\r\n\tIt is believed that deterioration in structures are needed to be linked with risk management in construction. Faulty of construction directly affect to the deterioration. Therefore, second part of this book considers the lessons learned in construction management. Project and site managers, quality engineers are most welcome to discuss the reasons of deteriorated structures through project planning to the serviceability of such structures.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c25011195dc649bb9b63d88c55c2f706",bookSignature:"Dr. Hakan Yalciner",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7450.jpg",keywords:"Structures, deterioration, seismic performance,monitoring techniques, serviceability of structures,repair and strengthening methods, scoring of structures, material degradation, environmental effects, time dependent effects, risk management, lessons learned, construction management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 27th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 17th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 16th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 4th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2018",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"72283",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Dr. Hakan",middleName:null,surname:"Yalçıner",slug:"dr.-hakan-yalciner",fullName:"Dr. Hakan Yalçıner",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72283/images/system/72283.jpeg",biography:"Associate Professor Dr. Hakan Yalçıner is an earthquake and structure engineer in Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University and chair in the Department of Civil Engineering. Dr. Hakan Yalçıner received his PhD from Eastern Mediterranean University. He is a voting member of ACI Committees 546-00 (Repair of Concrete) and 546-0E (Corrosion Studies). His research interests include performance analysis of structures under extreme conditions and loads, such as corrosion, seismic events, and blast. Dr. Yalçıner developed different empirical models for the prediction of the structural behavior of corroded reinforced concrete members. He is currently director of the 13th March of Structural Mechanics Laboratory in Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University. 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1. Introduction
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The Republic of Senegal, located at the extreme western tip of the African continent, covers an area of 196,722 km2 for a population of 13,508,715 inhabitants [1]. There are three climatic domains in Senegal, from south to north: the southern Sudan, northern Sudan and Sahelian domains, each domain having two variants (coastal and continental) [2]. Located in the tropical zone, Senegal has a Sudano-Sahelian climate with annual rainfall ranging from about 1250 mm in the south to just over 200 mm in the north. The potential of Senegal’s water resources (surface and groundwater) is important. Three rivers originating from Guinea (the Senegal, Gambia and Kayanga rivers) irrigate a large part of the country [3, 4]. Alongside these two large rivers, there are smaller rivers characterized by intermittent flows (Casamance, Kayanga, Sine-Saloum (Figure 1). Five management and planning units (PMUs) have been established for the management of these different categories of water resources (1. Senegal River Valley, 2. Peanut Basin, 3. Senegal-East, 4. Casamance, 5. Cape Verde Peninsula) subdivided into 28 sub-units (Figure 1) [5].
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Figure 1.
Water resources management and planning unit in Senegal (source: DGPRE).
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Groundwater is also an essential component of Senegal’s water potential and generally consists of four major aquifer systems corresponding to the main geological formations: the superficial aquifer system or “terminal complex” (Quaternary); the intermediate aquifer system (Eocene and Paleocene); the deep aquifer system (or Maestrichtian); the aquifer system of the basement [6].
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In Senegal, the potential for water resources (surface and groundwater) is high and the availability of renewable water is currently estimated at around 4747 m3/inhabitant/year [6]. Estimates indicate about 80% of its population have access to a drinking water supply in 2915 [7]. However, the United Nations classifies Senegal as a water-poor country with less than 1000 m3 per capita [8]. Thus, the issue of water has become a national concern given the range of issues facing the sector [9]. These problems include, among others, climate variability, vulnerability of water resources, poor distribution of water availability in space and time, poor water quality in some places. The water crisis can be explained both by the absolute lack of physical availability, poverty and inadequate water management policies. In general, Senegal has a large potential for water resources, but its uneven distribution, its overabundance in the rainy season often causes catastrophic floods and shortage in the dry season causes severe drought conditions resulting in crop losses, livestock, public health problems and environmental degradation [10].
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These numerous factors, such as global warming (recurring and severe droughts and floods), contamination of drinking water and lack of investment in water resources have exacerbated the water crisis, whose role in the achievement of its development objectives is incommensurate [11]. Its economic performance and the reduction of poverty depend mainly on the availability of drinking water. A set of economic activities in Senegal (agriculture, industrialization, energy production and tourism) are inherent to the availability of water resources. At the same time, access to safe and sufficient water is necessary for the well-being of the population.
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Senegal is home to some major cities, namely Dakar, Pikine and Touba, Thies. The capital of Senegal, Dakar, was founded by Faidherbe in 1862, on the site of a fishing village. It was the capital of the AOF from 1902. Enjoying a strategic geographical location, the city is since the colonial era, a maritime and air junction between Africa, Europe and America. It covers an area of 550 km2 and has about 23% of the total population of Senegal estimated 15,256,346 inhabitants, according to demographic projections in 2017 [12]. It is the largest city in Senegal and is its political, administrative, economic and cultural center.
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The water cuts that have become commonplace in many parts of the country, affect more seriously the capital, Dakar where the daily deficit is estimated at more than 20,000 m3. With a consumption of 360,000 m3/day, the capital struggles to quench its thirst and satisfy its water needs. The Senegalese Water (SDE) needs 300,000 m3 per day to meet the demand of the Dakar population, but it drags a heavy deficit in the correct supply of water. At present, a large part of the city’s population does not have access to running water 24 hours a day. From 200,000 subscribers in 1996, the SDE is now struggling to satisfy its 800,000 current subscribers.
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In Senegal, the urban population is estimated at 6,541,504 people in 2015 including 3,360,728 for the Dakar region [12]. In these urban areas, the rate of access by connection within the covered perimeter stabilizes in December 2015 at 88.9% with 96.2% for the Dakar region. Thus the total production of water was 172.27 million m3 against an annual forecast of 169.7 million m3, or 110% of realization. For the Dakar water supply system (WSS), production reached 124.2 million m3 [13]. As a result, there is a tendency to saturate the facilities of the Dakar AEP (for example, Mékhé is running at almost 24 hours). Because of the size of the population of Dakar, part of this population does not have access to either an improved water source or running water. For example, some outlying districts (in the suburbs of Dakar) do not receive water every day, while others almost never receive water because of the low water pressure.
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In some cities in Senegal, the biggest challenge in the city is often lack of water supply. For example, residents obtain water from individual connections, public connections, wells, springs and water vendors that are not monitored [11]. In addition, water pollution does not save tap water and its consumption can often be harmful to the health of populations. It is for this reason that a good part of the population prefer bottled water for their consumption.
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The city of Dakar has been chosen for the management of water scarcity in a context of growing demography and urbanization. Due to increased water demand in the Senegalese capital, residents of some neighborhoods are frequently randomly supplied with running water, with the suburbs being the most affected. The ever increasing hydraulic equipment fails to meet the needs of the population. The difficulty of supplying drinking water, which often strikes the Dakar inhabitants, comes in the context of global warming and the removal of resources that are increasingly important. Suddenly, the Senegalese government must expand its production capacity and distribution networks if it wants to keep pace with unprecedented population growth.
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2. The challenges facing the water sector in Senegal’s main cities
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As a developing country, Senegal’s human, monetary and institutional capacities are often limited to providing clean and sufficient water efficiently to its citizens. Water scarcity in large cities like Dakar is chronic and continues to worsen with increasing urbanization and pollution of the resource. Most of the time, SDE water disruption notices are the norm in urban areas (Figure 2). Water scarcity may worsen in the future for several reasons: (1) increased water demand due to rapid urbanization, (2) poor water management, (3) degradation continuous water sources, (4) irregular weather conditions, (5) old and dilapidated water infrastructure, and (6) the incompetence of the water distribution companies.
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Figure 2.
Notice of disturbance of water supply by Senegalese water.
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2.1 Growing populations and urbanization
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Senegal, like many other developing countries in Africa, is experiencing rapid urbanization. In 1960, its population was estimated at 3.207 million people and in 2017, 15.851 million people (Figure 3) [14]. The urban population has grown from 738,000 in 1960 to 7409 million in 2017 (Figure 4). This urban population, which accounted for only 23% of the total population of the country in 1960, therefore rose to 45.9% in 2015. The share of the urban population increased considerably between 1960 and 2014. The data show that 23% of the population living in urban areas in 1960 increased to 45.9% in 2015. The share of the population living in urban areas has increased dramatically in Senegal in recent decades. Thus, the urban growth rate is 4.78 and 3.46%, respectively over the periods 1960–1985 and 1985–2015. This rapid pace of urban growth can be explained by the drought of the 1970s [2] and its corollary rural exodus.
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Figure 3.
Senegal’s total population: semi-annual estimates of the resident population from 1960 to 2017 (source: World Bank database).
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Figure 4.
Urban population of Senegal: semi-annual estimates of the resident population from 1960 to 2017 (source: World Bank database).
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According to United Nations estimates, the urban population of Senegal will increase to 11.778 million by 2030, which will represent 53.24% of the national population (22.123 million in 2030). As for the city of Dakar, its population will increase to 4.339 million by 2030 (Figure 5), which will represent more than 38.84% of the urban population [14]. Urbanization does not only mean swelling of the population, but also an increase in the area requiring better services. The rural exodus from sub-Saharan Africa is the main cause of the rapid growth of the urban population. To cope with the strong urban growth, water production has risen drastically, from 95.32 million m3 in 1997 to 172.27 million m3 in 2015 (Figure 6). The growing population (Figures 4 and 5) continues to put pressure on available water resources, resulting in a reduction in per capita water availability. According to projections, 70% of the world’s population will live in urban areas by 2050 [15]. The growing population continues to increase the demand for water for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes.
