\r\n\tRisk management aims to develop an efficient organizational development environment through risk planning, assessment, analysis, and control. This process will apply in all areas of activity, and the evaluation framework is the same regardless of the field. This volume will aim to appeal to chapters that address methods, models, evaluation frameworks, benefits, barriers, and other dimensions of risk management. \r\n\tSustainability and the circular economy are approaches approached by many companies and have become activities of global interest. Protecting the environment, streamlining the consumption of organizational resources, reducing the amount of waste generated, and other activities are objectives of these efforts. The circular economy contributes to the sustainable development of the company or country and the achievement of the global objectives of sustainable development. This book will aim to collect various studies for organizational and global sustainability. \r\n\tLeadership has become a globally desirable approach that can help improve organizational competitiveness and reduce organizational risks. Risks and barriers in risk-free management can be well managed through effective organizational leadership. This book will aim to bring together chapters that explore different areas of leadership.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-218-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83769-991-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-219-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5d9c14d51cb7e214a9093c454eab1404",bookSignature:"Dr. Larisa Ivascu, Dr. Ben-Oni Ardelean and Dr. Muddassar Sarfraz",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11937.jpg",keywords:"Technical Risk, Occupational Risk, Operational Risk Management, Economic Risk, Financial Risk, Thematic Mapping, Global Sustainability, Sustainability Models, Life Cycle Assessment, Critical Raw Materials, Global Leadership, Risks",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ivascu obtained Ph.D. in Management and graduated with an MBA in Production and Transportation from the Faculty of Management, Politehnica University of Timisoara. She is the president of the scientific committee of the Academy of Political Leadership and vice-president of the Society for Ergonomics and Work Environment Management. Dr. Ivascu has been involved in national and international projects and has published nine books, and contributed scientifically to more than 200 scientific articles.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Ben-Oni Ardelean obtained Ph.D. in Political Science and Ph.D. in Theology; he has extensive academic and political experience. He is the author of several books and numerous academic articles. He is highly preoccupied with supporting those in need, helping others to help themselves, and motivating people to live a life of purpose, love, and compassion. 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\n
1. Introduction
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Preparing a contingency plan before disasters is essential to increase the capacity of personnel in charge of disaster response and enhance local resilience to disasters. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 [1], adopted at the Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in 2015, addresses the importance of “Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction” as the fourth priority action. More specifically, its paragraph 33 states that national and local governments shall prepare or review and periodically update disaster preparedness and contingency policies, plans and programmes with the involvement of the relevant institutions, considering climate change scenarios and their impact on disaster risk and facilitating, as appropriate, the participation of all sectors and relevant stakeholders [1].
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In order to achieve effective disaster response, it is important first to assume possible disasters, then quantify expected disaster damage and conduct contingency planning based on the scenarios of the possible disasters. One of the practical tools to carry out this process is evidence-based flood contingency planning, which is based on scientific approaches such as flood simulation and quantitative risk assessment. This planning method, however, is not always feasible to disaster-prone areas in Asia due to the lack of data on natural and social conditions. To overcome such a challenge, the International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM) focuses on flood disasters and proposes an effective method for local communities to predict the dynamic change of inundation using flood simulation, assess flood risk with key indicators, decide coping strategies against the identified flood risk and develop a contingency plan beforehand. This method is first applied to one of the flood-prone areas in Asia, Calumpit Municipality in the Pampanga River basin of the Philippines, to verify its effectiveness in areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited.
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\n
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2. Proposal of evidence-based flood contingency planning
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The “ISO22301 Societal security—Business continuity management systems” specifies requirements for all types of organisations to plan, implement, review and improve a documented management system to prepare for, respond to and recover from disruptive incidents [2]. It requires the organisations to select business continuity strategy based on the outputs from the risk assessment and business impact analysis. The risk assessment aims to identify and evaluate the risk of disruptive incidents to the organisations, while the business impact analysis assesses the impacts of disrupting activities that support organisation’s services. To conduct evidence-based flood contingency planning in reference to the procedures employed in the ISO22301, six steps are proposed, as shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1.
Six steps of evidence-based flood contingency planning.
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The first step of this planning is to understand the current conditions of the target communities such as topography, land use, population and structures, as well as past flood records in the area. At the second step, flood hazards and risks are identified through flood and inundation simulations conducted by national or provincial governments. Flood scenarios are presented with two key components, i.e. a flood inundation map and a time-series inundation water chart, to illustrate dynamic changes in inundation depth for residents to easily understand how the inundation may expand, linger and recede in their communities. The third step is flood impact analysis, in which the numbers of residents and houses at risk are estimated based on the average ground-floor height of houses, and possible problems the community may face due to the flood are identified. At the fourth step, the communities in the target area should develop a response strategy. Necessary actions should be discussed according to the time sequence of “before the flood”, “during the flood” and “after the flood”. The fifth and sixth steps are documentation and sharing of the plan among the community members. It is also important that the produced plan should be updated constantly through the Plan-Do-Check-Act cycle.
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\n
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3. Case study area
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Among the Asian flood-prone areas, a municipality called Calumpit was selected as the first case study area. It is in Bulacan Province in Pampanga River basin located northwest of Metro Manila in Central Luzon Island, Philippines. The municipality lies at the junction of several rivers, including Pampanga, Angat and Labangan, as illustrated in Figures 2 and 3. This topography makes Calumpit one of the most flood-prone municipalities in the Philippines. As of 2010, 101,068 people live in an area of 5625 ha, or 2.03%, of the province. The municipality has 29 barangays, the smallest administrative units. The recent largest flood was caused by Typhoons Pedring and Quiel in September 2011, and a large area of the municipality suffered massive flood damage. Due to an inundation of 1.2–1.5 m deep, Calumpit lost its government functions, which consequently impeded emergency response.
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Figure 2.
Location of Calumpit in Pampanga River basin. (a) Luzon Island and (b) Pampanga River basin).
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Figure 3.
Land use map of Calumpit [4].
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The Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act (Republic Act No. 10121) [3], enacted in 2010, provides for the development of policies and plans and the implementation of actions and measures related to all aspects of disaster risk reduction and management. It defines the National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council (NDRRMC) as the national organisation to coordinate, integrate, supervise, monitor and evaluate disaster policymaking. It also mandates the establishment of the Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office in every barangay, municipality, city and province.
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Calumpit has the Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council (MDRRMC) and the Barangay Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council (BDRRMC) in its 29 barangays. The act defines MDRRMCs and BDRRMCs to perform functions such as designing and coordinating disaster risk reduction and management activities, supporting risk assessments and contingency planning activities at the local level [3]. Following this act, the MDRRMC of Calumpit published a contingency plan [4], which describes governmental emergency response in case of a flood. It assumes casualties, structural damage and impacts on livelihood, infrastructure and facilities in the worst-case scenario, based on the experience during Typhoons Pedring and Quiel in 2011. However, the scenario based on the past flood experiences makes it difficult to assume future floods of different scales which have never occurred before. It is therefore recommended to make contingency plans by quantifying a spatial distribution of expected damage and necessary needs in consideration of dynamic changes in inundation depth provided from flood inundation simulations performed for each community.
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4. Case study of evidence-based flood contingency planning
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The proposed method was applied to Calumpit Municipality in Bulacan Province.
