Dilution mixing and incubation time.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-273-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-272-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-274-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e1d9662c334dd78ab35bfb57c3bf106e",bookSignature:"Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11675.jpg",keywords:"Skeletal Muscle Diseases, Rare Skeletal Muscle Diseases, Basic Research, Molecular Mechanisms of Disease, Translational Research, Diagnostic Technologies, Functional Tests, Disease Models, Innovative Therapies, Drug Repositioning, Drug Discovery, Emerging Technologies",numberOfDownloads:24,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 11th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 5th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti received his Bachelor's Degree in Biotechnology Science at the University of Naples “Federico II” in 2006 with the highest degree. In 2010, he graduated with a Ph.D. in Neuroscience at the University of Naples “Federico II”. He published many papers on his areas of research in international peer-reviewed journals and for his pioneering studies has received awards from both national and international scientific societies.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"281317",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:"Arturo",surname:"Iannotti",slug:"fabio-iannotti",fullName:"Fabio Iannotti",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRdOdQAK/Profile_Picture_1644820016099",biography:"Currently researcher at the CNR-ICB Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry of Pozzuoli, Napoli (Italy), Fabio Arturo Iannotti has as major focus of his research activity the role of the endocannabinoid system and TRP in epilepsy and muscle development. Dr. Fabio Arturo Iannotti received his Bachelor Degree in Biotecnology Science (Medical curricula) at University of Naples \\'Federico II\\' in 2006 (with 110/110 cum laude). In 2010, Dr. Iannotti graduated with a PhD in Neuroscience at University of Naples \\'Federico II\\'. The focus of his thesis was on the role of voltage-gated potassium channels Kv7 during the neuronal excitoxicity as well as skeletal muscle cell differentiation. During the three years of the PhD program, Dr. Iannotti has been introduced to the field of ion channels, particularly voltage-gated ion channels; he has been instrumental in setting up RT-PCR and quantitative RT-PCR techniques in our lab, focusing onto research themes which would allow to combine both molecular and functional approaches in the study of ion channels during muscle cell differentiation. He has become familiar with most molecular biology (cloning, mutagenesis, PCR and RT-PCR, Southern and Northern blotting, gene silencing via RNAi, …) as well as with protein biochemistry techniques (protein extraction, immunoprecipitation, Western blotting, in-vitro translation, …) and morphological methods (confocal and conventional immunofluorescence). He is also familiar with imaging tools for intracellular ion concentration analysis, and has more recently gained considerable experience with electrophysiological techniques (specifically, patch-clamp). During this time (2009-2010), he also researched at the University of California-Davis assessing changes to the phosphorylation state of potassium channels in in vivo models of epilepsy. In 2011, he started his postdoc at the Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry (ICB)/ National Council of Research (CNR) and during this period he also visited the University of Reading (2012-2013), researching the potential involvement of TRP channels in epilepsy and muscle development. Since 2014, he was promoted to the position of research fellow at ICB. To date, Dr. Iannotti has published many papers on these areas of research in international peer reviewed journals, and has received awards from both national and international scientific societies for his work. 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Endotoxin can lead to cell death by initiating complement activation. The Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) test was commercially introduced in the 1970s. LAL is derived from the blood cells, or amebocytes, of the horseshoe crab,
Limulus amebocyte lysate test is an aqueous extract of blood cells (amoebocytes) which obtain from the horseshoe crab (
Activation of inflammation in body [
Horseshoe crab [
Among the most well-known and important applications of the LAL test are the ones related to the pharmaceutical industry. It can be said that the most common pyrogens in pharmaceutical products are endotoxins, which is why the pyrogen tests on rabbits have been replaced by the LAL test according to the recommendations of the international pharmacopeia. One of the reasons that has made the LAL test prevail in the pharmaceutical industry is the careful avoidance by the LAL manufacturers of bringing harm to live animals during both production and testing. It is important to clarify that the crabs, from which part of the hemolymph used for the LAL test was extracted, are returned to alive to their natural habitat with no lasting problems after the extraction.
Add volume of lysate to a volume of product dilution. Incubating the reaction mixture at 37.5°C. Endotoxin in the reaction would activate the LAL reagent. Cleave small chromogenic peptides and liberates pNA. pNA, color is yellow and absorbs light at 405 nm. For samples that absorb at 405–410 nm, Diazo-coupling agent modification may be used. In this method, pNA reacted with nitrite in hydrochloric acid, ammonium sulfamate and N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine (NEDA). Absorbs at a range between 540 and 550 nm. A standard curve is used to establish concentrations in product specimens.
10 × 75 mm fully depyrogenated borosilicate glass culture tubes (Associates of Cape Cod, Inc. catalog numbers TB050).
Optical reader is capable of reading at 405 nm, or at 540–550 nm for the diazo method. Incubator is able to maintaining 37 ± 1°C. A water bath can be used for the endpoint test tube method. Both devices should have a uniform heat distribution. Test tube racks to hold the tubes and/or incubate dilution and reaction tubes. Micropipettes or disposable pipette tips free of interfering endotoxins and glucans are recommended. Vortex-type mixer, Para film (American National Can™) and hot-air oven with the capacity to heat to at least 250°C for depyrogenation of glassware.
Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL), LAL reconstitution buffer, control standard endotoxins (CSE), solution 1 (nitrite), solution 1A (0.1 N hydrochloric acid), solution 2 (ammonium sulfamate), solution 3 (N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine (NEDA)), LRW.
The endotoxins limit for USP/BP sterile WFI is only 0.25 EU/ml; therefore, sterile WFI may contain detectable endotoxins and be unsuitable for use. Use certified LRW to make dilutions of standards, and to prepare positive controls.
Collect aseptically containers that are free of detectable endotoxins in depyrogenated glassware apparatus.
The pH must be 6–8. Adjust the pH of the product specimen with dilute HCl, NaOH, or buffer (free of endotoxins). Dilute concentrated HCl or NaOH with LRW. Use a volume that will not lead to significant dilution of the test specimen. Dilution (LRW) alone can overcome the issue sometimes.
Gently tap the vial of lysate. Loose material fall to the bottom. Break the vacuum by lifting the gray stopper. Do not contaminate the mouth of the vial. Remove and discard the stopper. Start the reconstituted lysate with 3.2 ml buffer. Avoid vigorous mixing that may cause excessive foaming and a loss of sensitivity. Wrap the vials with parafilm and store in a cold place (2–8°C) when not in use and use within 8 h of reconstitution.
This is relatively well stable and, if stored properly, will retain full activity through the expiration date on the label. Store the product at 2–8°C. Excess temperature over 37°C cause rapid deterioration, loss of sensitivity and distinct yellowing.
Each vial of control standard endotoxins (CSE) contains 10 ng of endotoxins. Reconstitute CSE with the volume mentioned on the Certificate of Analysis (CA, which gives the potency of the CSE). Gently knocks the vial of control standard endotoxins (CSE) to cause loose material to fall to the bottom. Break the vacuum by lifting the gray stopper. Do not contaminate the mouth of the vial. Remove the stopper and place it in a cold place aseptically for reuse.
Reconstitute CSE with the volume specified on the Certificate of Analysis (CA, which gives the potency of the CSE) and as directed in the package insert. Place the stopper. Vortex the vial for 40–60 s to form a homogenous mixture. Discard solution if not used immediately, vortex the vial for 30 s prior to use.
Read the tubes UV/visible spectrophotometers (Table 1).
CSE + lysate | Incubation time (min) |
---|---|
50 μl of 0.50 EU/ml + 50 μl | 30 |
50 μl of 0.250 EU/ml + 50 μl | 30 |
50 μl of 0.125 EU/ml + 50 μl | 30 |
50 μl of 0.0625 EU/ml + 50 μl | 30 |
Dilution mixing and incubation time.