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Figure 5.
Urban population of three cities in Senegal: semi-annual estimates of the resident population from 1960 to 2035 (source: World Bank database).
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Figure 6.
Evolution of water production by the SDE (SONES perimeter) from 1997 to 2015.
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Africa currently has three main causes: (1) displacement of people from rural areas to urban centers; (2) the increase in the urban population, especially when economic opportunities extend to previously rural areas; and (3) the development of previously rural areas in urban areas due to increased economic activity [11]. Although it is difficult to define exactly an urban environment, it is widely accepted that the term could be determined by location, size of population and percentage of non-agricultural activities, pressures on environmental resources such as water. In recent years, urbanization of rural areas has increased considerably.
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Although urbanization has many economic and social benefits, it causes many environmental problems such as loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution and increased pressure on arable land [16]. It has directly affected the availability and quality of water due to increased demand and pollution resulting from its many applications. Many developing countries are facing the problem of access to safe drinking water. In Senegal, rapid urbanization has prevented some cities from coping with the huge demand for clean and sufficient water. In Dakar, faced with strong urban growth (an average of 120,000 people per year), the improvement and expansion of infrastructure is very expensive and, as a result, does not generally keep pace with the growth. This makes wastewater management very problematic. In addition, pollution from agricultural production (urban farmers irrigating their crops with untreated wastewater) and industrial production has become one of the biggest challenges for Senegal’s water resources [17]. In addition, because of the growing population and its corollary the increase in water needs, the lack of protection of water sources, the scarcity of the resource and the pollution it faces are a source of hindrance improved and protected water.
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2.2 Contamination of available water
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The water sources available in Senegal are frequently affected by pollution of chemical, microbiological or thermal origin. Chemical contamination of this water, often used for drinking, can result from the presence of excess nutrients, acidification, salinity, heavy metals and organic pollutants [18]. Reports indicate that industries at 32.5% and agriculture at 14% are the sectors that contribute most to the economic development of any population [19]. On the other hand, 80% of the water contamination comes from these two important sectors. Agricultural practices, industrialization, mining, and open sewer lines parallel to the water system are responsible for most of the problems affecting water quality (Figure 7).
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Figure 7.
Water quality degradation factors in Senegal: (1) CSS effluent discharges into Lake Guiers; (2) water line between the lake and Dakar damaged; (3) domestic uses on Falémé; (4) equipment for washing gold on the banks of the Falémé.
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The lack of adequate management of liquid and solid waste results in the deposit of this waste directly into water bodies (Figure 7), which contributes to the vicious circle of water destruction. In fact, the growth and development of agriculture in Senegal has led to an increase in the use of fertilizers. Agrochemicals end up in bodies of water causing considerable pollution. In addition, most industrial water treatment plants discharge partially treated or totally untreated effluents into surface water sources, which often contain high levels of toxic substances. These pollutants and other pollutants of domestic origin continue to cause environmental problems [11]. Many Senegalese living in informal urban areas lack access to safe drinking water, often resulting in multiple epidemics that affect their health and livelihoods. In addition, large leaks in water pipes (Figure 7), dilapidated infrastructure and illegal connections still hinder the availability of drinking water supply. Due to the large leaks in the water channels, the treated water is sometimes contaminated before reaching the users.
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2.3 Degradation of water sources
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The main sources of water in Senegal, beyond the groundwater, are surface water (rivers and lakes that are very attractive for agriculture and populations). The watersheds that cross the national territory have experienced two major pressures in recent years on their water resources: (a) pressures from natural sources (climate variability and change); (b) anthropogenic pressures (dams, rapid population growth and various productive activities) [3]. These pressures have had repercussions on the natural environment of the basin and its ecological diversity [20]. They have resulted in watershed degradation that has diverse and unpleasant consequences, often resulting in increased runoff, flash floods, reduced infiltration, erosion and siltation, to name just a few examples. The impacts of human activities (development, rapid population growth and various productive activities) related to the exploitation of resources for the satisfaction of the daily needs of the populations sometimes manifest themselves negatively on all the natural resources of the basin. Environmental protection of the watershed is important for the safety and sustainability of urban water supply. A healthy ecosystem ensures quality water for cities, reducing treatment costs and the danger to human health.
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Activities such as gold mining are causing degradation of natural resources in the basin through reduced vegetation cover and deterioration of water quality. With the use of chemicals in the practice of this activity (leaching technique with cyanide or mercury and tailings ponds), pollution of water resources in the basin is multiplying. With the major developments (Diama and Manantali dams), flow control and water permanence in the basin have led to the partitioning of mining activities (extraction and washing with mercury release) and agricultural activities (large consumer fertilizers and pesticides) with far-reaching consequences [21]. This results in severe degradation and deterioration of animal and plant resources [22]. With this destruction of freshwater ecosystems, the Senegal River finds itself in a situation of loss of some of its functions, how important, and may alter its hydrological functioning [23].
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2.4 Invasive species
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Biotic factors affect water resources. For example, the presence of invasive species such as hyacinth, Salvinia, Pistia and Typha causes ecological imbalance. The proliferation of plants and invasive species in major bodies of water, including aquatic plants, is of increasing concern. Typha and algae are plants that contribute to the deterioration of the water quality of the lake because of the very toxic substances secreted that can reduce the good water quality (Figure 8). They degrade surface water resources and may even have contributed to the eutrophication of freshwater lake ecosystems. These invasive species block rivers and greatly influence water quality. In Senegal, built dams (such as Diama and Manantali on the Senegal River) play an important role in the reliable and sustainable supply of water. However, these developments, by permitting the permanence and softening of the water, have led to the proliferation of certain species such as Typha australis and Pistia stratiotes and the appearance of new species such as Potamogaton Schweinfurthis and Ceratophyllum demersum [24]. Overall, the country faces serious problems of resource protection.
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Figure 8.
Degradation of water quality in Senegal by invasive plants: (1) Typha australis on the lake of Guiers; (2) freshwater algae in the lake water; (3) invading lake water plan; (4) degradation of the water quality of the lake.
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Several environmental impacts, at the origin of the deterioration of water quality, result from the invasion of water bodies by vegetation [25]: siltation of hydraulic axes; the formation of caps with loss of hydraulicity; increased evapotranspiration; the threat to adjacent wetlands; the decrease of the dissolved oxygen level. The proliferation of macrophytes can therefore make it difficult to access water, slow down the flow of water in the canals, block the pumps.
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3. Interventions on the water challenges
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Despite the water problems facing urban populations, Senegal has sufficient water resources to meet demand if available resources are properly managed [6]. Senegal’s internal renewable surface water resources are estimated at 23.8 km3/year and renewable groundwater resources are in the order of 3.5 km3/year. The common part between surface water and groundwater is estimated at 1.5 km3/year and internal renewable water resources estimated at 25.8 km3/year [26]. The diversity of water resources offers opportunities for exploitation ranging from surface water abstraction to the use of boreholes in areas with limited surface water resources [10].
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3.1 Implementation of relevant policies
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Like many other countries, Senegal has adopted several policies at the national and regional levels to guide the conservation and management of its water resources. It has put in place crucial reforms in the water sector which have led to the promulgation of certain regulatory texts and conventions, such as Law 81-13 of 4 March 1981 on the Water Code creation of various associations of water resource users [3]. Thus, in 1995, the public authorities give a very marked inflection to the organization of the sector, as well in urban as rural. Indeed, a reform of the urban water subsector was initiated through the Water Sector Project, which led to the separation of drinking water from sanitation. This reform embodied by Law No. 95-10 of 7 April 1995 resulted in the creation of two different entities that are responsible for the management of the sub-sector of urban water: the National Water Company of Senegal (SONES), a heritage company, and Senegalese Waters (SW), operating company, private operator [6, 27].
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3.2 Groundwater, an important additional source in urban centers
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The exploitation of groundwater through wells/boreholes is widespread but is generally not regulated or monitored in many parts of Africa. As in many cities in Africa, there is a growing demand for groundwater in Senegal’s main cities, mainly fueled by boreholes. Senegal has groundwater resources of about 4 billion cubic meters renewable every year and all the drilling currently carried out that pump this resource mobilizes a maximum of 6% of this resource. Thus, in terms of water availability, Senegal is relatively well endowed, especially since this resource is captured at depths that vary around 100 m. Freshwater stored in underground aquifers can be used effectively to divert the consequences of climate change. The availability of groundwater resources and their replenishment rates are uncertain, posing a serious problem for their management and protection [28]. Therefore, in the future, improved regulation and monitoring of groundwater withdrawals, in addition to appropriate management, will be essential for effective and sustainable monitoring of available water resources in Senegal’s cities.
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For the abstraction of groundwater in Senegal, dewatering works can be grouped into five major systems in order of importance: boreholes and modern motorized wells; modern wells and wells equipped with wind turbines; modern wells and wells equipped with hand pumps; modern wells with manual or animal drainage; traditional wells with manual or animal drainage [29]. Over the past decades, Senegal has therefore made significant efforts on national resources and with the support of its development partners to meet people’s drinking water needs from groundwater. However, it must be recognized that despite the large investments, the demand for drinking water is far from being fully covered.