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Figure 4 illustrates overall activities related to the six steps to be proposed. The first and second steps were applied to the whole area of the municipality in April 2014. At the third and fourth steps, two flood-prone communities were selected as model sites, and their flood contingency plans were jointly developed through workshops with community leaders and members. In the workshops, the participants discussed problems they may face during the flood of each scale and proposed necessary response actions in order to make response strategies. The final workshop was held in March 2016, inviting all the community leaders in the municipality, and the experience in the workshops was shared among the participants. The following subchapters detail each step:
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Figure 4.
Activities at six steps of evidence-based flood contingency planning.
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4.1. Step 1: understanding current conditions
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In areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited, administering interviews and questionnaires to local government officials, community leaders and local people is useful to understand the current conditions of their localities. In this study, interviews were conducted at MDRRMO and selected communities [5]. The surveys found that population census data at the barangay level was available, while the spatial distribution data of buildings was not. Then, a questionnaire survey was administered to all 29 barangay leaders to understand the building conditions in each barangay. The houses in the 29 barangays were classified and tallied according to construction types and storeys. Of those, 62.5% were a one-storey structure, while the rest were two-storey.
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Interviews at the selected individual households were also conducted to understand recent flood damage, including the damage status of house structures, property and family members and their behaviours during the recent floods. During the interviews, the survey staff measured the heights of the first floor, ceiling and flood marks from the past floods with the permission of family members. From the household survey, it was found that the average first-floor height of the one-storey houses was 0.54 m from the ground, while that of the two-storey houses was 0.17 m, as shown in Figure 5. Table 1 summarises the conditions of the houses at five inundation levels using the thresholds from the household interviews. Different damages to the livelihood of the residents are listed according to inundation levels. Inundation level 1 with a water depth of 0.17 m or lower did not inundate inside the house. At inundation level 2, the two-storey houses started being inundated. At inundation level 3, at which the water depth exceeds 0.54 m, both one- and two-storey houses suffered from inundation above the first floor, which suggests that the residents had to stay somewhere above the water level or evacuate to safer places near their houses.
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Figure 5.
Threshold of inundation based on measurement results.
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Table 1.
Conditions of houses at each inundation level.
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The household interviews also found that the inundation above electric plugs caused severe damage to daily life. The height of electric plugs averaged 1.27 m and that of LP gas tanks 0.60 m. The residents usually move LP gas tanks to the second floor or to the rooftop to use them for cooking during an inundation. Inundation level 4 was set, based on the observed average height of electric plugs, as the condition cutting local people off from power. At inundation level 5, the inundation depth exceeds 2.83 m, the height of the second floor of a house. Under this situation, they could not find an evacuation space due to the rarity of buildings having three storeys or more, which means an inundation of this scale is likely to be a potentially life-threatening crisis for the residents.
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Calumpit Municipality has its own community flood warning system called “colours of safety”. This system uses power poles painted in three colours (yellow, orange and red) by every 2 ft to visualise the level of danger and help residents make decisions on evacuation. At present, 193 electric poles in the municipality are tricoloured for this purpose. The residents are advised to evacuate before the water reached the red colour.
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4.2. Step 2: identifying flood risk
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In this step, the expected flood inundation area was delineated by flood inundation simulation using the rainfall-runoff-inundation model (RRI model), developed by ICHARM. The RRI model is a two-dimensional model capable of simulating rainfall, runoff and flood inundation simultaneously Sayama et al. [6]. The model deals with slopes and river channels separately. It applies a 2D diffusive wave model to flows on slope grid cells and a 1D diffusive wave model to channel flows. The software of the model can be downloaded from the ICHARM website [7] for free.
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We used the RRI model that Shrestha et al. [8] locally customised to conduct flood simulation for the Pampanga River basin and performed hazard mapping for Calumpit Municipality, following the eight sub-step procedures [5] presented below:
Sub-step 1: acquisition of input data for the model.
Sub-step 2: acquisition of flood mark records.
Sub-step 3: flood inundation simulation during Typhoons Pedring and Quiel in September 2011 (grid, 200 m).
Sub-step 4: calibration of the model by comparing observed and simulated discharges in sub-step 3.
Sub-step 5: validation of the model by comparing the simulation results with flood mark records.
Sub-step 6: frequency analysis using rainfall data.
Sub-step 7: flood inundation simulation using design rainfall assumed with 10-, 30- and 100-year return periods.
Sub-step 8: development of inundation depth maps in Calumpit with 10-, 30- and 100-year return periods (grid, 5 m).
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The simulation used the high-resolution digital elevation model (DEM) of 5 m grid, observed by the interferometric synthetic aperture radar (IFSAR) and provided by the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) in the Philippines without a fee. Inundation simulation for the River basin was first conducted using DEM data of 200 m grid created by IFSAR. After the flood inundation simulation, a grid of Calumpit with the inundation depth of 5 m was developed by obtaining the difference between the floodwater surface level of 200 m grid and the ground-level surface level of 5 m grid by IFSAR. As a result of the flood inundation simulation, three kinds of flood inundation maps with 10-, 30- and 100-year return periods were produced for ordinary, past largest and extreme floods. From the frequency analysis using past rainfall data, a return period of the flood caused by Typhoon Pedring in 2011 was estimated to be 28.3 years. The occurrence of flood inundation with a 30-year return period means the reoccurrence of the 2011 flood. Figure 6 shows the inundation maps produced in this step.
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Figure 6.
Maximum inundation depth maps.
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Municipal personnel pointed out that the word “return period” is too technical for residents to understand. Thus, to help them understand the flood scale easily, floods were named according to their scales as “ordinary flood” for 10-year return period floods; “high flood” for 30-year return period floods, whose scale is roughly equal to the largest recorded flood in 2011; and “extreme flood” for 100-year return period floods.
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Based on the flood simulation results, maps and a chart were created for each barangay, as shown in Figure 7. As mentioned above, Calumpit Municipality has its own community flood warning system called “colours of safety” in which power poles are painted in three colours by every 2 ft to visualise the level of danger and help residents make decisions on evacuation. The inundation maps for each barangay (Figure 7b) adopted this locally familiar tricolour system to show the inundation depth.
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Figure 7.
Maps and chart for each barangay (example of Barangay Santa Lucia).
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In addition to inundation maps with three different return periods, inundation probability maps, time-series inundation charts and resource maps were also developed for each barangay. The inundation probability map (Figure 7c) was created to help people understand the most frequently inundated areas, by combining the information of three inundation maps with 10-, 30- and 100-year return periods. The map shows the probability of inundation that may exceed 2 ft. (0.61 m) or higher, the depth almost equal to the height of the first floor of a one-storey house. The area in dark purple colour indicates that one-storey houses in the area may be inundated above the first-floor level in case of a 10-year return period flood. The time-series inundation chart (Figure 7d) shows the chronological development of inundation in a barangay using different colours. From this chart, people can understand how many days the area may be inundated according to different flood scales. In the resource map (Figure 7a), the locations of barangay halls, evacuation centres and electric poles for “colours of safety” were plotted.