Sample + lysate | Incubation (min) |
---|---|
50 μl of sample + 50 μl | 30 |
Stop the reaction by adding 50% acetic acid. Add 0.025 ml (25 μl) read the optical density (OD) at 405 nm read the test.
Reconstitute vial 1 with entire contents of vial, reconstitute vial 2 with 4 ml of water, reconstitute vial 3 with 4 ml of water. Add 0.05 ml (50 μl) of solution 1 (sodium nitrite reconstituted with dilute HCL). Add 0.05 ml (50 μl) of solution 2 (ammonium sulfamate). Add 0.05 ml (50 μl) of solution 3 (NEDA) use new pipette tip agitate the plate to mix. Full color (magenta) should develop immediately. Read the test at 540–550 nm.
Positive control must be included to verify that it is appropriate to use the parameters of a previous (archived) standard curve to calculate endotoxin concentrations.
LRW negative controls should be included with each test
1: Equation of straight line (results)
y = mx + c
m = slop
x = endotoxin concentration,
c = y-intercept and
y = mean absorbance
X = y-c/m
Example calculation
Prepare sample solutions by dissolving or diluting drugs (pH 6.0–8.0). The pH may be adjusted by the use of acid, base, or suitable buffers as recommended. Do not exceed the MVD or MCV while making dilutions and adjusting the pH.
MVD = (endotoxin limit × concentration of sample solution)/(λ)
Endotoxin limit given in USP, concentration of a sample of the label, λ: the labeled lysate sensitivity in the gel-clot technique (IU/ml) or the lowest concentration used in the standard curve for the turbidimetric or chromogenic techniques.
MVC = λ/endotoxin limit
λ: the labeled lysate sensitivity in the gel-clot technique (IU/ml) or the lowest concentration used in the standard curve for the turbidimetric or chromogenic techniques.
Sample 1
Endotoxin limit: 0.5 EU/ml
Concentration of sample: 100 mg/ml
λ: 0.06 EU/ml
MVD = 0.5 EU/ml × 100 mg/ml/0.06 EU/ml
MVD = 833
Add 1 ml of sample 1 in to 832 ml of LRW. Prepare sample 2 in using the same method.
Using 10-fold and 2-fold dilution methods prepare the following dilutions of control standard endotoxins (CSE)
0.5 EU/ml
0.25 EU/ml
0.125 EU/ml
0.0625 EU/ml
Reconstitute the lysate with 3.2 ml of buffer provided with it. Follow the standard procedure for reconstitution.
Stop reaction.
For sample 1 and sample 2:
Stop the reaction by adding 50% acetic acid. Add 0.025 ml (25 μl) (Tables 2 and 3).
CSE + lysate | Incubation (min) |
---|---|
50 μl of 0.50 EU/ml + 50 μl | 30 |
50 μl of 0.250 EU/ml + 50 μl | 30 |
50 μl of 0.125 EU/ml + 50 μl | 30 |
50 μl of 0.0625 EU/ml + 50 μl | 30 |
50 μl of sample 1 + 50 μl | 30 |
50 μl of sample 2 + 50 μl | 30 |
Different dilution of CSE and lysate.
Make two replicates of each CSE and sample preparation to reduce any errors.
Use Microsoft word for further calculations and results. Make standard curve and endotoxin concentration (Figure 3).
Validation of standard curve.
R2 = coefficient of determination
R = correlation coefficient
R ≥ 0.98
R2 = 0.99
R = √R2 = 0.99
Equation of straight line
y = mx + c
m = slop
x = endotoxin concentration
c = y intercept
y = mean absorbance
Equation of straight line
Y = 1.019X − 0.026
X = Y + 0.026/1.019
m = slop = 1.019,
C = y intercept = 0.026,
Y = mean absorbance,
X = endotoxin concentration
X = Y + 0.026/1.019
Y = 0.300, X = 0.300 + 0.026/1.019, X = 0.319EU/ml
X = Y + 0.026/1.019
Y = 0.335, X = 0.335 + 0.026/1.019, X = 0.354 EU/ml
Gel Clot LAL provides a simple positive/negative result and is most often mentioned in pharmacopeial monographs as the official referee test.
This is very easy to perform.
This is not time consuming.
Accuracy is 100 percent.
The LAL Gel-Clot assay, gives a more quantitative measurement of endotoxin over a range of concentrations.
Gel Clot lysate for 20 test, Gel Clot standard 0.5 EU/Vial, LAL reagent water (LRW 50 ml).
Lysate: add 2 mL LRW and mix it slowly. Do not shake and avoid foaming. Transfer 0.1 ml in 20 test tubes. Store it at –degree (in freezer).
Standard: Add 2 mL of LRW in the vial and mix it well for 15 min. Store the vial at 2–8°C. Storage life is 15 days.
Take three test tubes and mark them as test, positive control and negative control [1].
Add your sample in test tube marked as sample. Add standard in test tube marked as Positive control. Add LRW in test tube marked as negative control. Incubate the test tubes at 37 + 2°C for 60 min. After an incubation, check for the gel by inverting the test tube. If the material remains firm in the bottom of the test tube, it means gel has formed. This positive if the material gets the flow down, it means gel has not formed. This means negative.
Take similarly three test tubes as above and add water for injection (WFI) in test tube marked as sample. And proceed as above. The results should be as follows (Table 4):
Sample | Positive control | Negative control | Result |
---|---|---|---|
−ve (gel not formed) | +ve | −ve | Pass |
Sample | Positive control | Negative control | Result |
---|---|---|---|
+ve (gel formed) | +ve | −ve | Fail |
Results shown sample pass or not.
We have to make dilution.
Example: If the product endotoxin limit is 1 EU/ml, then we have to make the dilution as follows:
Since we are using 0.25 EU/ml, this is called lambda. Divide the endotoxin limit of product with lambda
1/0.25 = 1:4
As per USP, we have to test 3 test as follows:
One test tube | 1:3 | The result should be positive |
Second | 1:4 | The result may be positive or negative |
Third | 1:5 | The result should be negative |
This means the product is passed.
Chromogenic lysate [2],
Respective endotoxin standard,
Diazo coupling reagent (set of four bottles).
Note: All reagents must be stored in refrigerator at 2–8°C.
Dissolve 45.6 ml of acetic acid in 1 liter of distilled water. The final concentration of acetic acid is 0.8 M. This solution can be stored for 3 months.
Remove the plastic cover. Wipe off with 70% alcohol around the rubber cap and top portion of every vial. Remove the aluminum cap with sterile and pyrogen free forceps and then cover with depyrogenated aluminum foil to avoid any Endotoxin contamination. (2.8 ml LAL water vial is provided with Endotoxin vial, concentration is mentioned on the label). Pour whole quantity of LAL water into the ET vial and cover with foil. Mix vigorously for at least 10 s by vortexer. During stirring solution must not touch the foil.
Note: Stir every time vigorously before use.
Toxicolor lysate
(Buffer vial 0.35 ml and LAL water are provided with Lysate. Sensitivity is mentioned on the certificate). After taking from the refrigerator, pour whole quantity of buffer and 0.35 ml LAL water into the lysate vial as soon as possible, covers with foil. Then quickly stir to dissolve. Avoid air bubbling during stirring. Place the vial in ice water bath for 2–3 min before use.
Note: Be sure that the reagent is completely dissolved. This reagent must be reconstituted just before use. The reagent is extremely sensitive and must be consumed at one time. Storage should be avoided, but can be stored at −20°C in 0.1 ml dispensed quantities in small test tubes. Use stored lysate if the color is not changed. Reconstituted lysate may only be deep frozen once.
Four bottles are provided with one set, marked as 7, 8, 9 and 10s respectively. Transfer whole quantity of bottle no. 7 s into bottle no. 8 s. Then add 12 ml distilled water into each of bottle no. 9 s and 10s. Ultimately, we will have three bottles 8, 9, and 10 s, which are used stepwise to block the reaction.