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3.3 Monitoring of conditioned water
\n
In the various cities of Senegal, a good number of inhabitants use bottled water in bottles and sachets. From tap water to the bottle, to the plastic bag, there is a ladder of confidence in the quality of the water to drink, while the older practices of water consumption paradoxically provoke an attachment territorial, while presenting a status apart, since they are detached from any commercial thought. This is why it can be said that modern conditioning practices such as bottling and bagging create a new image of drinking water. Calibrated or formatted through models of different capacity, it pays off, and access is through formal and informal commercial distribution networks. Bottled water is present almost everywhere, from the big supermarket sign to the small neighborhood retailer, to the petrol stations, while water in sachets is mostly sold in small shops, in the urban neighborhoods of Dakar (Medina, Rebeuss …) for example, but also beyond, the capital [30].
\n
Sachet water conditioning in Senegal is mainly in the informal sector of the economy. Anyone who has access to tap water and owns a refrigerator can create a “small business.” This is a common practice in working-class neighborhoods. For modest families, it provides extra income. This ranges from bagging water in fine and transparent plastics, without any indication of source or quality of water, to water bags subject to prefectoral authorization with indications of the origin and characteristics of contained water. It is the work of individual and family initiatives, and represents an activity that involves the respect of certain health standards. The conditioning of the water is more a practical necessity, that of providing the body with the occasional need for water, with a taste that is supposed to be better than that of tap water. In Senegal, its consumption reaches significant proportions. In the streets of Dakar, at any time, it is marketed in bottles and especially in small plastic bags, exchanged for parts of 25 or 50 F CFA. Numerous, by the way, are those who have invested in this business, from children to adults, hence the importance of setting up a structure for its supervision.
\n
\n
\n
3.4 Rainwater harvesting
\n
There is a regional imbalance in the recovery and distribution of water, and therefore in water security. In addition, the uneven distribution and variability of rainfall in sub-Saharan Africa impacts the annual water availability of households. In addition, climate change is constantly increasing extreme events such as droughts and floods with disastrous consequences for people’s lives. Sub-Saharan Africa has abundant rainfall, but it is not evenly distributed and highly seasonal. Senegal experiences droughts and floods every year. It receives rainfall ranging from 200 mm in the dry parts (Sahelian domain) to more than 1500 mm in the southern and southeastern parts of the country (southern Sudan) [2]. Senegal’s renewable freshwater resources vary considerably with time and region and cannot adequately meet the growing demand in large cities. Water harvesting could be an additional means of alleviating the problems of drought, scarcity and depletion of water resources. Surface water is scarce and groundwater exploitation is often not profitable. As a result, sustainable rainwater harvesting systems can be a very important solution to the problem of water scarcity. However, the collection of rainwater for domestic use in cities is not sustainable due to the configuration of the building and the diversity of activities that pollute the environment. However, for this rainwater to be a solution to the permanent shortages of water currently observed, it should first be captured and then treated before use [11].
\n
\n
\n
3.5 The construction of additional hydraulic infrastructures
\n
Very important results were obtained during the 2005–2015 decade, marked by the implementation of the Millennium Drinking Water and Sanitation Program (PEPAM), both in terms of the definition of policies and strategies, the mobilization of financing and setting up of access to services. However, there are still major obstacles still to be overcome, including the still inefficient management of drinking water quality issues due to localized pollution of certain groundwater or surface water levels, accessibility still average water points due to the low rate of access to water by connection to homes and the average density of distribution points in rural areas … [7]. To remedy this, the Government of Senegal, under the Ministry of Hydraulics and Sanitation, has launched projects to increase water infrastructure to combat water scarcity. Such infrastructures should make it possible to increase qualitatively and quantitatively access to water and sanitation services, promote sustainable management of water resources, reduce the incidence of water-related diseases, strengthen sector governance through targeted institutional support, with a view to signing a sector budget support program.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Strategies to address the water scarcity in Dakar
\n
The shortage of water, temporary or structural, results from a quantitative and/or qualitative insufficiency of the available water resource compared to the demand. His study contributes to the reflection for a better distribution and preservation of water. Water scarcity is a critical issue when it comes to dealing with the sustainable development of societies. A precise study of the different types of conflicts observed is necessary. These occur recurrently between areas of use, commercial and non-market water uses—in practice urban water supply and irrigation [31]. Difficulties in the supply of drinking water in Dakar are also due to a poorly controlled urbanization policy, which translates into a sort of “let do” in the settlement of the populations, which proceed to anarchic constructions, in zones undeveloped. The housing and housing crisis ended up condemning people to a frantic race to find a piece of land [32].
\n
To this problem is added that created by the increase in the number of consumers, which aggravates an already tense situation, due to the natural increase of the population which largely benefits Dakar and the sustained movement of immigration as well as of the rural exodus, the migrants having as their point of departure the “low quarters,” already confronted with the precariousness of the system of supply of drinking water. Given the increase in water demand with the high population growth, in a context of climate change, Senegal, like many countries in the world, is beginning to have an imbalance between its water supply and the demand of citizens in perpetual rise. To remedy this, the different actors in charge of water resources issues (government institutions, development partners, civil society and the private sector) must undertake a sustainable management of the water resources that are available on the territory.
\n
For Lacoste [33], “In the third world countries, municipalities in big cities must now respond to many demands for a fairer distribution of water between rich neighborhoods and slums or slums. Some have water in abundance, while the others, where the vast majority of the population lives, have almost none. How, in these conditions, to make reach a maximum of populations with a drinking water? The answer to this question lies in a significant increase in the budgets allocated to the financing of social facilities. Having understood this, the Senegalese authorities in charge of the issue have approached access to drinking water as a public health imperative, which has become a social priority for the country. This is even more true since the links between water and health on the one hand and water and economic development on the other are no longer in doubt [32]. As access to drinking water requires undeniable financial efforts, innovative strategies are being put in place to enable a larger section of the population to benefit. These strategies are based on a concerted approach that brings together non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the private sector and governments in synergy.
\n
Dakar’s drinking water supply has long been a major problem in Senegal. Indeed, since the 1980s, Dakar had begun to register a significant deficit in the water supply of its population. From 4% in 1984, the deficit exceeded the threshold of 30% in 1991 to reach the record level of 100,000 m3/day in 1998. Thus, to prevent this situation from becoming a disaster, Important means have been put in place to manage this deficit, but this cannot completely solve the problem [34]. The schematic flow of the current Dakar water supply system in 2013 is illustrated below in Table 1 [35].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Water treatment plant
\n
Year in service
\n
Extension
\n
Nominal capacity (m3/d)
\n
Hourly volume (m3/h)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Ngnith factory
\n
1971
\n
2000 (transition to a theoretical capacity of 60,000 m3/d)
\n
40,000
\n
1667
\n
\n
\n
Keur Momar Sarr factory
\n
2004
\n
2008 (transition from 65,000 to 95,000 m3/d) 2011 (transition from 95,000 to 130,000 m3/d)
\n
130,000
\n
5417
\n
\n
\n
Drilling
\n
Number of drilling
\n
Year in service
\n
Extension
\n
Nominal capacity (m3/d)
\n
Hourly volume (m3/h)
\n
\n
\n
Northern littoral drilling (Gueoul at Ndande axis)
\n
9
\n
1999
\n
—
\n
35,000
\n
1591
\n
\n
\n
Kelle/Kebemer drilling
\n
7
\n
from the 1970s
\n
—
\n
30,000
\n
1364
\n
\n
\n
Pout Nord drilling
\n
13
\n
from 1978 (PN6 and PN10)
\n
—
\n
47,248
\n
2148
\n
\n
\n
South Pout drilling
\n
7
\n
from 1979 (PS5)
\n
—
\n
20,000
\n
909
\n
\n
\n
Pout Kirene drilling (including KSW)
\n
4
\n
1993 (PK3, PK5)
\n
—
\n
6000
\n
273
\n
\n
\n
Sebikotane drilling
\n
1
\n
1957
\n
—
\n
4500
\n
205
\n
\n
\n
Thiaroye drilling
\n
2
\n
1951
\n
Not used due to deterioration of water quality
\n
0
\n
0
\n
\n
\n
Point B/Mamelles/Point G drilling
\n
8
\n
1966
\n
—
\n
18,000
\n
818
\n
\n
\n
Booster
\n
Year in service
\n
Extension
\n
Nominal capacity (m3/d)
\n
Hourly volume (m3/h)
\n
\n
\n
Mekhe booster
\n
2006
\n
—
\n
233,557
\n
10,155
\n
\n
\n
Carmel booster
\n
2013
\n
—
\n
241,708
\n
10,509
\n
\n
\n
Pumping station
\n
Year in service
\n
Extension
\n
Nominal capacity (m3/d)
\n
Hourly volume (m3/h)
\n
\n
\n
Thiaroye factory
\n
1951
\n
—
\n
29,900
\n
1300
\n
\n
\n
Point B factory—Madeleine pumping
\n
1966
\n
—
\n
20,700
\n
900
\n
\n
\n
Point B factory—pumping Mamelles
\n
2006
\n
—
\n
64,400
\n
2800
\n
\n
\n
Point B factory—pumping point
\n
1966
\n
\n
7000
\n
700
\n
\n
\n
Transmission line
\n
Year
\n
Characteristics
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
ALG1 (Ngnith pipe)
\n
1971
\n
DN 1000 PN 25 steel
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
ALG2 (driving KMS)
\n
2004
\n
DN 1200 PN 25 cast iron
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
800 Sebi
\n
2008
\n
DN 800 cast iron
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
600 discharge Thiaroye
\n
1951–1994
\n
DN 600 cast iron
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
700 output tanks PTY
\n
1951
\n
DN 700
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
800 Mamelles repression
\n
1993
\n
—
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
600 South Pout repression
\n
—
\n
DN 600 PN 16 steel
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Tanks
\n
Year
\n
Characteristics
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Tanks of Thies
\n
1971 (R1, R2); 2005 (R3, R4)
\n
25,000 m3\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Tanks Y-point
\n
1951
\n
10,000 m3\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Tanks of Madeleines high service
\n
1966
\n
1200 m3\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Tanks of Madeleines low service
\n
1966
\n
6000 m3\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Tanks of Mamelles
\n
2003
\n
35,000 m3\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Tanks of G point
\n
1966
\n
5000 m
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Main lines of major structures in the water supply network for the Dakar region.