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In order to quantify flood risk at each community, the number of affected residents was estimated based on damage levels by overlaying inundation maps on the population distribution map of each barangay. Since most of the municipal area of Calumpit is used for agricultural purposes, we considered it reasonable to assume that the population is not uniformly distributed over the municipal area but disproportionately distributed in the built-up areas. For this reason, the built-up areas were identified. The identification of the built-up areas was made using satellite images because no digital land use maps were available. If accurate land use maps are available, they can be used for the purpose. The population in each barangay was assumed to be evenly distributed in its identified built-up areas. Then, the number of affected residents in each barangay was estimated according to inundation levels (Table 1). As a result, the total ratio of affected residents living in the area with inundation levels 3–5 was calculated to be 55.9% for a 100-year flood, while 34.6% for the past maximum flood case, as shown in Figure 8. That well over 55% of the population may suffer at inundation level 3 or above in a 100-year flood means both one- and two-storey houses are very likely to be inundated above the floor.
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Figure 8.
Estimated number of affected residents in Calumpit.
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Figure 9 shows the estimated number of affected residents in each barangay in both flood cases. In case of a 100-year flood, more than 90% of the residents in barangays of Sapang Bayan, Corazon, Bulusan, Gugo and San Jose may suffer from an inundation of level 3 or above. They should prepare for prompt evacuation in case of such a severe flood. In this case study, only the number of affected residents was analysed due to a lack of spatial distribution data of buildings. If the data is available, the number of damaged houses and the repairing cost could be estimated. Moreover, the number of affected residents or those who need to evacuate outside their houses could be calculated more accurately based on the number of damaged houses.
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Figure 9.
Estimated number of affected residents in each barangay.
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4.3. Step 3: analysing flood impact
\n
The third step is flood impact analysis, in which possible problem communities may face in the event of a flood are identified. The most important thing is for communities to understand how flood impact becomes severer according to flood scales so that they can take sensible measures to increase disaster preparedness by themselves. Two flood-prone barangays were selected as model sites to develop flood contingency plans with barangay leaders and members through workshops. The participants of the workshops discussed problems on key components, such as information communication, evacuation, housing, water, food, relief goods, medical treatment and transportation, for three flood patterns identified in step 2: ordinary flood, high flood and extreme flood.
\n
Table 2 summarises the impact of floods identified at the workshops in the two barangays. In case of high flood, many houses may be inundated, and the residents may experience various types of damage to their livelihood, while only non-elevated houses may be inundated in ordinary foods. The participants anticipated problems associated with information acquisition, capacities of evacuation centres, supplies of water, power, relief goods, availability of medical treatment and transportation. In case of extreme flood, they anticipated difficulty in repairing houses as a considerable number of inundated houses may well mean the shortage of construction materials. A photo in Figure 10 shows a scene of a workshop.
\n
Table 2.
Impact of floods on barangay identified at workshops.
\n
Figure 10.
Workshop at Barangay Bulusan.
\n
\n
\n
4.4. Step 4: developing response strategies
\n
At this step, necessary actions associated with the flood impact on each key component identified in step 3 are discussed at each community according to the time sequence of “before the flood”, “during the flood” and “after the flood disaster”. For this purpose, the second workshop was held at each of the two barangays. At the workshop, the participants were requested to share opinions on necessary actions by writing them down on Post-its and show them to other participants. Then, the actions presented by the participants were sorted out into two categories: actions that a barangay should implement immediately as self-help and mutual support and requests that a barangay should make to municipal, provincial or national governments as public assistance. This activity will help clarify actions to be taken by themselves and requests to be made to higher administrative organisations. Tables 3 and 4 summarise the results of the discussions at the two barangay workshops on what they should do before, during and after the flood and what they should request. The participants found the importance of response strategies on actions such as informing water levels regularly to the municipal office, leading residents to evacuate quickly to a safer place, keeping relief goods dry, saving children and seniors and supporting residents in getting back to normal life quickly.
\n
Table 3.
Results of discussion on actions to be taken in the barangay.
\n
Table 4.
Results of discussion on requests to higher administrative organisations.
\n
Although self-help and mutual support among residents are the priority for community disaster management, actions available for them are often limited due to budget and manpower constraints. At the series of workshops, the participants listed the requests they would like to make to higher administrative organisations, as shown in Table 4. Figures 11 and 12 are photos taken at workshops.
\n
Figure 11.
Workshop at Barangay Santa Lucia.
\n
Figure 12.
A resident presenting an opinion on Post-its to other participants at the workshop.
\n
\n
\n
4.5. Step 5: developing a contingency plan
\n
After performing steps 3 and 4, the selected two barangays developed a contingency plan by themselves based on the results of steps 1–4. During the plan development, ICHARM provided them with necessary maps explained in the previous sections and several suggestions to barangay members in charge of the plan. Table 5 is the final contents of their developed plans. Following the message from the barangay leader in the first chapter, the basic information and explanation of risk identification and the contingency plan are presented. In the chapter on risk identification, the inundation maps and chart in Figure 7 are included, and the impact due to three types of floods discussed in Table 2 is explained. The chapter of the contingency plan consists of six parts: an organisation chart, a resource map which shows the locations of the important facilities in the area (Figure 7), a list of equipment, a response strategy as a result of step 4 (Table 3), a sectoral plan for each section to follow in order to achieve necessary actions listed in step 4 and an annual activity plan.
\n
Table 5.
Contents of contingency plan.
\n
\n
\n
4.6. Step 6: sharing a contingency plan
\n
In the final step, the main focus is to share the developed contingency plan among community members and with other municipalities. Inviting the leaders and related members of the 29 barangays and Calumpit Municipality, a workshop was held to share all the activities. As the project had drawn much local attention, over 100 people attended the meeting. The representatives from the two model barangays introduced their contingency plans and explained how they developed a barangay contingency plan by themselves, as shown in Figure 13. At the end of the workshop, ICHARM provided printed maps developed in step 2 to all the 29 barangays so that every barangay could also make an evidence-based contingency plan of their own (Figure 14).
\n
Figure 13.
Presentation on contingency plan from representatives from two barangays.
\n
Figure 14.
Participants of final workshop in Feb. 2016.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
This study proposed an effective method to implement evidence-based flood contingency planning for local communities by assuming the dynamic change of inundation using flood simulation, assessing flood risk with key indicators and deciding response strategies against the identified flood risk before a flood occurs. The method was applied to a flood-prone municipality called Calumpit in the Pampanga River basin of the Philippines as the first case study to verify its effectiveness in areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited. The case study revealed that the proposed method can be successfully applied to data-limited regions. However, the method needs testing in different flood-prone communities for further verification.
\n
As for the limitations of the study, the process of risk identification through flood inundation simulation was conducted by ICHARM although this process should be completed by the provincial or national governments of the country. In order for them to carry out the risk identification process by themselves, training of flood simulation and risk assessment should be provided for managers and engineers in flood risk management.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This study was conducted in cooperation with the Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (MDRRMO) of Calumpit and the Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA). We would like to express our deepest appreciation to Calumpit Municipality Mayor Jessie P. De Jesus and the officers of MDRRMO. We would also like to extend our sincere gratitude to the officers in the Pampanga River Basin Flood Forecasting and Warning Center (PRBFFWC) and the headquarters of PAGASA for their support during the field activities. We also owe a great debt to the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) for providing high-resolution DEM data (IFSAR) in the step of risk identification under the MOU between NAMRIA and ICHARM. Last but not least, we thank all persons involved for their kind support in conducting this study.