The pH of the sample is adjusted by pyrogen free 0.1 N NaOH or 0.1 N HCl. The pH of the sample should be between 6.0 and 8.0.
Arrange test tubes in two stands as under; stand 1—test tubes for sample and standard dilutions; stand 2—test tubes for reaction.
Take 0.05 ml well-mixed sample into small test tubes. If required, make 1/10 dilution of the sample with Pyrogen free water as Below, Take 4.5 ml of pyrogen free water in the test tube. Then add 0.5 ml of well-mixed sample. Vortex mixing for a few seconds.
Take 0.1 ml into a small test tube for further process.
Make a dilution of the endotoxin (concentration 0.470 EU/ml) according to the product limit. For making 0.235 EU/ml (if the product limit is 0.25) proceed as follows;
Take 0.05 ml of the reconstituted endotoxin in the test tube after stirring. Add 0.05 ml of pyrogen free water and vortex to mix. Now the final dilution is 0.235 EU/ml.
Take 0.05 ml of step 2 into a small test tube for further process.
Pour 0.05 ml of pyrogen free water (being used in the test) in small test tube as a blank for further process.
Lysate addition
Place the tube stand for small test tubes (containing the tubes of blank, standard and diluted samples) in ice water bath or suitable ice water container. Add 0.05 ml of lysate to all of the tubes as soon as possible. Stir the contents of every tube soon after the addition of lysate for a few seconds. Avoid foaming.
Soon after the addition of lysate, place the test tube rack in the incubator set at 32.5 + 2.5°C for 30 min. The tube rack can be placed in the water container placed in the incubator.
After completion of the incubation period, place tube rack in ice water bath, then blocks the reaction immediately from one of the two methods mentioned below:
By acetic acid
Add 0.4 ml of 0.8 M acetic acid into each tube and stir to mix.
By diazo coupling reagent
Three bottles of the reagent are used as under;
Add 0.5 ml from bottle no 8 s to each tube and stir to mix.
Add 0.5 ml from bottle no 9 s to each tube and stir to mix.
Add 0.5 ml from bottle no 10s to each tube and stir to mix.
Absorbance reading (using spectrophotometer) measurement at 405 nm
If 0.8 M acetic acid is used to block the reaction, then absorbance reading is taken at 405 nm.
Note: The readings. Glass photocell is used for reading at 405 nm. Because the volume of the tube content is not sufficient, the distilled water is added to each tube and is stirred to mix.
When Diazo coupling reagent is used for blockage of the reaction then the reading is taken at 545 nm. Note all the readings.
Note: Distilled water is used for reference in both cases.
All the absorbance readings are fed in the “Software reader for window version 1.51” to collect the results.
Following Formula is used to calculate the results
Calculations of MVC, MVD and ELC.
Where the lowest sensitivity of lysate, M is the maximum dose/kg body weight and K is constant having value equal to 5.
The author(s) confirm that this chapter content has no conflict of interest.
Diseases resulting from zoonotic transmission of parasites are common [1]. Most parasitic zoonoses are neglected diseases despite causing a considerable global burden of ill health in humans and have a substantial financial burden on livestock industries [1]. Zoonotic trematodiasis are found worldwide and are responsible for some serious and debilitating helminthic diseases in people, particularly in rural and poor urban areas of low and middle-income countries [2, 3]. Many of the trematodes that infect humans are zoonotic or have zoonotic potential. Here we briefly discuss the most important zoonotic trematodes and focus on their first intermediate hosts, snails, and their control. Trematodes (Trematoda) belong to the phylum Platyhelminthes which also contains Turbellaria (mostly non-parasitic animals such as planarians), and three entirely parasitic groups: Cestoda, Trematoda, and Monogenea. Trematoda includes two subclasses of parasitic flatworms, also known as flukes, i.e., Aspidogastrea and Digenea. Here we focus on Digenea, which as adults are internal parasites of vertebrates. Trematodes have both sexual and asexual reproduction in different host species. Sexual reproduction occurs in the final vertebrate host, while asexual reproduction occurs in the first intermediate host, usually certain species freshwater or marine snails. Most trematodes have a second intermediate host where their infective stage (metacercariae) lodge. For the food-borne trematodes, various fish species, crustaceans, or snails may serve as second intermediate host or in case of the Fasciolidae, cercariae encyst on aquatic or semi-aquatic plants (see more details below).
The Digenea contains about 20,000 species, within two orders, Diplostomida and Plagiorchiida. Only a few of these species infect humans, and some of the diseases they cause are briefly discussed below, i.e., schistosomiasis and several species of food-borne zoonotic trematodes (paragonimiasis, fascioliasis, clonorchiasis, opisthorchiasis, and others). Examples of eggs from these trematodes are shown in Figure 1. Some species of trematodes have a relatively narrow range of snail species that serve as intermediate hosts, while others have an apparently wide range (Table 1).
Eggs of various trematodes found in human feces or urine (source: Mae Melvin, public health image library (PHIL); Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).
Digenean order | Diplostomida | Plagiorchiida | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Opisthorchioidea | Echinostomatoidea | Paramphistomoidea | |||||||
Schistosomatidae | Paragonimidae | Opisthorchiidae | Heterophyidae | Echino-stomatidae | Fasciolidae | Paramphistomidae | |||
Other schistosomes | Intestinal flukes | ||||||||
Neritidae | |||||||||
Viviparidae | |||||||||
Ampullaridae | |||||||||
Cerithiidae | x | x | |||||||
Melanopsidae | |||||||||
Pachychilidae | x | x | x | x | |||||
Paludomidae | |||||||||
Potamididae | |||||||||
Semisulcospiridae | |||||||||
Thiaridae | x | x | x | x | |||||
Littorinidae | x | x | |||||||
Planaxidae | x | ||||||||
Amnicolidae | x | x | |||||||
Cochliopidae | x | ||||||||
Bithyniidae | x | x | x | ||||||
Pomatiopsidae | x | x | x | ||||||
Stenothyridae | x | ||||||||
Assimineidae | x | x | |||||||
Hydrobiidae | x | x | |||||||
Valvatidae | |||||||||
Ellobiidae | |||||||||
Planorbidae | x | x | x | x | x | ||||
Bulinidae | x | x | |||||||
Physidae | x | x | x | ||||||
Ancylidae | |||||||||
Lymnaeidae | x | x | x | ||||||
Acroloxidae |
Snail families involved as intermediate hosts for trematodes (flukes) causing disease in humans or domestic animals. Only certain species within a family are intermediate hosts for a given parasite.
Schistosomiasis is native in many countries in Africa, South America, and Asia with an estimated number of 200 million infected people and with 800 million being at risk according to Doumenge et al. [4], but considering the population increase since then, the number of humans currently at risk must be well over a billion [5]. According to latest available information somewhere between 230 and 250 million people are actually infected [6, 7]. People become infected by contact with water harboring schistosome-infected intermediate host snails (Figure 2). The snails release cercariae into the water that contact and penetrate human skin.
Life cycle of schistosomes infecting humans (source: Alexander J. da Silva & Melanie Moser, public health image library (PHIL), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention).
The schistosomes belong to the trematode order Diplostomida, superfamily Schistosomatoidea and Schistosomatidae. The genus
Species within the group of
The group of
Neotropical (1–5) and African (6–15)
Each of the species of schistosomes infecting humans has a characteristic and limited intermediate snail-host spectrum. The intermediate hosts of
Representative species of
Snails may be widely distributed in an area, but there is a tendency for infected snails with
Swimmer’s itch or cercarial dermatitis is a short-term immune reaction occurring in the skin of humans that have been penetrated by cercariae of schistosomes (Schistosomatidae) that normally develop in birds or in mammalian hosts other than humans. Genera often associated with swimmer’s itch in humans are
Some species of the Lymnaeidae, Physidae and Bulinidae. Lymnaeidae:
Species of the Planorbidae (a and c) and Burnupiidae (b). Planorbidae:
In Thailand,
Paragonimiasis, also known as pulmonary distomiasis, is a parasitic disease of humans and animals in various parts of the world, but principally in the Orient (Far East). Its etiological agents are species of the trematode genus
Selected species of Pachychilidae (a), Heminiscidae (b), Paludomidae (c), Thiaridae (d) Potamididae (d), Melanopsidae (e) and other (d). Pachychilidae:
Selected species of the Truncatelloidea.