Source: JICA study mission based on information provided by SDE.
\n
The history of Dakar’s water supply began in 1949, when groundwater from the sub-basaltic aquifers of Mamelles and Point B, as well as the quaternary sand aquifers of Thiaroye, were drilled and developed. Then, in 1960, to meet the increase in demand for water, taking into account the risks of over-pumping aquifers near Dakar, new Paleocene limestone aquifers were exploited at Pout and Sébikhotane. The steady rate of increase in water demand in the following years necessitated the continued development of water resources. Consequently, in 1970, aquifers of the Maastrichtian layer along the northern coastal zone (North Coast) were exploited and the surface waters of the Senegal River were taken from Lake Guiers [35]. In the absence of sufficient local drinking water resources, Dakar is supplied by a water supply system from Guiers Lake. This system transports water from the Senegal River to the capital over 250 km and represents 50% of Dakar’s drinking water supply [24]. The strong population growth of recent years has led to the saturation of production and transfer capacities. Currently, nearly 1 million people in the capital suffer from intermittent service. The Dakar region, which comprises 25% of Senegal’s population and concentrates 80% of the country’s economic activities, has its water needs estimated at around 320,000 m3/d, which represents nearly 75% of the total production water supply [35]. In 1993, 80% of water consumption in the Dakar region consisted of groundwater, while the remaining 20% came from Lake Guiers. In 2013, this ratio was reversed due to over-exploitation of groundwater [36].
\n
To ensure an optimal water supply for the city of Dakar and fight against water scarcity, the government has mobilized since 2014 an additional production of 100,000 m3/day through the realization of 60 boreholes and the rehabilitation of seven others. This additional volume represents 26% of the average daily production (360,000 m3). From 2014, a peak of 390,000 m3/day is reached with the commissioning of Bayakh’s new drinking water production center in July 2018. This production is provided by the factories of Keur Momar Sarr and Ngnith installed on the site of Guiers Lake (40%) and boreholes of the North Coast, South Pout, Pout Kirène, Kelle-Kébémer and Dakar (60%). With the commissioning of the two Bayakh-Thieudème-Diender and Tassette phases, additional production will reach 179,000 m3/day overall, or nearly 50% of the capital’s peak needs.
\n
From January 2011 to June 2018, production increased by 22%, from 297 million L/day in December 2011 to 355 million L/day in June 2018. The peak of 439 million L/day will be reached in December 2018, i.e., +29% with the commissioning of Bayakh and Tassette, as well as the three new boreholes of Dieuppeul, Yoff and Nord Foire. SONES has implemented the various phases of the Emergency Program with the SDE. Thanks to the impact of this work, the deficit neighborhoods had better access to the drinking water service: Nord Foire, Ouest Foire, CPI, Cité Alternance, Scat Urbam, Grand Yoff, Liberté 6 extension, Mixta, Keur Damel, Socabeg, Cité Léopold Sédar Senghor, Hlm Grand Yoff, part of the Unit 26 of Parcelles Assainies, Toubab Dialaw. In 2017, the Ministry of Hydraulics and Sanitation has developed the Special Program for Drinking Water Supply in Dakar (PSDAK) which is an intermediate solution pending the completion of structural works such as: the third production plant and Keur Momar Sarr drinking water treatment (KMS3) and the des Mamelles seawater desalination plant in Dakar.
\n
The PSDAK has two phases that aim to strengthen production, improve the quality of the water distributed and secure the supply of electricity. The first phase of the PSDAK consists of hydraulic works at Bayakh, covering a battery of five new boreholes, a pumping station, a storage tank of 1500 m3 and an adduct line of 18.6 km between Bayakh and Rufisque. It has allowed a production of 15,000 m3/day which is injected into the network and several deficit areas have better access to drinking water in 2018. The second phase of this program consists in particular, of six boreholes, a station of pumping, a reservoir and a large diameter transfer line on the axis Diender-Thieudème. Ultimately, these structures will bring a volume of water of 15,000 m3/day complementary.
\n
Apart from additional drilling, and social connections provided by SONES, the KMS 3 and the des Mamelles water desalination plant are the keystones of a water security policy. This option will consolidate production and preserve the capital and the Small Coast from any water stress until 2035. These two major projects of the state are committed to the challenge of water, in the perspective of population growth established at 3% annually. The third Keur Momar Sarr plant (KMS 3) should cover the drinking water needs of the Dakar populations, the new urban center of Diamniadio, the Rose Lake, as well as all the localities crossed by the Lac de Guiers pipeline from 2021 It is expected to represent in 2020 more than 20% of the drinking water supply capacity of the water supply system from Guiers Lake. As for the other structuring project that is the Mamelles seawater desalination plant, with a capacity of 50,000 m3/day expandable to 100,000 m3, the water problems of Dakar will be conjugated to the past.
\n
In order to ensure the supply of water to cities, it is therefore essential to improve the availability of sustainable water supply, the conservation and restoration of water bodies as well as strategic investments in additional water infrastructures. Additional water facilities would help increase water storage capacity for long-term uses and avoid recurring disasters such as scarcity. In addition, urban water and sanitation companies should prioritize the construction of efficient wastewater treatment plants to facilitate the treatment and reuse of water.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
In the face of strong urban growth in Africa as a whole, people’s water supply is often lagging behind. Many African cities find it difficult to provide adequate water services to the growing number of occupants. The demand for clean and adequate water is increasing due to population growth and the global obligation to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals, including Goal 6: “Ensuring access for all to water and sanitation services managed sanitation” [37].
\n
Senegal suffers from a chronic water crisis due to various causes including drought, landscape degradation, floods, contamination and unprecedented population growth. If solutions exist against mismanagement and water pollution, the main problem lies in the frequency and severity of extreme events such as droughts and floods due to ongoing climate change, phenomena that will likely be more unpredictable in the future. Adequate provision of drinking water to populations could also be strongly influenced by environmental pollution. Therefore, to preserve water security, it is necessary to focus on the protection of sources, the more judicious use of fertilizers and pesticides, the reduction of domestic and industrial pollution as fundamental elements of the complete water management strategy.
\n
In order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 6 in particular), new strategies for the sustainable management of water resources are needed. In fact, in urban areas that use large quantities of water (which also puts a lot of pressure on the country’s resources), the modernization of water infrastructure is an important step to implement for the sustainable preservation of water. Pure water. These strategies must also take into account the improvement of access and access to drinking water, the fight against waste of the resource, the treatment and reuse of water used for agricultural purposes, the storage of water in period of rainfall abundance and its reuse in times of scarcity, preservation of aquatic ecosystems.
\n
On the issue of the recurring water shortage in Dakar, it is recommended a device with the following objectives: to reinforce the hydraulic equipment; reduce the vulnerability of people and goods; appreciate, treat and reduce the risk of water scarcity; put in place the required prevention, response and recovery measures; maintain essential activities and services; identify external actors and integrate them into the planning process.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
We thank all the national and international organizations that provide us with the data that helped write this article.
\n
Conflict of interest
There are no conflicts of interest for this document.
\n
Notes/thanks/other declarations
\n
There are no other notes/thanks/statements.
