particle size. In addition, parameters a and b must satisfy the relationship
Another important aspect of concrete design is the handling procedures used when placing the concrete while in the workable state. Care needs to be taken to ensure that segregation of materials does not occur and the mix remains as homogenous as possible while being placed and cured. An uneven distribution of rubber particles has been observed in concrete mixes, particularly when specimens are vibrated during placement causing light TDA to surface [10, 23].
The state of the research on TDA concrete warrants further studies on analytical, experimental, and practical areas. On material properties, the environmental impacts on durability of rubber and long-term properties of TDA concrete is an area of interest for future research. Further, investigating the micromechanical characteristics of the bond between rubber particles and the cement paste is essential to understand the mechanical properties of TDA concrete, including toughness and tensile strength, better. Constitutive modeling and numerical simulation of the behavior of rubberized concrete are other areas of interest that can benefit from recent advancements in computational engineering and mechanics.
Application of TDA concrete requires development of design guidelines and specifications. Defining strength reduction factors is an area that requires further development. Current research studies are scattered in respect to parametric modeling and can benefit from additional experimental results. Further, these parametric analyses are essential for optimization of TDA concrete mix design to obtain proper rubber content for specific objectives. In addition, practical issues in mixing and placing concrete require development of proper specifications for handling TDA materials in concrete.
Mechanical properties of TDA concrete have shown to be desirable for many applications, such as traffic and sound barriers. Toughness and ductility of TDA concrete can be also effective in concrete elements subject to dynamic loads caused by earthquake and wind. Large-scale experimental studies are required for investigating these applications.
There has been limited studies on alternative TDA concrete products with application of fiber reinforcement, lightweight aggregate, fiber-reinforced polymers, admixtures, and supplementary cementitious materials. Enhancing the properties of TDA concrete using these methods require further research.
The California State University, Fresno Foundation has partially supported this work.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this work.
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