The genus
The cercariae penetrate the soft body parts of the crustacean host and then invade the viscera and muscles of this host, where they usually become encysted in specific organs depending on the species of lung fluke and the species of the crustacean host (Figure 9). When the mammalian host, human or reservoir host ingests infected crab or crayfish meat or viscera (raw, soaked in rice wine, or salted), the metacercaria excyst in the duodenum and migrates through the intestinal wall in about an hour, reaching the abdominal cavity in 3–6 h. The larvae of various lung flukes enter and remain in the abdominal wall for several days (up to 3 weeks), then migrate through the diaphragm to the pleural cavity, where they penetrate the serosal layers of the lungs. Finally, they arrive near the bronchioles, where they develop to adult worms in pairs, and exist in tissue capsules laid down by the host, about 6–8 weeks after ingestion of the parasitized crustacean host. The lung capsules containing the worms connect with the respiratory passages of the lung, and the eggs of the parasite are moved along with lung exudates [33].
Life cycle of
Fish-borne zoonotic trematodes utilize fish as their second intermediate host and comprise about 12 families, and five of these, Clinostomatidae, Echinostomatidae, Heterophyidae, Opisthorchiidae, and Troglotrematidae have been reported to infect humans. Among those, the opisthorchid flukes have the most public health importance [34]. It has been recognized as a Type I carcinogen, and chronic infection by this liver fluke leads to cholangiocarcinoma development. The heterophyid intestinal fluke sometimes coexists in the endemic region of the liver fluke and can cause confusion in diagnosis and prevalence since eggs of both the opisthorchid and heterophyid flukes are similar. An overview of the various species is given in Waikagul and Thaenkham [34] and Hung et al. [35].
Fully embryonated small eggs of
Life cycle of fish-borne zoonotic trematodes (Opistchorchidae and Heterophyidae) (source Clausen et al. [
Clonorchiasis is caused by the fluke
Heterophyidae comprises several genera and species of trematodes of almost worldwide distribution. More than 25 species have been found parasitizing humans around the World [34, 35]. The heterophyid is a small-sized fluke, about 1 mm in length, and is parasitic mostly in the small intestine of birds and mammals and rarely in fish and reptiles.
The worms are usually found lodging in intestinal mucosa between villi, however, they have invaded the submucosal level in experimental immunosuppressive mice. Within a week after the metacercaria is ingested by the definitive host, metacercaria develop to mature adults in the intestine. Heterophyid adults have a short life; the reported life spans varied among different host species [34, 39].
Fish-borne zoonotic trematodes (FZT) are an important problem and fish produced in aquaculture may present a food safety risk in some areas of Southeast Asia where aquaculture is very important [36]. In at least parts of Vietnam, however, transmission of
The superfamily Echinostomatoidea is a large, cosmopolitan group of digeneans currently including nine families and 105 genera, with the vast majority parasitic, as adults, in birds with relatively few taxa parasitizing mammals, reptiles, and exceptionally, fishes [41]. Recent studies on the phylogeny of the group combining morphology and molecular data have resulted in several changes [41].
Echinostomatidiasis is caused by a number of fluke species, belonging to the Echinostomatidae, which share certain morphological features, among which are the presence of a head collar surrounding the oral sucker, provided with a single or double crown of large spines which are larger than those covering the body surface. They are usually stout, fleshy, medium-sized flukes parasitizing birds and mammals in various parts of the world [42]. Several birds, during their migration, carry the infection with several echinostome species along their migratory routes. Various life cycle patterns are exhibited by echinostomes. Usually they are less specific than schistosomes as to their first or second intermediate hosts or their definitive hosts. The first intermediate hosts are several species of aquatic Hygrophila or Caenogastropods and the second intermediate hosts are the same or other species of snails, bivalves, tadpoles, or fish. The cercariae of certain species do not require a second intermediate host but, instead, encyst in the open.
Echinostomes are usually harmless flukes in the intestine of their hosts. Certain species, however, and heavy infections of the harmless species, produce some pathology and pronounced symptoms in poultry and small mammals. They are, therefore, of significance in veterinary medicine.
Transmission of the echinostome to humans is either through eating raw or undercooked fish, snails, or amphibians. Human cases have been reported mostly in Asia. Duodenum mucosal bleeding and ulceration are the main clinical findings due to mechanical damages caused by the worms. The common symptoms are abdominal pain and diarrhea followed by weakness and weight loss [42].
Fascioliasis, a disease caused by the liver flukes
Fascioliasis due to
The life cycle of
Life cycle of
Mammalian hosts, including humans, consuming aquatic vegetation with metacercariae or drinking water from contaminated snail habitats containing the metacercariae, contract the infection. The metacercariae, soon after ingestion, excyst in the small intestine. After excystment, they penetrate the wall of the small intestine to the abdominal cavity. They have been found in the latter cavity 1–3 days from the time that they have been ingested, depending on the species of the host. They wander around in the viscera and may settle and become established in ectopic sites other than the liver.
The paramphistome flukes are represented by many species throughout the world, and they are parasites of the alimentary tract (stomach and intestine) of humans, nonhuman primates, ruminants, equines, and other herbivores; only about two species occur in birds [45]. These flukes are large fleshy parasites, measuring up to 20 mm in length and 15 mm in width. Some of these flukes cause gastrodisciasis or paramphistomiasis. Whereas gastrodisciasis is restricted to Africa and Asia, paramphistomiasis occurs throughout the world [46].
Three important intestinal parasites cause gastrodisciasis:
Infections with all the paramphistomatids (including the gastrodiscids) are acquired from the same habitats where the animals also contract fascioliasis, bovine schistosomiasis, and others, where various species of snails live together. The life cycle, though differing in minute details, is similar to that of
Like the fasciolid flukes, the paramphistomatids utilize freshwater pulmonate snails as intermediate hosts. Whereas
Trematodes require one or two intermediate hosts to complete their life cycle. The first intermediate host is specific species of freshwater water (and for some trematode species brackish or marine) gastropods. Due to the necessity of passing through the gastropods, control of these snails could, at least for some of zoonotic trematodes, be an important way to reduce their transmission (see later).
The class includes the snails, which are superficially asymmetrical and possess a spirally coiled shell; the limpets, which possess a low, conical un-spiraled shell; and the slugs, which possess a concealed shell or no shell at all. A recent paper [47] estimates the number of named and valid recent species as about 63,000 in 476 families. There is a great diversity among the freshwater gastropods. Gastropod taxonomy has undergone considerable revision and still undergoes revision as new DNA data become available. Here we use the classification as described in Bouchet et al. [47].
The class, Gastropoda, contains the following subclasses: Patellogastropoda, Neomphaliones, Vetigastropoda, Neritimorpha, Caenogastropoda, and Heterobranchia of which the last three are represented in freshwater. Many of the existing identification keys to freshwater gastropods follow the classification of Thiele [48] where Gastropoda was divided into three sub-classes Prosobranchia (Streptoneura, i.e. crossed nerve system), Pulmonata and Opisthobranchia (Euthyneura). Using the existing keys for species identification of freshwater snails, however, does not pose a real problem. Thus, Prosobranchia (often called prosobranchs) equates Caenogastropoda plus Neritidae and Pulmonata (often referred to as pulmonates) equates Hygrophila within the Panpulmonata. We shall restrict our discussion to primarily the freshwater gastropods.