\n
\n',keywords:"water resources, management, urbanization, water scarcity, water policy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70182.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70182.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70182",totalDownloads:372,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:28,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"September 11th 2019",dateReviewed:"October 21st 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 24th 2021",dateFinished:"November 23rd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The United Nations classifies Senegal as a water-poor country (less than 1000 m3 per capita of freshwater reserves) and about 20% of its population did not have access to a drinking water supply (estimates of 2015). Economic growth and the fight against poverty in Senegal depend essentially on the availability of water for the development of agricultural and industrial activities, in addition to satisfying domestic uses. As a developing country, Senegal’s human, monetary and institutional capacities are often limited to providing clean and sufficient water efficiently to its citizens. This article examines the management of water scarcity in the city of Dakar (capital of Senegal) in a context of increasing demography and urbanization. However, Senegal has sufficient water resources to meet the demand if the available resources are properly managed. As a result, several initiatives are under way in Senegal to mitigate water problems and protect the country’s water resources: reducing pollution, improving access to drinking water and setting up rational and equitable exploitation with a constant concern for sustainable development.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70182",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70182",book:{id:"8098",slug:"resources-of-water"},signatures:"Cheikh Faye",authors:[{id:"263199",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheikh",middleName:null,surname:"Faye",fullName:"Cheikh Faye",slug:"cheikh-faye",email:"cheikh.faye@univ-zig.sn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The challenges facing the water sector in Senegal’s main cities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Growing populations and urbanization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Contamination of available water",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Degradation of water sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Invasive species",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Interventions on the water challenges",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Implementation of relevant policies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Groundwater, an important additional source in urban centers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3 Monitoring of conditioned water",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.4 Rainwater harvesting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.5 The construction of additional hydraulic infrastructures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Strategies to address the water scarcity in Dakar",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nAgence Nationale de la Statistique et de la Démographie. Recensement Général de la Population et de l’Habitat, de l’Agriculture et de l’Elevage (RGPHAE); Rapport provisoire, 2013; mars 2014. 36 p\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nFaye C, Ndiaye A. et Mbaye I. Une évaluation comparative des séquences de sècheresse météorologique par indices, par échelles de temps et par domaines climatiques au Sénégal. Journal. wat. env. sci. 2017;1(1):11-28\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nFaye C, Dieye S. Valorization of water resources in Senegal for economic, social and sustainable development. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2018;12(12):449-460\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nSane M. Note sur les ressources en eaux du Sénégal: zones potentielles pour le transfert d’eau. 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[Citation Time]\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nUNRISD. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, Environmental Degradation and Social Integration: Paper No. 3, World Summit for Social Development (November, 1994); 1994. 23 p\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nFaye C. Les défis de la pollution de l’eau, une menace pour la sante publique: atouts et défauts des lois et politiques de l’eau au Sénégal. Larhyss Journal. 2017;32:107-126\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nMayers J, Batchelor C, Bond I, Hope RA, Morrison E, Wheeler B. Water Ecosystem Services and Poverty under Climate Change: Key Issues and Research Priorities. Natural Resource Issues No. 17. London: International Institute for Environment and Development; 2009. 86 p\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nUNESCO. Water for People, Water for Life: World Water Assessment Program; 2003. 36 p\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nOMVS. Projet FEM/Bassin du fleuve Sénégal, 2008. Plan d’action stratégique de gestion des problèmes environnementaux prioritaires du bassin du fleuve Sénégal: Version finale; 2008. 133 p\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nWWAP. “Senegal river case study”: in Premier rapport du Programme Mondial pour l’évaluation des ressources en eau (WWAP); 2003\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nSène AM. Développement durable et impacts des politiques publiques de gestion de la vallee du fleuve Sénégal: Du régional au local », VertigO—la revue électronique en sciences de l’environnement [Online]. 2009;9(3). Disponible sur: http://vertigo.revues.org/9221\n\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nAwaïss A. L’Initiative Bassin du Niger (IBN): développement durable et gestion intégrée d’un grand fleuve. Afrique contemporaine. 2003;2(206):179-203\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nFaye C. le lac de Guiers: Etude du régime et des bilans hydrologique et hydrochimique: quelles incidences écologiques et socio-économiques dans la zone: Mémoire de maitrise de géographie UCAD; 2007. 155 p\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nMinistère de l’Environnement et du Développement Durable. Situation de référence de la biodiversité dans les zones de peuplement en Typha: PNEEB/TYPHA; 2014. 47 p\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nFAO. Site web AQUASTAT. Organisation des Nations Unies pour l’alimentation et l’agriculture. Site consulté le 21/05/2017.2016. Disponible sur: http://www.fao.org/statistics/fr/\n\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nTine J. Etat des lieux des collectifs, plateformes et réseaux d’organisation de la société civile du secteur eau et assainissement dans 7 pays de l’Afrique de l’ouest et du centre: Rapport Sénégal; 2009. 55 p\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nVan der GJ. Groundwater and Global Change: Trends, Opportunities and Challenges. Paris: UNESCO Publishing; 2012. [Citation Time(s): 1]; 44 p\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nRépublique du Sénégal. Etude de faisabilité des forages manuels, identification des zones potentiellement favorable: PRATICA, UNICEF; non daté. 45 p\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nValentin M. Bouteilles et sachets en plastique. Pratiques et impacts des modes de consommation d’eau à boire au Sénégal. Autrepart. 2010;55:57-70\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nHonegger AR, Bravard J-P. La pénurie d’eau, donnée naturelle ou question sociale? Géocarrefour. 2005;80(4):257-260\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nBignoumba GS. L’approvisionnement en eau à Libreville et Dakar. In: Villes en parallèle, n°40-41, Janvier 2007. Villes du Gabon; 2007. pp. 180-195\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nLacoste Y. L’eau dans le monde: les batailles pour la vie: Coll. Petite Encyclopédie Larousse, Baume-les-Dames; 2003. 127 p\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nFaye MD. Etude de Sectorisation d’un réseau Urbain d’eau Potable de Dakar Ville: Cas de Fann Hock: Mémoire de Master; 21E; 2012. 84 p\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nPDU Dakar. Plan Directeur d’Urbanisme de Dakar et Ses Environs Horizon 2035; Rapport Final: Volume I; 2014. 103 p\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nAFD. Programme d’urgence pour la sécurisation de l’alimentation en eau potable de Dakar. Note de communication publique d’opération république du Sénégal: CSN1446; 2014. 11 p\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nNdour N. Etat d’avancement du processus de suivi de l’ODD6 de l’initiative GEMI au Sénégal. Conférence internationale sur les Objectifs de Développement Durable (0DD): Quel agenda pour le Sénégal ?12-13 octobre 2016, Dakar, Sénégal; 2016. 14 p\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Cheikh Faye",address:"cheikh.faye@univ-zig.sn",affiliation:'
Department of Geography, U.F.R. Science and Technology, UASZ, Laboratory of Geomatics and Environment, Ziguinchor, Sénégal
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1. Introduction
Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM), (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man -OMIM- 107970) is a rare (prevalence 1:2500–5000) inheritable structural heart disease first described by Fontaine et al in 1978 [1]. ACM is characterized by progressive replacement of myocardium by fibro-fatty infiltrates, predominantly of the right ventricle (RV) [2], but biventricular forms have also been reported in nearly 50% of cases [3, 4]. Moreover, isolated forms affecting only the left ventricle have been reported in 15% of cases [5, 6]. The name of this disease has been changed over the last years as the knowledge of it has been increased. First, it was called arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD), but some studies revealed that patients had normal hearts at birth and the disease was progressive and genetically determined [4]. For this reason, from that moment on, it was called arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC). However, when it was obvious that this disease not only affects the RV but that it also can affect the LV or even both ventricles, it was necessary to modify its name to ACM. The heart tissue affected in ACM patients shows localized/diffuse atrophy with progressive fibro-fatty infiltration. These structural alterations are assessed by echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance, angiography, and biopsy of the myocardial wall, if necessary. Structural alterations in the myocardium are responsible for electrical abnormalities, with or without impaired mechanical function, subsequent ventricular arrhythmias, syncope and even sudden cardiac death (SCD) [7, 8]. Unfortunately, SCD is often the first symptom of the disease, usually during exercise in young males (less than 35-year-old). Despite both genders being affected, males are the main affected population (the ratio of men to women is 3:1) [9].
ACM is a cardiac disease with a clearly genetic implication, and pathogenic alterations in genes encoding desmosomal proteins are the main cause of the disease. In recent years, continuous advances in the genetic and molecular basis of ACM are occurring despite some pathophysiological mechanisms involved in ACM being not yet completely understood [10]. For example, it has been shown that myocardial inflammation is a common trait in ACM patients, but it is not clear if it is a primary phenomenon or reactive to ACM pathology [4, 11, 12]. The fibrosis mechanism is another characteristic hallmark poorly understood so far. It has been described a complex network of interactions between cytokines, growth factors, and hormones that promote cardiac fibrosis [12, 13]. One thing that seems certain is that canonical and non-canonical TGFβ signaling pathway are both involved in the induction of myocardial fibrosis in ACM [12]. The origin of adipocytes in the myocardium of ACM patients is not yet resolved today. Thus, it is not clear if the signals for adipogenesis are autonomous to desmosome-expressing cells (intracellular signal) or non-autonomous from desmosome-expressing cells to adipogenic cell (paracrine signal) [12]. However, several signaling pathways have been described that are involved in the adipogenic phenotype of ACM such as WNT, Hippo–Yes-associated protein (YAP), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) and microRNA (miRNA) signaling [12].
Currently, clinical diagnosis is based on the presence of a series of diagnostic items (major and minor) called Task Force criteria. It was firstly proposed in 1994 [14], but it was revised in 2010 to improve diagnostic sensitivity maintaining its specificity and included genetics as a diagnostic item [15]. Nowadays it takes into account structural assessment (echocardiography, magnetic resonance, RV angiography), histological (endomyocardial biopsy), electrocardiographic (12-lead ECG and Signal-Averaged ECG, Holter monitoring, exercise testing, electrophysiological study), and familial factors (genetic study according to the Rhythm Society/European Heart Rhythm Association Consensus Statement) [16]. Recently, it has been proposed “The Padua Criteria”, a new diagnostic criteria based on 2010 TFC multi-parametric approach to include biventricular and arrhythmogenic left ventricular cardiomyopathy (ALVC) involvement [4, 17]. However, it has to be validated by future clinical studies in large cohorts of ACM patients. The diagnosis of ACM is confirmed if 2 major, 1 major and 2 minor, or 4 minor criteria from different categories are present. A borderline diagnosis is considered with 1 major and 1 minor or 3 minor criterions from different categories and a possible diagnosis with only 1 major or 2 minor criterions. The disease can be classified into four phases:
The early “silent phase” that can manifest as SCD because arrhythmias occur without structural abnormalities;
The “overt electrical disorder” in which RV arrhythmias are associated with structural abnormalities;
The “phase of right ventricular failure” with extension of the fibro-fatty substitution that leads to RV dysfunction; and,
The phase of “biventricular failure” which is often indistinguishable from dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM).