\n
\n',keywords:"contingency planning, disaster response, flood, risk assessment, simulation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64604.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64604.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64604",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64604",totalDownloads:1510,totalViews:332,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:82,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 1st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 30th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 5th 2018",datePublished:"April 3rd 2019",dateFinished:"November 29th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 addresses the importance of “Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction” as the fourth priority action. One of the practical tools to achieve effective preparedness for flood disaster response is evidence-based contingency planning, which is based on scientific approaches such as flood simulation and quantitative risk assessment. This method, however, is not always feasible to disaster-prone areas in Asia due to the lack of data on natural and social conditions. This chapter proposes a method with six steps for local communities to conduct contingency planning by assuming the dynamic change of inundation using flood simulation, assessing flood risk with key indicators, deciding response strategies against the identified flood risk and developing a contingency plan beforehand. This method was first applied to one of the Asian flood-prone areas, Calumpit Municipality in the Pampanga River basin of the Philippines, to verify its effectiveness in areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64604",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64604",book:{id:"8375",slug:"recent-advances-in-flood-risk-management"},signatures:"Miho Ohara, Naoko Nagumo, Badri Bhakta Shrestha and Hisaya Sawano",authors:[{id:"261112",title:"Dr.",name:"Miho",middleName:null,surname:"Ohara",fullName:"Miho Ohara",slug:"miho-ohara",email:"mi-ohara@pwri.go.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Public Works Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"264405",title:"Dr.",name:"Badri",middleName:"Bhakta",surname:"Shrestha",fullName:"Badri Shrestha",slug:"badri-shrestha",email:"shrestha@pwri.go.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Public Works Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"270525",title:"Mr.",name:"Hisaya",middleName:null,surname:"Sawano",fullName:"Hisaya Sawano",slug:"hisaya-sawano",email:"hs-sawano@pwri.go.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Public Works Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"272127",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoko",middleName:null,surname:"Nagumo",fullName:"Naoko Nagumo",slug:"naoko-nagumo",email:"n-nagumo55@pwri.go.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Public Works Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Proposal of evidence-based flood contingency planning",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Case study area",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Case study of evidence-based flood contingency planning",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Step 1: understanding current conditions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Step 2: identifying flood risk",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. Step 3: analysing flood impact",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4. Step 4: developing response strategies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5. Step 5: developing a contingency plan",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.6. Step 6: sharing a contingency plan",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'UNISDR. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030; 2015\n'},{id:"B2",body:'ISO22301. Societal Security-Business continuity management systems; 2012\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Congress of the Philippines, The Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act of 2010 (Republic Act No. 10121); 2010\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Calumpit Municipality. Calumpit Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Contingency Plan; 2014\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Ohara M, Nagumo N, Shrestha BB, Sawano H. Flood risk assessment in asian flood prone area with limited local data–Case study in Pampanga River basin, Philippines. Journal of Disaster Research. 2016;11(6):1150-1160. DOI: 10.20965/jdr.2016.p1150\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Sayama T. Rainfall-runoff-inundation analysis of the 2010 Pakistan flood in the Kabul River basin. Hydrological Sciences Journal. 2012;57(2):298-312\n'},{id:"B7",body:'International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM). Available from: http://www.icharm.pwri.go.jp/research/rri/rri_top.html [Accessed: August 1, 2018]\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Shrestha B, Okazumi T, Miyamoto M, Sawano H. Development of flood risk assessment method for data-poor River basins: A case study in the Pampanga River basin, Philippines. In: Proceeding of 6th International Conference on Flood Management (ICFM6); 2014\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Miho Ohara",address:"mi-ohara@pwri.go.jp",affiliation:'
International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM) Under the Auspices of UNESCO, Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Tsukuba, Japan
International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM) Under the Auspices of UNESCO, Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Tsukuba, Japan
International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM) Under the Auspices of UNESCO, Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Tsukuba, Japan
International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management (ICHARM) Under the Auspices of UNESCO, Public Works Research Institute (PWRI), Tsukuba, Japan
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1. Introduction
1.1 Universal health coverage in Nigeria
In 2005, the pervading global inequality in access to healthcare prompted the World Health Assembly to pronounce a resolution on Universal Health Coverage (UHC) [1]. UCH rests on two essential bedrocks: equitable access to quality healthcare and protection from financial risk. UHC forms target 8 of the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3). It also plays a crucial role in achieving other important SDGs, such as poverty reduction (SDG 1), gender equality (SDG 5), inclusive economic growth (SDG 8) and reduced general inequalities (SDG 10) [2, 3, 4, 5].
The prevailing poor health indices and extreme poverty in the sub-Sahara African region, especially in Nigeria, have been attributed to inequality in access and financial protection in healthcare utilisation [4, 6, 7]. In 2000, Nigeria was ranked by the WHO as the fourth country with the worst health system, only topping three war-torn nations [8]. After two decades, Nigeria still has one of the worst health indices in Africa (see Tables 1–3), despite being Africa’s largest economy in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and most populous country with an abundance of both human and material resources [5, 9, 10, 11]. For instance, while Nigeria’s infant mortality rate in 2015 was 69 deaths in every 1,000 live births, the respective figures for neighbouring Africa countries like Ghana, Niger and Cameroon were 43, 57 and 57 per 1,000 live births [12]. The maternal mortality ratio of 814 per 100,000 live births in Nigeria exceeds only those of three countries in Africa [5, 12]. Moreover, the country has the highest number of extremely poor people worldwide after India [13]. Although these abysmal indices were derived from multiple factors, the issue of poor equitable access and exposure to financial hardship arising from catastrophic healthcare costs is the most significant.
Country Name
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
Ghana
50.811
52.277
54.127
56.776
57.528
57.002
58.719
61.03
62.772
Nigeria
43.187
45.333
46.127
45.9
45.854
46.267
48.252
50.896
53.112
Rwanda
45.315
48.527
51.685
33.413
31.037
48.649
55.254
63.433
67.45
South Africa
55.428
58.107
60.946
63.307
61.561
56.048
53.447
57.669
62.649
Cote d’Ivoire
48.147
51.072
52.922
53.254
51.569
49.635
50.12
52.964
56.065
Table 1.
Life expectancy at birth (total) (in years) in Nigeria compare with selected African countries (composed from world development indicators 2021).
Country Name
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
Ghana
186.5
166.8
154.7
127.2
114
99.4
82.9
69.1
54.6
Nigeria
241.5
211.8
206.9
209.5
204.1
183.1
155.5
136
126.8
Rwanda
246.2
218.4
159.6
149.8
249.7
178.7
109.3
63.7
41.5
South Africa
121.7
92.2
71.1
57.3
59.4
71.1
79.1
51.2
37.1
Cote d’Ivoire
202.6
168.2
154.1
152.3
152
142.3
125.3
106.4
90.6
Table 2.
Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) in Nigeria compare with selected African countries (composed from world development indicators 2021).
Country
Demographic Indicators
Health Indicators
Health Expenditure Indicators
Population (total)
GDP per capita (US$)
Life expectancy at birth (years)
Infant mortality rate (per 1,000 live births)
Under-5 mortality rate, (per 1,000 live births)
General government health expenditure (% of GDP)
Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure)
Ghana (2016)
28,481,946
1931.389
63.124
37.4
52.2
1.327
37.823
Nigeria (2016)
185,960,289
2176.002
53.541
78.5
125
0.475
75.187
Thailand (2016)
68,971,331
5994.231
76.403
8.9
10.3
2.858
11.345
Ghana (2017)
29,121,471
2025.932
63.463
36.1
50
1.087
41.212
Nigeria (2017)
190,873,311
1968.564
53.95
77.3
122.8
0.532
77.224
Thailand (2017)
69,209,858
6592.914
76.683
8.4
9.9
2.934
10.898
Table 3.