The Neritidae are one of the most abundant groups of freshwater snails in the coastal streams of tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, as well as in the inland waters of the European continent [49]. The Neritiliidae, previously a subfamily in the Neritidae, include 23 described species in seven genera from low latitude areas of the World. Species of
Selected species of Neritidae (a), Viviparidae (b) and Ampullariidae (c). Neritidae:
The family (Figure 12) has a global distribution and moderate diversity [51] in the extant fauna (125–150 valid, described species). Viviparids are distributed primarily in lakes, rivers, and streams in temperate to tropical regions. Although they can be found in freshwater of all kinds, many species prefer, or are restricted, to one habitat type only. Their greatest diversity occurs in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, where some 60–85 species occur. These species are medium to large snails usually with a conical shell. Tentacles are short and pointed and the right tentacle of males is transformed into a copulatory organ. The females are ovoviviparous with a uterine brood-pouch. Size and number of mature embryos may be of help to taxonomists [29]. The family is quite diverse in Asia where representatives are commonly consumed by humans. Metacercariae of the Echinostomatidae and possibly other trematodes are commonly found in viviparid snails and since many species are eaten by local people they could serve as intermediate hosts for human trematode infections if consumed insufficiently cooked. Species within the family are also reported as first intermediate hosts of some species of echinostome [51]. Some if not all species within the family are suspension feeders giving them a competitive advantage over species that only graze.
Ampullariidae (Figure 12) are predominately distributed in humid tropical and subtropical habitats in Africa, South and Central America, and Asia. The family includes 186 recent species with the majority in the three genera
The Cerithioidea (Figure 7) is a superfamily within the Sorbeoconcha and comprised of marine, brackish water, and freshwater gastropods containing more than 200 genera. The freshwater species are found on all continents, except Antarctica. They are dominant members of mangrove forests, estuarine mudflats, fast-flowing rivers, and placid lakes. The shell is generally turreted, sometimes ovoidal-conic, rarely subglobose. It can be smooth or with spiral and/or axial sculpture, sometimes with spiral microsculpture. The operculum is corneous, generally spiral, rarely concentric; it is retractable into the shell. The male reproductive organs are without a verge. Female reproductive organs often have a brood pouch, generally with an egg transfer groove. Many species seem to be parthenogenetic.
The superfamily contains the Hemisinidae [56], Melanopsidae [57], Pachychilidae [58], Paludomidae [59], Pleuroceridae [60], Semisulcospiridae [61], and Thiaridae [62]. Only some of these families are described further below. Some of these species are important as intermediate hosts for medically important trematodes, e.g., Semisulcospiridae is an important host for
The family has a circumtropical, distribution but is also found in moderate climates. The Potamididae (mudwhelks or mud creepers) are small to large brackish water snails that live on mud flats, mangroves, and similar habitats. The trees provide the snails with shelter, protection from predators, a solid substrate, and sometimes food [63]. Some species are intermediate hosts for some fish-borne zoonotic trematodes.
Pachychilidae are a group of freshwater gastropods only recently recognized as an independent freshwater radiation within the diverse and predominantly marine gastropod superfamily Cerithioidea [58]. Pachychilids were previously assigned to other cerithioidean freshwater families, such as Thiaridae or Pleuroceridae. Pachychilidae has a circumtropical distribution with the freshwater inhabiting
Pachychilid gastropods are a conspicuous element of the freshwater macro-invertebrate fauna of Southeast Asia. In this region, three spatially separated groups of pachychilids can be differentiated mostly by means of their brooding strategy [64]. Pachychilids have rather heavy, thick shells and are not eaten by molluscivores in experimental studies [65]. They often occur at very high density [66]. Some species have rather specialized habitat requirements, and this may make them more vulnerable to habitat degradation, modification, and pollution [67].
The Thiaridae form a monophyletic group with its constituent species being probably autochthonous in Southeast and South Asia, Australia, and some Pacific Islands, as well as sub-Saharan Africa, both in lotic and lentic freshwater environments, with some species also tolerating brackish conditions in the lower courses and estuaries of rivers [62]. Some species, such as
Some populations of
The family is very important as intermediate hosts for heterophyid intestinal trematodes and possibly
The genera and species suggested to be included in the Paludomidae have hitherto been classified as Thiaridae, especially the endemic thalassoid species from Lake Tanganyika [59]. Generic diversity of African paludomids is concentrated in the Lake Tanganyika basin and adjacent water bodies, with only two genera,
Families within this superfamily were earlier included in the Rissooidea which was one of the largest and most diverse molluscan superfamilies, with about 23 recognized recent families, including marine, freshwater, and terrestrial members. The freshwater, brackish water, and semiterrestrial families and genera were moved to Truncatelloidea [47]. Most families contain small-sized species (Figure 8) and several species have medical and/or veterinary importance. The following families belong to this superfamily: Amnicolidae, Assimineidae, Bithyniidae, Cochliopidae, Helicostoidae, Hydrobiidae, Lithoglyphidae, Moitessieriidae, Stenothyridae, and Tateidae. Detailed reviews of these families are found in Refs. [16, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79]. Here, we present a brief overview of selected families.
The species are mostly amphibious, spending most of the time outside the water on wet mudflats under stones, on decaying wood or in the stumps of palms [29]. Some species, however, are fully aquatic [29]. They are found in drainage creeks, in the estuaries of rivers, and in trenches and ponds in freshwater within the tidal zone [29]. The animals are oviparous with free-swimming larvae.
The family (Figure 8) is very important in Asia because some species are intermediate hosts of liver and intestinal trematodes. Species identification based on only morphological characters may be difficult. Species are commonly found in shallow reservoirs and wetlands including rice fields and may often be exposed to desiccation. Although some snails die during desiccation, some survive through aestivation to recolonize the habitat when water returns. Species within this family may feed both by grazing and by filter feeding. Bithynid snails are often found in aquaculture ponds in the Red River and Mekong deltas and occasionally at high density but they are more commonly found in small canals and rice fields. During the spring planting of rice fields, density of
With approximately 170 species, the Pomatiopsidae is among the most species-rich freshwater gastropod families. The highest diversity can be found in Southeast Asia and the Japanese archipelago (>140 species), followed by sub-Saharan Africa with approximately 10–11 species, southern Australia with ca. 9 species, the northwestern Palearctic with 1–8 species, North America with 5–6 species, and South America with ca. 2 species [80]. The Pomatiopsidae comprise two subfamilies, the Pomatiopsinae Stimpson, 1865 and the Jullieniinae. The Asian intermediate hosts for
The Triculinae in Asia is very diverse with an endemic fauna that includes over 90 species occurring along a 300 km stretch of the lower Mekong River in Thailand and Laos [29, 80, 81, 82]. Relatively few species are reported from Vietnam [83], but this is likely because relatively little work has been done on the Vietnamese part of the Mekong River. Within the Triculinae, several species have been described from Vietnam [83], i.e.,
Hydrobiidae, commonly known as mud snails, is a large cosmopolitan taxonomic family of very small freshwater snails and brackish water snails. These are small snails, with a shell height of less than 8 mm. The dextrally coiled shells are smooth and renders few robust characteristics to the systematist. Furthermore, there is considerable intraspecific variation in shell characteistics. Description is mostly based on the characteristics of the operculum, radula, and penis.
The Stenothyridae is comprised of small-sized gastropods found in intertidal and shallow-water aquatic habitats in Asia and Australia. Also, this family is very diverse in the Mekong River. The species live in fresh or brackish water on sandy ground, on stones and decaying wood or buried in the mud where they feed on decaying organic matter. Dung et al. [70] reported, however, pleurolophocercous cercariae were shed by
Some predominantly marine species may enter rivers. For example, the neogastopod
Small wide-spired operculate snails, commonly referred to as valve snails. They are egg-laying and hermaphroditic [87]. Burch [88] lists 11 North American species. According to Strong et al. [89] there are 60 species in the Palaearctic region, 10 in the Nearctic, and 1 for the Afrotropical region. They have a featherlike gill, visible on the left side outside the shell when the snail is active, and a ciliated pallial tentacle extending out to the right.