The diagnostic tools are evolving together with the knowledge of the disease because detecting ACM at an early stage is crucial for the patient. All the treatment approaches are focused on preventing life-threatening arrhythmias, delay the course of the heart failure, and relieve symptoms [12]. The different options include pharmacological treatment, the placement of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD), radiofrequency ablation, and even heart transplantation in severe cases at high risk of death. To date, ICD is the only proven lifesaving therapy; other treatment options may reduce the arrhythmic burden and alleviate symptoms, without evident impact on prevention of SCD [18]. There are some studies that have demonstrated the efficacy of ICD therapy in the prevention of SCD in patients affected by ACM [19, 20, 21, 22]. However, it is associated with a significant morbidity due to device-related complications and inappropriate ICD interventions [1]. Decisions about the placement of an ICD are based on an estimated patient risk of SCD that is determined by several parameters including electrical instability, proband status, extent of structural disease, cardiac syncope, male gender, exercise practice, and deleterious genetic alterations. Unfortunately, there are no conclusive data concerning risk stratification or the best approach in patients with ACM, so treatment should be personalized [23].
2. Genetic basis
ACM can be caused by deleterious alterations located in genes encoding mainly desmosomal proteins but also proteins implicated in electric signal transmission. A comprehensive genetic analysis of all genes reported so far identify at least one rare variant as a potential cause of ACM in around 60% of the patients [24]. Genetic testing allows cascade screening of relatives identifying other genetic carriers in the family, which may be at risk of developing the disease and suffer SCD [25]. Predominantly, ACM follows an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance, with incomplete and age-related penetrance [26] as well as polymorphic phenotypic expression [9, 27]. Autosomal recessive forms have also been reported although in a reduced number of cases (Naxos disease and Carvajal syndrome) [28, 29, 30]. In recent years, compound and/or digenic variants have been identified associated with ACM [31, 32]. In addition, alterations in number of copies (Copy Number Variation, CNV) were also associated with ACM [33]. Despite these recent advances, around 35–50% of ACM patients remain without an identified disease-associated variant [12]. For this reason, the interpretation of rare variants found in ACM patients has to be extremely careful. The “American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) standards and guidelines” structured a standard terminology for classifying sequence variants using available evidence weighted according to a system developed through expert opinion, work-group consensus, and community input [34]. This classification of the variants is composed of 5 terms: “pathogenic”, “likely pathogenic”, “uncertain significance”, “likely benign”, and “benign” and the classification depends on several different criteria: the variant frequency in population database, computational (in silico) predictive programs, biological factors (levels of expression in the tissue, function of the gene,…), localization of the variant in conserved regions or hotspots, type of mutation, functional studies and segregation analyses. It is important to remark that a large part of the rare genetic variants identified as potentially disease-causing remains of inconclusive significance after a comprehensive genetic interpretation. It is crucial to clarify their clinical role whether definitive risk stratification can be based on genetics. Even if a conclusive pathogenic variation associated with ACM is identified, it does not indicate that the patient is going to be affected because of the variable expressivity and incomplete penetrance [4]. This represents an additional challenge to perform a genetic interpretation of rare variants. Moreover, it is known that genes associated with ACM have nearly 50% of genetic variation rate [35]. Therefore, clinical translation should be done carefully after a comprehensive personalized interpretation of all data obtained. A group of experts should discuss all data concerning each family, performing an exhaustive interpretation and translation into clinical practice helping to adopt personalized measures to reduce risk of lethal events.
In the human myocardium, three different structures are involved in cell-to-cell adhesion: desmosomes, adherens junctions (fascia adherens), and gap junctions. The majority of ACM patients present alterations in genes encoding desmosomal proteins. Currently, more than 1000 rare genetic variants have been identified in 18 genes, but only around 400 rare genetic alterations have been classified as definitely pathogenic [36]. All other rare variants remain with an ambiguous role and further data is needed to conclude if they play a decisive role in ACM. Table 1 shows information related to the genetic role and ventricular involvement of the ACM causal genes (plakophilin-2 -PKP2-, desmocollin-2 -DSC2-, desmoglein-2 -DSG2-, desmoplakin -DSP-, plakoglobin -JUP-, desmin -DES-, transforming growth factor beta-3 -TGFβ3-, transmembrane protein 43 -TMEM43-, lamin A/C -LMNA-, titin -TTN-, phospholamban -PLN-, αT-catenin -CTNNA3-, voltage-gated sodium channel -SCN5A-, Cadherin 2 -CDH2-, Filamin C -FLNC-, Ryanodine Receptor 2 -RYR2-, RNA-Binding Motif Protein 20 -RBM20-, Tight Junction Protein ZO-1 -TJP1-) [4, 11]. Figure 1 presents the intracellular localization of proteins codified by ACM-associated genes and their prevalence in causing the disease.
? = Not conclusive association with ACM. AD = autosomal dominant; AR = autosomal recessive; BIV = biventricular disease; LV = left ventricle; RV = right ventricle.
Figure 1.
Schematic representation of the intracellular localization of proteins codified by genes associated with ACM. Created with BioRender.com
2.1 Desmosomal genes
Desmosomes are classified as a calcium-dependent anchoring junction that tethers cells together through its extracellular contacts and internally links to the intermediate filament (IF) cytoskeleton [37]. This cell union provide structural resilience that allows heart tissue to resist mechanical stress. Moreover, it has been described that desmosomal proteins have a role in the regulation of transcription of genes involved in adipogenesis and apoptosis, and play a major role in myocardial electrical conduction through regulation of gap junctions and calcium homeostasis [4]. Deleterious alterations are mainly located in genes encoding desmosomal proteins that are responsible for around 60% of all ACM cases [4, 17]. Concretely, the main gene associated with ACM is PKP2, being responsible for approximately 35–40% of cases [35, 38, 39]. Pathogenic variants in PKP2 are found in around 75% of genotype-positive ACM cases in American cohorts, and nearly 60% of genotype-positive index cases in European cohorts [4, 40]. In general, rare variants in genes encoding desmosomal proteins are more associated with right ventricular involvement. However, rare deleterious alterations in DSP are often associated with left ventricular involvement, and DSG2 and PKP2 with biventricular ACM, although the latter is observed in all gene groups at later stages of disease progression [4, 9].
2.1.1 Plakophilin-2
The most prevalent form of ACM is caused by rare pathogenic alterations in the PKP2 gene (ENSG00000057294), which encode plakophilin-2 protein (PKP2, ENSP00000070846). It is an essential armadillo repeat protein located in the outer dense plaque of cardiac desmosomes that interacts with multiple other cell adhesion proteins [41]. To date, more than 300 rare genetic variants potentially pathogenic have been identified in PKP2 [42]. Most of the ACM-linked pathogenic variants in the PKP2 gene have an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance, even though recessive form was also described in 2006 [30]. Lately, calcium handling dysregulation caused by disruption of PKP2 has been described [43]. It seems that PKP2 is necessary to maintain transcription of genes that control intracellular calcium cycling. This could be the cause of life-threatening arrhythmias even in the absence of structural disease in those patients that present alterations in PKP2, which are the majority of ACM patients.
2.1.2 Desmoplakin
Desmoplakin is the most abundant protein of the desmosomes, encoded by the DSP gene (ENSG00000096696). Desmoplakin has two isoforms produced by alternative splicing: the longest desmoplakin I isoform (ENSP00000369129) and the shorter desmoplakin II (ENSP00000396591). Desmoplakin isoform I has been reported to be a force constituent of desmosomes and the major isoform present in cardiac tissue, even though expression of isoform II (DSPII) occurs in different heart compartments [44]. Nowadays, almost 250 rare variations in the DSP gene have been linked to ACM [42], mainly with autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. The DSP gene was also implicated in Carvajal syndrome, an autosomal recessive cardiocutaneous form of ACM that was described as a variant of Naxos disease (see below, plakoglobin section) [45].
2.1.3 Desmocollin-2 and Desmoglein-2
The desmosomal cadherins proteins, such as desmocollin and desmoglein are the major constituents of the desmosomal plaque. The DSG2 gene (ENSG0000046604) encodes Desmoglein-2 protein (DSG2, ENSP00000261590) that has four extracellular cadherin domains and a transmembrane domain. Currently, more than 150 rare variants have been associated to ACM [42]. Despite the fact that most of the identified DSG2 mutations have a dominant pattern of inheritance, a recessive pattern has been also suggested in ACM patients [46]. The DSC2 gene (ENSG00000134755) encodes the desmocollin protein type 2 (DSC2, ENSP00000280904), the most widely distributed form of desmocollin proteins [47]. It is a type I integral membrane glycoprotein with four conserved extracellular subdomains, variable extracellular anchor domain, a single transmembrane domain, an intracellular anchor domain, and additional cytoplasmatic subdomains. It participates in calcium-dependent cell adhesion, regulation of tissue morphogenesis and intracellular signaling processes [48]. To date, nearly 120 genetic alterations have been identified in DSC2 associated with ACM following an autosomal pattern of inheritance [42].