Key demographic, health and economic indicators- Nigeria, Ghana and Thailand (2016–2017).
A proven mechanism for achieving the objectives of UHC is the institution of a suitable mechanism of health financing [14]. Health Financing is a mechanism by which funds are generated, mobilised and utilise for healthcare [1, 15]. An effective healthcare financing mechanism gives people adequate financial protection from impoverishment arising from health services utilisation [14]. In Nigeria, health financing has been predominantly through out-of-pocket (OOP) spending - a regressive form of health financing. OOP payment accounts for about 69% of total healthcare expenditures in Nigeria [16]. As a result, poor households in Nigeria are either unable to access quality healthcare or face financial hardship from healthcare spending [1, 2]. More often than not, OOP payment makes people refrain from utilising health services, present late to health facilities, or patronise sub-standard healthcare facilities. OOP expenditure produces inequity because quality healthcare is only available to those who can pay and not those who need it. In most instances, the poor and vulnerable groups, most in need of the services, have to sell their valuables, incur debts, or spend the family savings to access healthcare, resulting in further impoverishment. This phenomenon is referred to as catastrophic health spending [1, 17, 18, 19, 20].
A household is usually classified as having incurred catastrophic expenditure “if it spends 40% or more of its discretionary (non-food), or 10% or more of its total expenditure on healthcare” [21]. Catastrophic health expenditures arise not only from direct spending on transportation to health facilities, treatment, investigations, medication and hospitalisation, but also from indirect costs resulting from depreciating health status and a resulting reduction in productivity [16]. Consequently, a household is caught up in a cycle of perpetual poverty (Figure 1). Ilesanmi et al. show an increase in poverty of 66.2% due to OOP spending on healthcare, especially among households in the rural communities in Nigeria [23]. Since more than 50% of Nigerians, representing more than 100 million people, live below the poverty line, catastrophic health expenditure is endemic [16, 20, 24]. This situation, therefore, calls for an urgent need to break this cycle of poverty and health-related misery by eliminating OOP payments.
Figure 1.
Cycle of impoverishment due to out-of-pocket (OOP) health spending by poor households. (Adapted from Han [22]).
1.2 Nigeria health system financing and relevant policies
Healthcare in Nigeria is financed through government budgetary allocation, donor funding, NHIS and private funding. The Nigeria 1999 Constitution empowers all the three tiers of government (federal, state and local) to mobilise and deploy resources to provide healthcare in their jurisdiction [24, 25]. The Nigerian government expenditure on health is less than nearly those of any country in the world (see Figures 2–5) [27, 28]. For example, only 4% of the federal budget was allocated to health in 2018 (below the 15% commitment of the 2005 Abuja Declaration). The situation is worse in the states and local government, where even less is allocated to health [1, 3]. This reflects the value the government places on health and it is the most significant challenge faced in achieving UHC by Nigeria [15, 25].
Figure 2.
Public health expenditure (% of total expenditures) in selected African countries. (Source: World Development Indicators).
Figure 3.
Breakdown of THE by private financing sources, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009. (Source: National Health Accounts 2006-2009).
Figure 4.
Health Funding in Nigeria. (Source: National Health Account 2006-2009).
Figure 5.
Capital budget implementation across selected Ministries Departments and Agencies (MDas), 2016 [26].
Even though Nigeria is the leading recipient of Developmental Assistance for Health (DAH) in Sub-Sahara Africa, the fund constitutes only about 4% of the county’s total health spending [18, 29]. Moreover, the funding administration is bedevilled with numerous challenges such as a high technical assistance cost, unevenness in sponsored activities, poor fund tracking, and counterpart funding issues [18]. In essence, DAH is not a reliable mechanism of healthcare financing in the country.
To achieve UHC, Nigeria adopted a social health insurance scheme known as the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) in 2005 through an Act of Parliament. This is now known as Cap N42 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria, 2004 [11, 30]. However, after more than a decade, this scheme has not covered more than 4% of Nigerians [3, 16]. Despite its enormous potential in Africa, Nigeria’s NHIS has performed worse than many countries on the continent [4, 5, 31]. This poor performance can be attributed to several policy deficiencies. First, the scheme is fragmented, being divided into Formal Sector, Informal Sector and Vulnerable Group categories and other sub-categories [32]. Second, despite commencing operation with the formal sector, it has not moved beyond the federal civil servants (constituting only 4% of the country’s population). These federal employees have refused to contribute their 5% counterpart share of the 15% required. Therefore, the federal government is subsidising the health of a more affluent segment of the population by 10% at the expense of the poor and vulnerable people, the informal sector and the state employees, worsening the inequality situation [16, 17, 33]. Third, many states have not embraced the NHIS because the Act that set up the scheme did not capture the states in its operation [3, 14]. Even the Community Based Health Insurance (CBHI) that was recently inaugurated to cover the rural population and the informal sector has fared poorly with less than 3% enrolment. This insufficient enrolment has been attributed to unaffordable premiums, lack of trust, and poor quality of health [14, 34, 35]. Fourth, the Act that established NHIS made it voluntary for enrollees. It stripped the NHIS of the power to enforce the regulation guiding its operations, thereby causing poor participation and ineffective functioning of NHIS [33]. Fifth, the vulnerable group has not yet been covered. For example, Raji et al. discovered that retirees were not covered [36]. Sixth, the scheme’s fragmentation has prevented it from having adequate resource pooling [3]. Therefore, these problems are possibly responsible for the failure of NHIS to fulfil its goal of saving Nigerians from regressive OOP health spending, which stands at 95% of the private health expenditures and 69% of the Total Health Expenditures (THE) (see Figure 4).
2. Healthcare financing mechanisms
Substantial evidence has proven that OPP health expenditures, rampant in LMICs, are the most regressive, inefficient and inequitable healthcare financing method [2, 24, 37]. While there is a concession that LMICs need to discard OPP expenditure, the debate is about which of the pre-payment health financial mechanisms will be the best. There is no silver bullet mechanism since each country’s challenges are different [38, 39]. Moreover, each country is unique in its socio-demographic, economic and political structure. However, a health finance mechanism that can produce equitable access in LMICs must be based on compulsory pre-payment, fund pooling/risk-sharing and subsidisation, for those who cannot afford to pay [39, 40, 41]. Fund pooling and risk-sharing involves aggregating funds and redistributing them equitably between the rich and the poor, the employed and the unemployed, and the healthy and the sick [6, 14, 41]. Therefore, an exploration of different health financing mechanism follows in the next section.
2.1 Developmental assistance for health (DAH)
External funding in the form of DAH is becoming a vital funding mechanism in LMICs, especially in SSA [42]. As pointed out earlier, it is an unreliable mechanism of funding. Although DAH has decreased in the last two decades, there has not been a commensurate increase in SSA domestic financing [29]. This development could worsen the existing access, equity and financial risk problem in those countries [42]. However, DAH may be required, in the short to medium term, as complementary or supplementary funding for UHC in LMICs [40].