Lymnaeidae (Figure 5) is a large and diverse family of freshwater pulmonates widely distributed on all continents except Antarctica. Lymnaeidae exhibit a great diversity in shell morphology which is linked to substantial eco-phenotypic plasticity [90]. Conchological and anatomical traits cannot be taken as reliable diagnostic characters to discriminate species of Lymnaeidae as they vary largely within species [91]. At the supraspecific (genus, subgenus) level there is confusion [92], with some researchers considering numerous genera and subgenera and others only accepting the large genus
The family is of great parasitological importance as it includes several intermediate hosts of trematodes which infect man and mammals e.g.,
The Physidae has a Holarctic distribution, extending into Central and South America [95]. Physids have been introduced around the world and are common, particularly in lentic habitats. Physid diversity is centered in North America, where they are the most abundant and widespread freshwater gastropods [88]. Physidae are hermaphrodites and can be distinguished from other pulmonates by a high-spired sinistral shell, radula with teeth in V-shaped rows, simple jaw with no lateral processes, and lack of both hemoglobin and a pseudobranch [29]. Other unique characteristics of many species of Physidae are an extended mantle edge that can partly cover the shell, as well as the presence of a preputial gland [29]. Six major clades were uncovered in an analysis of the penial morphology [96], while four major clades,
The monogeneric Burnupiidae are a limpetlike group of freshwater pulmonate snails predominantly occurring in Africa. The genus
Bulinidae (Figures 4 and 5) comprise small to medium-sized planorboid gastropods, reaching up to 25 mm in height or diameter. They are sinistral and either high-spired (e.g.
The classification still largely relies on the early accounts of Mandahl-Barth [102, 103], and the system is based on both shell and anatomical characters; however, the definition of the majority of the more than 30 species currently recognized is still unsatisfactory [104]. A variety of taxonomic characters have been employed in
Planorbidae (Figures 3 and 6) represent the most diverse taxon of freshwater pulmonate gastropods on earth that has an almost cosmopolitan distribution [105]. After excluding the Bulinidae and Burnupiidae there are approximately 150 species globally [105]. Following the most recent classification of freshwater gastropods [47], based on various phylogenetic analyses conducted during the past two decades, the Planorbidae consist of three subfamilies, namely Planorbinae Rafinesque, 1815, Ancylinae Rafinesque, 1815, and Miratestinae P. Sarasin & F. Sarasin, 1897 [105].
Planorbidae occur in all kinds of freshwater habitats, ranging from temporary and permanent ponds, streams, rivers, and large lakes [89]. The cosmopolitan distribution of Planorbidae has been the result of a high dispersal capacity and ecological flexibility, including desiccation resistance that is particularly important for the successful passive transport via (aerial) vectors.
The snails are small to medium-sized with long slender tentacles and blood containing hemoglobin [106]. The shell is discoid, lens-shaped, or higher ovate to turreted and the animals are sinistral, that is, the genital openings and the anus are situated on the left side, but in most of the discoid forms the shell appears to be dextral, because it is carried inverted, so that the side representing the spire (apical side) in other families is the lower side of the planorbid shell and the upper side is umbilical [106].
In the Planorbinae, there are several tribes, i.e., Planorbini (almost global distribution); Segmentinini (comprise Palearctic, Oriental, and Afrotropical species); Drepanotrematini (Central and South America); Neoplanorbini (represent a likely extinct taxon endemic to river systems in the southeasten United States); Helisomatini (includes Afrotropical and American taxa); Coretini (primarily European); and Camptoceratini (southern and eastern Asia) (see references in [105]). Several species are intermediate hosts for medically or veterinary important trematodes including schistosomes.
Freshwater limpets of the subfamily Ancylinae occur on all continents. They are small species with cap- or shield-shaped shell [29]. These animals have a pallial lung, as do all pulmonate snails, but they also have a pseudobranch which serve as a gill in situations where the limpet is unable to reach the surface for air.
The subfamily Miratestinae comprises Australian high-spired planorbid species the buliniform species
Distribution and transmission patterns for some of the zoonotic trematodes may be changing for various reason. Climate plays an important role in the transmission of many infectious diseases; it not only determines spatial and seasonal distributions, but influences inter-annual variability, including epidemics, and long-term trends [108]. Evidence of climate change includes the instrumental temperature record, rising sea levels, and decreased snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere [109]. One of the most conspicuous effects of climate is an increased frequency of extreme weather conditions, which can have devastating effects on the snail fauna in some vulnerable habitats and at least temporarily affect schistosome transmission [110]. Obviously, one of the key factors for changing transmission patterns would be temperature changes [111].
Another possibility for changing transmission patterns is introduction of intermediate hosts into new areas. There are numerous examples of snails spreading over long distances and becoming invasive. Although snails may be spread over short distances attached to other animals, in mud on feet of birds or over somewhat longer distances passing alive through the digestive channel of migratory birds, the major mean of transport is the global trade in aquatic animals and plants [108]. Asian species such as
Control of the zoonotic trematode-caused diseases in people and animals must depend on the severity of pathology caused, transmission patterns, and available options for medical treatment of infection. For most of these infections, effective control needs to take a holistic approach following One-Health principles [113].
While recognizing that existing approaches to the control of zoonotic diseases will continue to benefit from their current vertical or horizontal structure, there is growing evidence for the benefits of a joint human and animal health approach [114]. The One Health concept integrates human and animal health resources and should be promoted, because many zoonoses can be better surveyed, diagnosed and controlled by considering human and animal health together [114]. In our view, the One-Health approach must take a holistic approach where all aspects of the parasite life cycle are considered and this is especially the case for zoonotic trematodes. Some of the zoonotic trematodes are closely linked to food production, and this is especially important in least developed countries.
Disease control programmes are typically integrated as there is a need to link surveillance, monitoring, and reporting all activities with actions taken by the health system and this is particularly the case for control of zoonotic diseases [114]. Such approaches may be biomedical (drug or vaccine), vector or intermediate host control (insects or snail), environmental, legislative (inspection and condemnation of infected products at slaughterhouses) or educational [114].
Some of these zoonotic trematode-caused diseases are serious problems of both public health and veterinary importance. Although infections by some of these trematodes in the final hosts can be effectively reduced through medical treatment, reinfection appears very quickly [36, 110, 115, 116]. Thus, it is necessary to take a holistic approach to control. Treatment of infections by trematodes involves the understanding of the multiple host species, environmental control, and behavior modifications and includes several scenarios. Interventions should include (1) attempts to reduce the contamination of water bodies with trematode eggs; (2) attempts to reduce the chance of eggs or miracidia infecting the first intermediate host and (3) attempts to reduce the likelihood that cercariae or metacercariae infect a final host [113].
The most effective means of reducing egg contamination would be medical treatment of the final hosts (humans and possibly reservoir hosts). This could be supplemented with sanitary improvements to reduce contamination of waterbodies with human feces or urine or prevention of reservoir hosts to have access to the water bodies e.g., dogs, cats, and wild birds for some of the fish-borne zoonotic trematodes [113]. Avoiding the use of untreated manure from domestic animals for fertilization of aquaculture ponds is an important way to reduce egg contamination of ponds and also prevention of rain run-off into the ponds is important [36].
Snail control using either habitat modification, chemical control, or biological control is important for reducing the chance of eggs or miracidia infecting the first intermediate host. Biological control should be attempted only using native species and might be a viable option in aquaculture ponds [117, 118]. Obviously, what is feasible depends on the type of habitat.
Snail control will also reduce cercariae production in transmission sites thus reducing infection in the final host. For schistosomiasis, transmission to people could be reduced through reducing water contact in transmission sites, e.g. through supply of safe water. For fish-borne zoonotic trematodes (FZT), behavioral changes reducing transmission include, e.g., not eating raw fish, cooking fish remains before feeding it to animals (pigs, dogs, and cats) and preventing especially cats and dogs access to the ponds [36].