2.1.4 Plakoglobin
The plakoglobin protein (PG, ENSP00000311113) is codified by the JUP gene (ENSG00000173801). PG is a major protein component of cell adhesion junctions, and the only constituent common to submembranous plaques of both desmosomes and adherens junctions. It plays a crucial role in linking the desmosomal cadherins to the cytoskeleton via desmoplakin. The first genetic alteration associated with ACM was an homozygous deletion in the JUP gene, with an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance [28]. In later years, it was referred to as “Naxos disease” [49]. To date, more than 30 rare genetic variants have been identified in JUP [42], including homozygous variants [50].
2.2 Non-desmosomal genes
This group includes genes encoding proteins of cytoskeletal architecture, calcium handling, sodium transport, and cytokine signaling among others. All of them have a diverse range of biological functions, but a pathogenic alterations in them can converge into similar phenotypes [51]. Genetic defects in non-desmosomal genes are thought to be more frequently associated with involvement of the left ventricle compared with rare variants in desmosomal genes that, in general, are more often associated with RV involvement [4]. There are several rare deleterious alterations in non-desmosomal genes that cause ACM that are also involved in other cardiac diseases such as DCM, Brugada syndrome (BrS), Long QT syndrome (LQTS) or Catecholaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia (CPVT). Thereby, in some cases, there is an overlap of symptoms that makes it challenging to determine the correct diagnosis. For this reason, it is necessary to perform more studies of genotype–phenotype correlation to increase the reliability of the diagnosis.
2.2.1 Desmin
The DES gene (ENSG00000175084) encodes the protein desmin (DES, ENSP00000363071) that is the main intermediate filament in mature skeletal and heart muscle cells. It forms a scaffold around the Z-disc and links whole contractile structure with subsarcolemmal cytoskeleton, intercalated disc, nucleus, and other components of the cytoplasm. Currently, less than 10 rare variants in this gene have been associated with ACM [42, 52, 53].
2.2.2 Transforming growth factor, beta-3
The TGFβ3 gene (ENSG00000119699) encodes the transforming growth factor, beta-3 protein (TGFβ3, ENSP00000238682), a cytokine that stimulates fibrosis and modulates cell adhesion and expression of desmosomal genes [54]. To date, there are only 4 rare alterations located in TGFβ3 as potential causes of ACM.
2.2.3 Transmembrane protein 43
The TMEM43 gene (ENSG00000170876) encodes the transmembrane protein 43 (TMEM43, ENSP00000303992). It has an important role in maintaining nuclear envelope structure by organizing protein complexes at the inner nuclear membrane. Moreover, it has been suggested to have a role in an adipogenic pathway [55]. To date, around 15 ACM associated rare variants in TMEM43 has been identified [42], one of them (p.S358L) exhibits an aggressive phenotype presenting with a fully penetrant, biventricular ACM with LV predominance and a high predilection for SCD in males [4, 55, 56, 57].
2.2.4 Lamin A/C
The LMNA gene (ENSG00000160789) encodes lamin A (ENSP00000357283) and lamin C (ENSP00000357284), by alternative splicing. Both of them belong to the family of type V intermediate filaments that take part in the constitution of the nuclear lamina, a complex of proteins below the inner part of the nuclear membrane [58]. Genetic alterations in LMNA are associated with an heterogeneous group of disorders commonly named “laminopathies” [59], including cardiac disorders with DCM as the main disease. In 2012, the first association between this gene and ACM was reported [60]. To date, nearly 25 rare variants have been described in LMNA associated with ACM [42].
2.2.5 Titin
The TTN gene (ENSG00000155657) encodes the titin protein (TTN, ENSP00000343764) that is a giantic and the third most abundant protein in the muscle after actin and myosin. It is an essential component of the sarcomere linking myosin and the Z-disc, providing structural support, flexibility, and stability [4]. This gene has been associated with cardiac diseases, mainly DCM. In 2011 the first variant associated with ACM was reported [61]. To date, more than 20 rare variants have been associated with ACM [42]. Most of these variants remain as potentially pathogenic, with doubtful role due to lack of conclusive genotype–phenotype studies.
2.2.6 Phospholamban
The PLN gene (ENSG00000198523) encodes the protein phospholamban (PLN, ENSP00000350132), a small phosphoprotein closely associated with the cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum. It is a regulator of the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ (SERCA2a) pump in cardiac muscle and therefore important for maintaining Ca2+ homeostasis [62]. Consequently, the PLN protein is one of the major determinants of cardiac contractility and relaxation [63]. To date, only one rare pathogenic variant associated with ACM has been identified in this gene [42, 64].
2.2.7 Alpha T-catenin
The CTNNA3 gene (ENSG00000183230) encodes the protein αT-catenin (CTNNA3, ENSP00000389714). Alpha T-catenin protein is located within the area composite of intercalated discs of cardiomyocytes. It is a key element for dynamic maintenance of tissue morphogenesis by integrating in the cadherin–catenin complex. In 2013, genetic variants of potentially pathogenic significance were identified in two unrelated patients suffering from ACM [42, 65]. Moreover, it has been shown that CTNNA3 knockout mice exhibit a progressive cardiomyopathy with increased incidence of ventricular arrhythmias after acute ischemia [4, 66]. To date, no other rare variants associated with ACM have been identified in this gene.
2.2.8 Voltage-gated sodium channel
The SCN5A gene (ENSG00000183873) encodes for the cardiac sodium channel, voltage-gated, type V, alpha subunit (SCN5A, ENSP00000410257). This gene is mainly associated with BrS and LQTS but it was also reported in patients diagnosed with ACM [67]. Recently, a study suggested that almost 2% of ACM patients harbor rare SCN5A variants [68]. In total, for the moment, no more than 10 SCN5A rare variants associated with ACM have been described.
2.2.9 Cadherin 2
The CDH2 gene (ENSG00000170558) encodes the protein cadherin type 2 (CDH2, ENSP00000269141) that is a large transmembrane adherens junction protein that connects actin filaments in neighboring cardiomyocyte sarcomeres [4, 69]. It is a member of the cadherin superfamily and provides strength and stability to cardiac tissue and calcium-ion-dependent adhesion among other functions. In 2017 data were published regarding the firsts cadherin variants associated with ACM in this gene [70, 71]. To date, only 3 rare variants have been associated with ACM [42, 72].
2.2.10 Filamin C
The FLNC gene (ENSG00000128591) encodes for the protein filamin C (FLNC, ENSP00000327145) that is an actin cross-linking protein associated with Z-discs found only in striated muscle, important for structural cell stability and membrane-triggered signal transduction [4, 51]. Pathogenic alterations in FLNC have been linked to skeletal myopathies as well as DCM and restrictive cardiomyopathies and possibly hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Recently, this gene, particularly truncating variants, have been associated with ventricular arrhythmias and a high SCD risk [73, 74]. To date, it has been described that nearly 30 FLNC rare variants are associated with ACM [42].
2.2.11 Ryanodine receptor 2
The RYR2 gene (ENSG00000198626) encodes for the protein Ryanodine Receptor 2 (RYR2, ENSP00000355533) that is a sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium release channel that mediates the release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the cytoplasm which generates calcium transients to trigger sarcomere contraction. The majority of RYR2 deleterious alterations are associated with CPVT, but there are some studies that have been shown that rare variants in RYR2 can also cause ACM [75, 76]. For the moment, there are nearly 20 rare variants associated with ACM [42]. However, it is necessary to continue investigating the relationship between RYR2 and ACM to clarify the overlapping in diagnosis. There has even been described a case where the causal genetic alteration could not be identified, but the patient presented with phenotypes of both disorders [77].
2.2.12 RNA-binding motif protein 20
The RBM20 gene (ENSG00000203867) encodes for the protein RNA-Binding Motif Protein 20 (RBM20, ENSP00000358532) that acts as a regulator of mRNA splicing of a subset of genes involved in cardiac development (sarcomeric, calcium regulation and ion regulation genes). There have been identified several rare alterations in RBM20 implicated in DCM and ACM and that causes severe arrhythmia and SCD [78, 79, 80, 81]. Therefore, pathogenic alterations in RMB20 are associated with a high propensity for malignant arrhythmias usually with minor structural abnormalities [4, 80].
2.2.13 Tight junction protein ZO-1
The TJP1 gene (ENSG00000104067) encodes for the protein tight junction protein Zona Occludens-1 (TJP ZO-1, ENSP00000281537), a multi-functional scaffolding protein that localizes to the intercalated discs of cardiomyocytes and interacts with proteins of gap junctions and area composita including connexin43, N-cadherin, αT-catenin, and actin [4]. Recently, it has been identified that 4 rare variants in ACM patients could be deleterious according to in silico tools predictions [42, 82]. Case–control studies provided evidence for enrichment with TJP1 variants in ACM patients compared with controls, supporting the causality role of TJP1 in ACM. Further evidence from larger cohorts for the role of TJP1 as a disease causing in ACM is still needed [4, 82].