2.2 Community-based health insurance (CBHI)
CBHI is a form of private health insurance in which a group of people in a community contributes to financing their healthcare. It is used in LMIC to cater for the rural population and the informal workers usually not covered by other health insurance. CBHI suffers adverse selection and low participation and retention, resulting in low fund pooling and risk-sharing like any voluntary insurance scheme. The poor resource pooled also produces high administrative costs and sustainability issues. Moreover, no matter how small, the premium may be unaffordable for the poorest members of the community [18, 42]. Although CBHI can potentially protect the enrollee from OOP spending, the very poor, who are not covered suffer financial risk, poor access and inequity. Therefore, CBHI is only helpful as a short-term measure against OOP spending [35, 42].
2.3 Social health insurance
Most developed countries have protected people from financial risk using social health insurance (SHI) or a tax-based funding mechanism [37]. SHI is a scheme in which the government mandates people to contribute to financing their health. It is usually funded jointly by the employees and their employers. The government pays for those who cannot pay, such as the poor, unemployed and vulnerable. SHI became the predominant health financing method in LMICs having been adopted by the African Union Conference of health ministers in 2007 [1, 37, 42]. While some countries such as Kenya, Tanzania and Nigeria introduced their SHI beginning with the formal sector and planned to expand it later, others like Ghana, Rwanda and Mali began with the entire population. Generally, countries in the latter group have successfully covered a more significant population, while the former has been unable to move beyond the formal sector. This issue has generated a severe equity problem of leaving behind the poor community of informal employees [42]. Consequently, a bottom-up approach, starting with the poor and vulnerable group and then the informal sector, has been suggested if this scaling-up approach is adopted [43].
SHI’s success story in high-income countries like Germany has not been replicated in LMICs because of the mostly poor, unemployed and informal population. Moreover, LMICs cannot wait the length of time usually required for SHI to achieve UHC. Germany had to wait for 127 years [40]. Ghana and Rwanda’s success stories with SHI have been made possible by subsidising mandatory enrolment for the poor and vulnerable group, a large percentage of their population, through tax revenue and donor funds [42].
2.4 Domestic government funding through taxation
A mechanism in which government funds healthcare mainly from its revenue or general taxation is called tax-based health financing [1, 18]. by Wagstaff et al. in their study of thirteen OECD countries, proved that direct taxes are progressive and indirect taxes are regressive in all the countries. It, however, shows that SHI is only progressive in eleven countries [44]. In contrast, a global review by Aurelio Mejía shows that direct and, even, indirect tax-funded systems are generally more progressive than SHI in LMICs [45].
A growing body of evidence has shown that tax-generated revenue is a significant potential source for expanding domestic fiscal space for health (DFSH) [42, 46]. Some consumption taxes on products (such as tobacco, alcohol and sugar) that are harmful to health (the so-called “sin tax”) could be earmarked for healthcare financing as has been carried out in Thailand [42, 47]. Mobile phone usage tax is another revenue source for healthcare, considering the sizeable mobile phone subscriber base in Nigeria [48]. Subsidy from petroleum products can also be used to fund healthcare as is done in Indonesia [49]. It has been established that an increase in health expenditure can increase the economic growth of LMIC by 0.4 [10]. However, governments in LMIC must prioritise health financing following the example of countries like China, Cuba and South Korea [29, 50].
Two approaches to healthcare financing have shown consistent results in LMICs. First, the adoption of a tax-based health financing mechanism for population coverage as used with great success in Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Brazil. Second, SHI and general tax use to target the formal sector and the rest of the country, respectively. This approach was employed to achieve UHC in Thailand, Mexico and Kyrgyzstan [40].
3. Healthcare financing in Nigeria compared with selected countries
3.1 Ghana social health insurance Scheme
Ghana is a middle-income country in West Africa with a total population of 28,207,000 in 2015 and gross national income per capita of $3,880 in 2013 [51]. It is noteworthy that Ghana and Nigeria operate SHI (both known as National Health Insurance Scheme. Ghana began its SHI in 2004, just a year before Nigeria. Although Ghana has not achieved the recommended 90% UHC, it has become a success story in Africa within two decades of commencing the scheme, having covered about 64% of its total population. It has gone through different phases and challenges to reach this pedestal [6, 40]. Therefore, Nigeria can learn from Ghana how it was able to achieve this success, despite limited economic and human capital resources compared to Nigeria [11, 17]. Although, Ghana has not reached the targeted UCH goal, but it prides itself on achieving better health outcomes than Nigeria (see Table 4). This is not unrelated to its achievement so far with universal health coverage [33, 52]. While Nigeria’s NHIS coverage stands at less than 5%, Ghana’s rose exponentially from 6.5% in 2005 to 36% in 2010, then 40% at the close of 2015, and about 64% in 2018 [5, 6, 31]. In 2012, the previous National Insurance Act 2003 that established Ghana’s NHIS was amended to accommodate some efficient changes, including merging all previously existing schemes into a unifying scheme under NHIS [5]. This ‘umbrella’ mechanism contrasts with the mostly fragmented NHIS in Nigeria, as discussed earlier.
Country
Demographic indicators
Hearth indicators
Health expenditure indicators
Population (millions)
GDP (p.cap)
LE (Male)
LE (Female)
IMR
U-5 year MR
p-HIV (% pop)
i-TB (cases)
THE (p.cap)
THE (% GDP)
Public HE (%THE)
OOP HE (% private)
Nigeria 2000
123.7
371
48
47
116
186
3.9
172
17
4.7
33
93
Ghana 2000
192
260
58
59
64
99
2.3
152
19
7.2
41
80
Nigeria 2002
129.8
455
47
48
107
177
3.8
182
18
4.0
26
90
Ghana 2002
20.1
306
58
60
61
94
2.2
138
20
6.5
36
80
Nigeria 2004
136.4
644
48
49
102
168
3.7
180
44
7.0
32
95
Ghana 2004
21.1
420
60
61
58
88
2.1
125
26
6.3
35
80
Nigeria 2006
143.3
1,014
49
50
97
159
3.6
168
59
5.7
34
96
Ghana 2006
21.1
920
61
63
55
83
1.9
112
48
44
57
65
Nigeria 2008
150.7
1,374
50
51
93
151
3.6
145
80
5.7
41
95
Ghana 2008
233
1,226
62
64
53
79
1.8
99
68
5.6
58
67
Nigeria 2010
158.4
1,278
51
52
88
143
3.6
133
63
5.1
38
95
Ghana 2010
24.4
1,325
63
65
50
74
1.8
86
67
5.2
60
66
OECD 2010
N/A
34,774
77
82
6.8
8.2
0.3
N/A
4,365
12.6
65
67
Table 4.
Key demographic, health and economic indicators - Nigeria, Ghana and OECD mean 2000–2010.
Notes: OECD, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; LE, life expectancy at birth; IMR, infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births; U-5 year MR is per 1,000 live births; p-HIV, prevalence of HIV % of population aged 15–49; i-TB, incidence of TB per 100,000; GDP, Gross Domestic Product (in 2012 USS); THE, total healthcare expenditure; p.cap, per capita; OOP, Out of pocket.
Source: World Bank [15]. (Adapted from Odeyemi and Nixon [52]).
One approach that helped Ghana to scale up coverage within a short time is the level of awareness and advocacy in the mass and electronic media [5]. Oni et al. has shown that the level of awareness of and access to NHIS has significant impact on service delivery [6]. The compulsory enrollment into NHIS by all residents of Ghana is another important reason why the scheme has been able to cover the country widely. This is in sharp contrast to Nigeria, where it is statutorily voluntary. Although Ghana’s implementation of NHIS is faced with the problem of poverty like Nigeria, it has exempted the poor and other vulnerable groups from paying an insurance premium. This exemption resulted in increasing access and equity in healthcare. Although Nigeria NHIS made provision for the vulnerable group to include the physically and mentally challenged, prisoners, pregnant women, under-five children, and the aged, the reality in Nigeria is that no such exception is provided [5, 31, 52].