Combining mass drug administration, provision of clean water and maintenance of good sanitation and hygiene, community health education towards modification of risky behaviors, surveillance, and veterinary public health interventions have been shown to be effective in combatting foodborne trematodiasis [119]. Finally, there is a need to reduce dependency on chemical compounds for control of the first intermediate hosts due to their costs and low sustainability, while management procedures could be more sustainable and long lasting.
Zoonotic trematodes cause a number of diseases some of which have major public health or animal health consequences or have huge financial implications. A key element in the parasites’ life cycle are the first intermediate host which depending on the parasitic species particular species of gastropod mollusks. Control of these snails could be an important element in an integrated approach to control these diseases following the “One-Health” approach.
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\\n\\nAll translated Chapters have to be properly attributed in accordance with the requirements included in IntechOpen's Attribution Policy. Besides proper attribution translated sections of Works must include the following sentence: "This is an unofficial translation of a work published by IntechOpen. The publisher has not endorsed this translation".
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\n\nAll translated Chapters have to be properly attributed in accordance with the requirements included in IntechOpen's Attribution Policy. Besides proper attribution translated sections of Works must include the following sentence: "This is an unofficial translation of a work published by IntechOpen. The publisher has not endorsed this translation".
\n\nAll rights to Books and other compilations are reserved by IntechOpen. The copyright to Books and other compilations is subject to a Copyright separate from any that exists in the included Works.
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Orbital-Based Molecular Dynamics (FMO-MD) Simulations",slug:"recent-advances-in-fragment-molecular-orbital-based-molecular-dynamics-fmo-md-simulations",totalDownloads:3515,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:null,book:{id:"1966",slug:"molecular-dynamics-theoretical-developments-and-applications-in-nanotechnology-and-energy",title:"Molecular Dynamics",fullTitle:"Molecular Dynamics - Theoretical Developments and Applications in Nanotechnology and Energy"},signatures:"Yuto Komeiji, Yuji Mochizuki, Tatsuya Nakano and Hirotoshi Mori",authors:[{id:"103606",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuto",middleName:null,surname:"Komeiji",slug:"yuto-komeiji",fullName:"Yuto Komeiji"}]},{id:"34979",doi:"10.5772/36936",title:"Molecular Dynamics Simulations and Thermal Transport at the Nano-Scale",slug:"molecular-dynamics-simulations-and-thermal-transport-at-the-nano-scale",totalDownloads:4534,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1966",slug:"molecular-dynamics-theoretical-developments-and-applications-in-nanotechnology-and-energy",title:"Molecular Dynamics",fullTitle:"Molecular Dynamics - Theoretical Developments and Applications in Nanotechnology and Energy"},signatures:"Konstantinos Termentzidis and Samy Merabia",authors:[{id:"110506",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Termentzidis",slug:"konstantinos-termentzidis",fullName:"Konstantinos Termentzidis"},{id:"116542",title:"Dr.",name:"Samy",middleName:null,surname:"Merabia",slug:"samy-merabia",fullName:"Samy Merabia"}]},{id:"34987",doi:"10.5772/35925",title:"Recent Advances in Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Gas Diffusion in Metal Organic Frameworks",slug:"recent-advances-in-molecular-dynamics-simulations-of-gas-diffusion-in-metal-organic-frameworks",totalDownloads:3803,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:null,book:{id:"1966",slug:"molecular-dynamics-theoretical-developments-and-applications-in-nanotechnology-and-energy",title:"Molecular Dynamics",fullTitle:"Molecular Dynamics - Theoretical Developments and Applications in Nanotechnology and Energy"},signatures:"Seda Keskin",authors:[{id:"106387",title:"Prof.",name:"Seda",middleName:null,surname:"Keskin",slug:"seda-keskin",fullName:"Seda Keskin"}]},{id:"56881",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70522",title:"Modal Analysis of Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor Coupled to Periodic Array of Core-Shell Metallic Nanoparticles",slug:"modal-analysis-of-surface-plasmon-resonance-sensor-coupled-to-periodic-array-of-core-shell-metallic-",totalDownloads:1290,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The influence of a dielectric shell on metallic spherical nanoparticles [core-shell nanoparticles (CSNps)] in the resonant modal response of a surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-type sensor is presented. The planar multilayer sensor structure, based on the Kretschmann and surface plasmon coupled emission (SPCE) configurations, is coupled to a periodic array of these nanoparticles. In the first configuration, the CSNps are considered as a homogeneous layer with effective permittivity given by the Clausius-Mossotti mixing formula and polarizability of a core shell for a quasi-static scattering regime. In the second configuration, it performed an evaluation via the discrete complex image method (DCIM). Electromagnetic wave propagation is evaluated by the generalized reflection coefficient for multilayer structures. The analytical results are validated by numerical simulations performed via finite element method and also by experimental data. We observed that the dielectric shell thickness affects considerably the sensibility of the sensor when analyzing the change in other parameters of the CSNps array.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Nadson Welkson Pereira de Souza, Jefferson Souza Costa, Rafael\nCorrea dos Santos, André Felipe Souza da Cruz, Tommaso Del Rosso\nand Karlo Queiroz da Costa",authors:[{id:"25711",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlo",middleName:"Queiroz",surname:"Costa",slug:"karlo-costa",fullName:"Karlo Costa"},{id:"209124",title:"MSc.",name:"Nadson",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",slug:"nadson-souza",fullName:"Nadson Souza"},{id:"209125",title:"MSc.",name:"Jefferson",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",slug:"jefferson-costa",fullName:"Jefferson Costa"},{id:"209126",title:"Mr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"rafael-santos",fullName:"Rafael Santos"},{id:"209127",title:"Mr.",name:"Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Cruz",slug:"andre-cruz",fullName:"Andre Cruz"}]},{id:"57687",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70523",title:"Magneto-Elastic Resonance: Principles, Modeling and Applications",slug:"magneto-elastic-resonance-principles-modeling-and-applications",totalDownloads:1727,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The magnetostriction effects are first discussed in the frame of the magneto-elastic resonance to define important values mainly the magneto-elastic coupling factor, k33. We review the different magnetostrictive materials according to their developments, with a special attention to amorphous ribbons to design magnetostrictive resonators. Furthermore, we focus on the current instrumental setups including their limitations, and then on the usual measurement procedures of the resonators, particularly the frequency domain measurement. In addition, an innovative approach based on the magneto-elastic impedance is reported, together with an analytical model which establishes the complete transfer function between the input and output voltages. This model is applied to ribbon-shaped materials, particularly to determine the magneto-elastic coupling factor. These resonators are suitable to sensing applications, i.e., to estimate the influential quantities such as the temperature, magnetic fields and mass stuck on the resonating surface.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Yannick Le Bras and Jean-Marc Greneche",authors:[{id:"207634",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannick",middleName:null,surname:"Le Bras",slug:"yannick-le-bras",fullName:"Yannick Le Bras"},{id:"216492",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Greneche",slug:"jean-marc-greneche",fullName:"Jean-Marc Greneche"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1696,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]},{id:"56914",title:"Introduction to Parametric and Autoparametric Resonance",slug:"introduction-to-parametric-and-autoparametric-resonance",totalDownloads:1866,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter will give an introduction to linear and nonlinear oscillators and will propose literature to this topic. Most importantly, hands on examples with numerical simulations are illustrating oscillations and resonance phenomena and where useful, also analytical methods to treat nonlinear behavior are given.