Moreover, enrollees of Nigeria NHIS still pay some hidden charges, co-payments and deductibles at the point of care, in contrast to Ghana, where no additional payment is required from their counterparts. Besides, there is a variable benefits package offered by Nigeria NHIS depending on the membership category. This is not the case in Ghana, where all benefit packages are uniform across the board using the diagnosis-related group (DRG). The most important factor contributing to the achievement recorded by Ghana is the fact that there has been an increase in total health expenditure as a percentage of total government expenditure to meet the 15% Abuja target. Moreover, Ghana finances 70% of its NHIS from taxation, used mainly for those exempted from paying the premium. The situation in Nigeria is the opposite [4, 5, 31, 52]. All these benefits offered by Ghana NHIS have contributed to expanding equity in access and provision of healthcare. Recently, Ghana is proposing a one-time payment for healthcare services known as the “One-time Premium Payment Policy” to mainly serve those in the informal sector [14, 15]. This step has the potential of boosting NHIS coverage and in turn, reducing OOP.
3.2 Thailand health insurance Scheme
Thailand is a middle-income country in South-East Asia, with a population of 69 million and a GDP per capita of $7,792. About 56% of its population is in rural area [51]. Thailand’s health financing is worthy of consideration because of its long history of challenges similar to Nigeria, and its eventual rapid success which has become a global reference [53, 54]. The quest of Thailand toward achieving UHC began as early as 1975. After several trials with several health insurance mechanisms, Thailand achieved UHC in 2002 after commencing its Universal Coverage Scheme (UCS) the previous year [55]. By 2015, Thailand had been able to provide health coverage for 98% of its population [54]. Before 2001, the formation of different health insurance types to cater for various risk pool resulted in the fragmentation and failure of those schemes. When UCS was introduced, against all the odds, other fragments were collapsed into UCS except the Civil Servant Benefit Scheme (CMBS) and the Social Security Scheme (SSS). CMBS is a tax-funded health insurance that provides coverage for the formal sector, while SSS is a form of SHI for the private sector, covering about 12.3 million people.
Three essential factors contributed to the success of UCS within just a year. First, it is funded exclusively through government tax except at the beginning of the scheme when patients were required to pay 30 Baht ($0.75) co-payment. Excise tax on alcohol and tobacco were earmarked to fund the scheme [43, 56]. Evidence has proven that tax-funded (especially direct-tax) health insurance is less regressive compared to SHI [45, 57]. Second, contrary to what operates in Nigeria, UCS uses a comprehensive medical package with only very few diseases not covered. This saw improvement in access and equity. Third, there is a purchase-provider split in the payment for health services. Capitations are paid for outpatient service, while DRG is used to pay for inpatient care [57]. Since UCS was introduced, there has been an improvement in health outcomes of the population reflected in Thailand’s positive health indices. Moreover, the number of households suffering from catastrophic health spending became insignificant [47, 53]. Thailand’s success story will not be complete without pointing out that the resilient political determination, community engagement, evidence-based research, and regular monitoring and evaluation employed by the Thai government were instrumental to achieving the feat [58].
4. Conclusion and recommendations
This study has shown that about 70% of Nigerians pay for healthcare through OOP, hindering their access to quality healthcare. While the trend continues, many households in the country have been impoverished through catastrophic health expenditure. This has culminated in the poor health-seeking and consequent poor health indices. Therefore,
However, the country has the potential to reverse the trend by learning from other countries all over the globe which have achieved UHC by adopting either a tax-based insurance scheme or an SHI scheme. Consequent to this, it is recommended the scheme is overhauled and repositioned to promote equity and access to healthcare. This can be done using an excise tax or “sin tax”. The revenue generated could be used to finance the health of the entire country in combination with the existing NHIS. Moreover, this study recommends that the law that established the NHIS should be amended to make insurance mandatory to increase participation. However, adequate awareness should be created for the same reason. The currently fragmented NHIS should be amalgamated for efficiency, risk sharing and fund pooling. The benefits package should also be reviewed to be more comprehensive to attract and encourage enrollees. Enrolment could also be boosted by providing free healthcare to the poor and the vulnerable group, thereby removing inequality and inaccessibility. Finally, in line with the 15% Abuja declaration, there is a need for the government to demonstrate political commitment toward UHC by increasing budgetary allocation to health.
Acknowledgments
I would like to take this opportunity to express my immense gratitude to the many wonderful people who have given their invaluable support and assistance during the preparation of this work.
First and foremost, I am profoundly indebted to my supervisor and mentor, A/Prof Khurshid Alam who has provided unalloyed support and guide for me during my study at Murdoch University. His enthusiasm and encouragement are instrumental to the success of this work.
I am deeply grateful to Ms. Sandra Crewes for painstakingly reviewing and editing this work, even at a very short notice.
I owe a special debt of gratitude to my darling wife, Abimbola Odunyemi and my daughters, Adebola Odunyemi and Adebusola Odunyemi for being always there for me through thick and thin.
I would like to thank the Australian Government, the Department of Foreign Affair and Trade that provided me the scholarship that allowed me to obtain this lifetime opportunity to acquire first-class learning experience in Australia.
Finally, my profound gratitude goes to God Almighty who is the ultimate source of wisdom and knowledge.