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Lukas C. Kurmann",authors:[{id:"208970",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Lukas",middleName:null,surname:"Kurmann",slug:"lukas-kurmann",fullName:"Lukas Kurmann"}]},{id:"57687",title:"Magneto-Elastic Resonance: Principles, Modeling and Applications",slug:"magneto-elastic-resonance-principles-modeling-and-applications",totalDownloads:1727,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The magnetostriction effects are first discussed in the frame of the magneto-elastic resonance to define important values mainly the magneto-elastic coupling factor, k33. We review the different magnetostrictive materials according to their developments, with a special attention to amorphous ribbons to design magnetostrictive resonators. Furthermore, we focus on the current instrumental setups including their limitations, and then on the usual measurement procedures of the resonators, particularly the frequency domain measurement. In addition, an innovative approach based on the magneto-elastic impedance is reported, together with an analytical model which establishes the complete transfer function between the input and output voltages. This model is applied to ribbon-shaped materials, particularly to determine the magneto-elastic coupling factor. These resonators are suitable to sensing applications, i.e., to estimate the influential quantities such as the temperature, magnetic fields and mass stuck on the resonating surface.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Yannick Le Bras and Jean-Marc Greneche",authors:[{id:"207634",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannick",middleName:null,surname:"Le Bras",slug:"yannick-le-bras",fullName:"Yannick Le Bras"},{id:"216492",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Greneche",slug:"jean-marc-greneche",fullName:"Jean-Marc Greneche"}]},{id:"52203",title:"An Introduction to Ensemble-Based Data Assimilation Method in the Earth Sciences",slug:"an-introduction-to-ensemble-based-data-assimilation-method-in-the-earth-sciences",totalDownloads:1605,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In this chapter, the ensemble-based data assimilation methods are introduced, including their developments, applications and existing concerns. These methods include both traditional methods such as Kalman filter and its derivatives and some advanced algorithms such as sigma-point Kalman filters and particle filters. Emphasis is placed on the challenges of applying these methods onto high-dimensional systems in the earth sciences.",book:{id:"5192",slug:"nonlinear-systems-design-analysis-estimation-and-control",title:"Nonlinear Systems",fullTitle:"Nonlinear Systems - Design, Analysis, Estimation and Control"},signatures:"Youmin Tang, Zheqi Shen and Yanqiu Gao",authors:[{id:"147569",title:"Prof.",name:"Youmin",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"youmin-tang",fullName:"Youmin Tang"}]},{id:"56855",title:"Fano Resonance in High-Permittivity Objects",slug:"fano-resonance-in-high-permittivity-objects",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this chapter, Fano resonances in simple structures with high permittivity such as spheres or core-shell particles are analyzed by Mie theory. The Mie scattering coefficients can be decomposed into slow varying backgrounds and narrow resonances, which cause the Fano resonances in scattered field. For structures of arbitrary shapes, temporal coupled-mode theory is applied to explain the Fano resonances found in the scattering cross section. At last, we analyze the periodic structures by using band diagram, and it shows that the Fano resonances can be viewed as the superposition of the Bloch wave and the Mie scattering wave.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Xianghong Kong, Lina Qiu and Gaobiao Xiao",authors:[{id:"3782",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaobiao",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",slug:"gaobiao-xiao",fullName:"Gaobiao Xiao"},{id:"207824",title:"Dr.",name:"Xianghong",middleName:null,surname:"Kong",slug:"xianghong-kong",fullName:"Xianghong Kong"},{id:"207861",title:"Dr.",name:"Lina",middleName:null,surname:"Qiu",slug:"lina-qiu",fullName:"Lina Qiu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"970",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81892",title:"Perspective Chapter: Lattice Solitons in a Nonlocal Nonlinear Medium with Self-Focusing and Self-Defocusing Quintic Nonlinearity",slug:"perspective-chapter-lattice-solitons-in-a-nonlocal-nonlinear-medium-with-self-focusing-and-self-defo",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104824",abstract:"The fundamental lattice solitons are explored in a nonlocal nonlinear medium with self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity. The band-gap boundaries, soliton profiles, and stability domains of fundamental solitons are investigated comprehensively by the linear stability spectra and nonlinear evolution of the solitons. It is demonstrated that fundamental lattice solitons can stay stable for a wide range of parameters with the weak self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearity, while strong self-focusing and self-defocusing quintic nonlinearities are shortened the propagation distance of evolved solitons. Furthermore, it is observed that when the instability emerges from strong quintic nonlinearity, increasing anisotropy of the medium and modification of lattice depth can be considered as a collapse arrest mechanism.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mahmut Bağcı, Theodoros P. Horikis, İlkay Bakırtaş and Nalan Antar"},{id:"80350",title:"A Comparison of the Undetermined Coefficient Method and the Adomian Decomposition Method for the Solutions of the Sasa-Satsuma Equation",slug:"a-comparison-of-the-undetermined-coefficient-method-and-the-adomian-decomposition-method-for-the-sol",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101817",abstract:"This chapter will talk about the mathematical as well as numerical aspects of the Sasa-Satsuma equation that is the extended nontrivial version of nonlinear Schrödinger’s equation. The exact solution will be found out by the undetermined coefficient method. After that, the Adomian decomposition method is secure numerical simulations of computed analytical solutions. The error plots are given to see the accuracy of the results.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mir Asma"},{id:"79127",title:"Soliton Like-Breather Induced by Modulational Instability in a Generalized Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",slug:"soliton-like-breather-induced-by-modulational-instability-in-a-generalized-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equ",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100522",abstract:"We consider the nonlinear Schrödinger equation modified by a rational nonlinear term. The model appears in various studies often in the context of the Ginzburg-Landau equation. We investigate modulational instability by means of a linear stability analysis and show how the nonlinear terms affect the growth rate. This analytical result is confirmed by a numerical simulation. The latter analysis shows that breather-like solitons are generated from the instability, and the effects of the nonlinear terms are again clearly seen. Moreover, by employing an auxiliary-equation method we obtain kink and anti-kink soliton as analytical solutions. Our theoretical solution is in good agreement with our numerical investigation.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Saïdou Abdoulkary and Alidou Mohamadou"},{id:"79040",title:"Traveling Wave Solutions and Chaotic Motions for a Perturbed Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation with Power-Law Nonlinearity and Higher-Order Dispersions",slug:"traveling-wave-solutions-and-chaotic-motions-for-a-perturbed-nonlinear-schr-dinger-equation-with-pow",totalDownloads:92,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100396",abstract:"This chapter aims to study and solve the perturbed nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS) equation with the power-law nonlinearity in a nano-optical fiber, based upon different methods such as the auxiliary equation method, the Stuart and DiPrima’s stability analysis method, and the bifurcation theory. The existence of the traveling wave solutions is discussed, and their stability properties are investigated through the modulational stability gain spectra. Moreover, the development of the chaotic motions for the systems is pointed out via the bifurcation theory. Taking into account an external periodic perturbation, we have analyzed the chaotic behavior of traveling waves through quasiperiodic route to chaos.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Mati Youssoufa, Ousmanou Dafounansou, Camus Gaston Latchio Tiofack and Alidou Mohamadou"},{id:"78957",title:"Resonant Optical Solitons in (3 + 1)-Dimensions Dominated by Kerr Law and Parabolic Law Nonlinearities",slug:"resonant-optical-solitons-in-3-1-dimensions-dominated-by-kerr-law-and-parabolic-law-nonlinearities",totalDownloads:96,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100469",abstract:"This study investigates the optical solitons of of (3+1)-dimensional resonant nonlinear Schrödinger (3D-RNLS) equation with the two laws of nonlinearity. The two forms of nonlinearity are represented by Kerr law and parabolic law. Based on complex transformation, the traveling wave reduction of the governing model is derived. The projective Riccati equations technique is applied to obtain the exact solutions of 3D-RNLS equation. Various types of waves that represent different structures of optical solitons are extracted. These structures include bright, dark, singular, dark-singular and combined singular solitons. Additionally, the obliquity effect on resonant solitons is illustrated graphically and is found to cause dramatic variations in soliton behaviors.",book:{id:"10959",title:"The Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10959.jpg"},signatures:"Khalil S. 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