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"universal health coverage, out-of-pocket expenditure, health insurance, health financing, health reform",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78273.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78273.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78273",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78273",totalDownloads:266,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 21st 2021",dateReviewed:"May 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"August 26th 2021",datePublished:"February 9th 2022",dateFinished:"August 26th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The Nigeria health system has performed woefully against all vital health indices, trailing behind many African countries despite its enormous potentials. The reason for this is mainly due to the financial risk Nigerians face in accessing healthcare. This study addresses the implications of the current healthcare financing in Nigeria on access and equity. It shows the imperativeness of an alternative healthcare financing in line with best practices, from comparable Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs), apart from the current National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS). The findings from this study recommend that the NHIS should be strengthened through the policy reform to embrace fund pooling/risk-sharing, subsidisation for the poor and the vulnerable, mandatory enrolment, and fragmentation of NHIS. Other considerations include increasing domestic fiscal space for health and utilising a tax-based financing mechanism that has been progressive in all LMICs, thereby preventing the need for unsustainable reliance on external funding. A comprehensive package of health at the point of care is also necessary. However, all these recommendations require the government to show a commitment to improve the country’s healthcare system through its health spending.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78273",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78273",signatures:"Adelakun Edward Odunyemi",book:{id:"10705",type:"book",title:"Healthcare Access",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Healthcare Access",slug:"healthcare-access",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",bookSignature:"Amit Agrawal and Srinivas Kosgi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10705.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-567-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-566-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-568-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"100142",title:"Prof.",name:"Amit",middleName:null,surname:"Agrawal",slug:"amit-agrawal",fullName:"Amit Agrawal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"352983",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelakun",middleName:null,surname:"Edward Odunyemi",fullName:"Adelakun Edward Odunyemi",slug:"adelakun-edward-odunyemi",email:"drlarkay@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 Universal health coverage in Nigeria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Nigeria health system financing and relevant policies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Healthcare financing mechanisms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1 Developmental assistance for health (DAH)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.2 Community-based health insurance (CBHI)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.3 Social health insurance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.4 Domestic government funding through taxation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"3. Healthcare financing in Nigeria compared with selected countries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.1 Ghana social health insurance Scheme",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.2 Thailand health insurance Scheme",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Conclusion and recommendations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Michael, G., I. Aliyu, and B. Grema, Health financing mechanisms and extension of health coverage to the poor and vulnerable groups: What options are available in the Nigerian context? Journal of Health Research and Reviews, 2019. 6(3)'},{id:"B2",body:'Qin, V.M., et al., The impact of user charges on health outcomes in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review. BMJ Glob Health, 2018. 3(Suppl 3): p. e001087'},{id:"B3",body:'Enabulele, O., Achieving Universal Health Coverage in Nigeria: Moving Beyond Annual Celebrations to Concrete Address of the Challenges. World Medical & Health Policy, 2020. 12(1): p. 47-59'},{id:"B4",body:'Umeh, C.A., Challenges toward achieving universal health coverage in Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, and Tanzania. 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With the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
IntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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Conflicts of Interest Policy
\\n\\n
In line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
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A substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
\\n\\t
Participation in drafting or revising the work
\\n\\t
Approval of the manuscript version to be published
All scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
The Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
To identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
When faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\n
In order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\n
Translation Policy
\\n\\n
IntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
At IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
All chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\n
Online First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\n
Chapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\n
You are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\n
If there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\n
Readers and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\\n\\n
Access policy
\\n\\n
IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
With the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
IntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\n
Conflicts of Interest Policy
\n\n
In line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\n
\n\t
A substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
\n\t
Participation in drafting or revising the work
\n\t
Approval of the manuscript version to be published
All scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
The Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
To identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
When faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\n
IntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\n
In order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\n
Translation Policy
\n\n
IntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
At IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
All chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\n
Online First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\n
Chapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\n
You are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\n
If there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\n
Readers and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\n
Access policy
\n\n
IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
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Among different technologies for hydrogen production, oxygenic natural and artificial photosynthesis using direct photochemistry in synthetic complexes have a great potential to produce hydrogen as both use clean and cheap sources - water and solar energy. Photosynthetic organisms capture sunlight very efficiently and convert it into organic molecules. Artificial photosynthesis is one way to produce hydrogen from water using sunlight by employing biomimetic complexes. However, splitting of water into protons and oxygen is energetically demanding and chemically difficult. In oxygenic photosynthetic microorganisms water is splitted into electrons and protons during primary photosynthetic processes. The electrons and protons are redirected through the photosynthetic electron transport chain to the hydrogen-producing enzymes-hydrogenase or nitrogenase. By these enzymes, e- and H+ recombine and form gaseous hydrogen. Biohydrogen activity of hydrogenase can be very high but it is extremely sensitive to photosynthetic O2. At the moment, the efficiency of biohydrogen production is low. However, theoretical expectations suggest that the rates of photon conversion efficiency for H2 bioproduction can be high enough (> 10%). Our review examines the main pathways of H2 photoproduction using photosynthetic organisms and biomimetic photosynthetic systems and focuses on developing new technologies based on the effective principles of photosynthesis.",book:{id:"3587",slug:"biomimetics-learning-from-nature",title:"Biomimetics",fullTitle:"Biomimetics Learning from Nature"},signatures:"Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev, Vladimir D. Kreslavski, Velmurugan Thavasi, Sergei K. Zharmukhamedov, Vyacheslav V. 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It performs very complex tasks while occupying about 2 liters of volume and consuming very little energy. The computation tasks are performed by special cells in the brain called neurons. They compute using electrical pulses and exchange information between them through chemicals called neurotransmitters. With this as inspiration, there are several compute models which exist today trying to exploit the inherent efficiencies demonstrated by nature. The compute models representing spiking neural networks (SNNs) are biologically plausible, hence are used to study and understand the workings of brain and nervous system. More importantly, they are used to solve a wide variety of problems in the field of artificial intelligence (AI). They are uniquely suited to model temporal and spatio-temporal data paradigms. This chapter explores the fundamental concepts of SNNs, few of the popular neuron models, how the information is represented, learning methodologies, and state of the art platforms for implementing and evaluating SNNs along with a discussion on their applications and broader role in the field of AI and data networks.",book:{id:"10372",slug:"biomimetics",title:"Biomimetics",fullTitle:"Biomimetics"},signatures:"Khadeer Ahmed",authors:[{id:"320026",title:"Dr.",name:"Khadeer",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"khadeer-ahmed",fullName:"Khadeer Ahmed"}]},{id:"65418",title:"Opening the “Black Box” of Silicon Chip Design in Neuromorphic Computing",slug:"opening-the-black-box-of-silicon-chip-design-in-neuromorphic-computing",totalDownloads:1616,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Neuromorphic computing, a bio-inspired computing architecture that transfers neuroscience to silicon chip, has potential to achieve the same level of computation and energy efficiency as mammalian brains. Meanwhile, three-dimensional (3D) integrated circuit (IC) design with non-volatile memory crossbar array uniquely unveils its intrinsic vector-matrix computation with parallel computing capability in neuromorphic computing designs. In this chapter, the state-of-the-art research trend on electronic circuit designs of neuromorphic computing will be introduced. Furthermore, a practical bio-inspired spiking neural network with delay-feedback topology will be discussed. In the endeavor to imitate how human beings process information, our fabricated spiking neural network chip has capability to process analog signal directly, resulting in high energy efficiency with small hardware implementation cost. Mimicking the neurological structure of mammalian brains, the potential of 3D-IC implementation technique with memristive synapses is investigated. Finally, applications on the chaotic time series prediction and the video frame recognition will be demonstrated.",book:{id:"6875",slug:"bio-inspired-technology",title:"Bio-Inspired Technology",fullTitle:"Bio-Inspired Technology"},signatures:"Kangjun Bai and Yang Yi",authors:[{id:"239041",title:"Dr.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Yi",slug:"yang-yi",fullName:"Yang Yi"},{id:"245542",title:"Mr.",name:"Kangjun",middleName:null,surname:"Bai",slug:"kangjun-bai",fullName:"Kangjun Bai"}]},{id:"58622",title:"Bio-inspired Adaptable Facade Control Reflecting User's Behavior",slug:"bio-inspired-adaptable-facade-control-reflecting-user-s-behavior",totalDownloads:1670,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The purpose of this research is to develop the process of methodology in designing adaptable façade. This study focuses on the processes of façade operation control for each resident’s unit according to the user’s lifestyle. This study aims to develop the design methods that are applicable to the adaptable facade, which is inspired by the design inspiration of the biomimicry. The ideal façade to increase comfort in internal space is an adaptable façade that can constantly respond to changes in the environments. This chapter attempts in active adoption of adaptable facade that makes it possible to respond to changing requirements and environments, eventually enabling the creation of customized services for users. This chapter explores the processes of designing an adaptable façade controlled by three rules inspired by the behaviors of flocks of birds. This chapter shows how adopted bird intelligence can produce various façade controls. Also, this chapter demonstrates biomimetic façade control that has been implemented by behavior-based design. Through this demonstration, this chapter identifies the potentials of biomimetic design in facade using rules of bird flocking as source of design inspiration. 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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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