3. Conclusion
Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy is an inherited rare cardiac disease characterized by progressive replacement of myocardium by fibrofatty tissue, leading to ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Structural abnormalities mainly occur in the right ventricle, but it is well recognized that also sole left ventricular involvement and even biventricular substitution is common, particularly in advanced stages of the disease. Several molecular mechanisms are involved in the phenotype of ACM such as myocardial inflammation and signaling pathways that cause fibrosis and adipogenesis. Today, most of these mechanisms are not completely understood. Task Force Criteria for the diagnosis of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy include several clinical tests and also genetic data. Despite progressive improvement in diagnosis, it is difficult to obtain conclusive risk stratification in families suffering from arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. Hundreds of rare alterations are reported in mainly genes encoding desmosomal proteins, but there are also other causal genes with several functions within the cardiac tissue. A comprehensive genetic analysis may identify the potential genetic cause of the disease in nearly 60% of cases. Genetic testing is especially useful in families with at least one affected member that carries a potential deleterious alteration because it allows early identification and adoption of therapeutic measures among relatives at risk of malignant arrhythmias. Currently, one of main challenges is the genetic interpretation and clinical translation of amount of genetic data generated by new genetic technologies.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Obra Social “La Caixa Foundation” (LCF/PR/GN16/50290001 and LCF/PR/GN19/50320002), and Sociedad Española Cardiología, Proyecto Investigación Básica Cardiología 2020. CIBERCV is an initiative of the ISCIII, Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness. Funders had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, interpretation, or writing of the report.
\n',keywords:"sudden cardiac death, Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, genetics, desmosome",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74477.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74477.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74477",totalDownloads:327,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 28th 2020",dateReviewed:"December 2nd 2020",datePrePublished:"December 18th 2020",datePublished:"October 27th 2021",dateFinished:"December 17th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy is a rare genetic entity characterized by progressive fibro-fatty replacement of myocardium leading to malignant arrhythmias, syncope, and sudden cardiac death. Mostly it affects the right ventricle, but cases have also been described with biventricular and even isolated left ventricular involvement. The disease affects mainly young males and arrhythmias are usually induced by exercise. Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy has a genetic origin and is basically caused by deleterious alterations in genes encoding desmosomal proteins, especially plakophilin-2. To date, more than 400 rare genetic alterations have been identified in 18 genes, mainly with autosomal dominant inheritance, but some recessive forms have also been reported (Naxos disease and Carvajal syndrome). A comprehensive genetic analysis identifies a rare variant as potential cause of the disease in around 60% of patients, suggesting the existence of unknown genes as well as other genome alterations not yet discovered. Genetic interpretation classifies some of these rare variants as ambiguous, playing an uncertain role in arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. This makes a proper translation of genetic data into clinical practice difficult. Moreover, incomplete penetrance and variable phenotypic expression makes it difficult to arrive at the correct diagnosis. In the present chapter, we focus on recent advances in the knowledge regarding the genetic basis of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74477",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74477",signatures:"Marta Vallverdú-Prats, Mireia Alcalde, Georgia Sarquella-Brugada, Sergi Cesar, Elena Arbelo, Josep Brugada, Ramon Brugada and Oscar Campuzano",book:{id:"10303",type:"book",title:"Cardiomyopathy",subtitle:"Disease of the Heart Muscle",fullTitle:"Cardiomyopathy - Disease of the Heart Muscle",slug:"cardiomyopathy-disease-of-the-heart-muscle",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",bookSignature:"Gustav Mattsson and Peter Magnusson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10303.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78985-224-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-223-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-923-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"238220",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Mattsson",slug:"gustav-mattsson",fullName:"Gustav Mattsson"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"54165",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Brugada",fullName:"Ramon Brugada",slug:"ramon-brugada",email:"ramon@brugada.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"54168",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano",fullName:"Oscar Campuzano",slug:"oscar-campuzano",email:"oscar@brugada.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Girona",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"218478",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgia",middleName:null,surname:"Sarquella-Brugada",fullName:"Georgia Sarquella-Brugada",slug:"georgia-sarquella-brugada",email:"georgia@brugada.org",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"218479",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergi",middleName:null,surname:"Cesar",fullName:"Sergi Cesar",slug:"sergi-cesar",email:"sergi.cesar@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"341367",title:"MSc.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Vallverdú-Prats",fullName:"Marta Vallverdú-Prats",slug:"marta-vallverdu-prats",email:"mvallverdu@gencardio.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"341368",title:"Dr.",name:"Mireia",middleName:null,surname:"Alcalde",fullName:"Mireia Alcalde",slug:"mireia-alcalde",email:"malcalde@gencardio.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"341370",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Arbelo",fullName:"Elena Arbelo",slug:"elena-arbelo",email:"EARBELO@clinic.cat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"341372",title:"Prof.",name:"Josep",middleName:null,surname:"Brugada",fullName:"Josep Brugada",slug:"josep-brugada",email:"jbrugada@clinic.cat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Genetic basis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Desmosomal genes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Plakophilin-2",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Desmoplakin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Desmocollin-2 and Desmoglein-2",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 Plakoglobin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.2 Non-desmosomal genes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.1 Desmin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.2 Transforming growth factor, beta-3",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.3 Transmembrane protein 43",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.4 Lamin A/C",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.2.5 Titin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.2.6 Phospholamban",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.2.7 Alpha T-catenin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.2.8 Voltage-gated sodium channel",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.2.9 Cadherin 2",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.2.10 Filamin C",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"2.2.11 Ryanodine receptor 2",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"2.2.12 RNA-binding motif protein 20",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"2.2.13 Tight junction protein ZO-1",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22",title:"3. 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Identification of a deletion in plakoglobin in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy with palmoplantar keratoderma and woolly hair (Naxos disease). The Lancet. 2000 Jun;355(9221):2119-24'},{id:"B29",body:'Norgett EE. Recessive mutation in desmoplakin disrupts desmoplakin-intermediate filament interactions and causes dilated cardiomyopathy, woolly hair and keratoderma. Hum Mol Genet. 2000 Nov 1;9(18):2761-6'},{id:"B30",body:'Awad MM, Dalal D, Tichnell C, James C, Tucker A, Abraham T, et al. Recessive arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia due to novel cryptic splice mutation in PKP2. Hum Mutat. 2006 Nov;27(11):1157-1157'},{id:"B31",body:'Nakajima T, Kaneko Y, Irie T, Takahashi R, Kato T, Iijima T, et al. Compound and Digenic Heterozygosity in Desmosome Genes as a Cause of Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy in Japanese Patients. Circ J. 2012;76(3):737-43'},{id:"B32",body:'Rigato I, Bauce B, Rampazzo A, Zorzi A, Pilichou K, Mazzotti E, et al. 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Epidermolytic palmoplantar keratoderma with woolly hair and dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998 Sep;39(3):418-21'},{id:"B46",body:'Awad MM, Dalal D, Cho E, Amat-Alarcon N, James C, Tichnell C, et al. DSG2 Mutations Contribute to Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Dysplasia/Cardiomyopathy. Am J Hum Genet. 2006 Jul;79(1):136-42'},{id:"B47",body:'Greenwood MD, Marsden MD, Cowley CME, Sahota VK, Buxton RS. Exon-Intron Organization of the Human Type 2 Desmocollin Gene (DSC2): Desmocollin Gene Structure Is Closer to ``Classical” Cadherins Than to Desmogleins. :6'},{id:"B48",body:'Saito M, Tucker DK, Kohlhorst D, Niessen CM, Kowalczyk AP. Classical and desmosomal cadherins at a glance. J Cell Sci. 2012 Jun 1;125(11):2547-52'},{id:"B49",body:'Protonotarios NI, Gatzoulis KA. Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy Caused by a Deletion in Plakoglobin (Naxos Disease). 6(1):9'},{id:"B50",body:'van der Zwaag PA, Jongbloed JDH, van den Berg MP, van der Smagt JJ, Jongbloed R, Bikker H, et al. A genetic variants database for arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Hum Mutat. 2009 Sep;30(9):1278-83'},{id:"B51",body:'Austin KM, Trembley MA, Chandler SF, Sanders SP, Saffitz JE, Abrams DJ, et al. Molecular mechanisms of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2019 Sep;16(9):519-37'},{id:"B52",body:'van Tintelen JP, Van Gelder IC, Asimaki A, Suurmeijer AJH, Wiesfeld ACP, Jongbloed JDH, et al. Severe cardiac phenotype with right ventricular predominance in a large cohort of patients with a single missense mutation in the DES gene. Heart Rhythm. 2009 Nov;6(11):1574-83'},{id:"B53",body:'Lorenzon A, Beffagna G, Bauce B, De Bortoli M, Li Mura IEA, Calore M, et al. Desmin Mutations and Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy. 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TMEM43 mutations associated with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy in non-Newfoundland populations. Hum Genet. 2013 Nov;132(11):1245-52'},{id:"B58",body:'Burke B, Stewart CL. Life at the edge: the nuclear envelope and human disease. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2002 Aug;3(8):575-85'},{id:"B59",body:'Carboni N, Sardu C, Cocco E, Marrosu G, Manzi RC, Nissardi V, et al. Cardiac involvement in patients with lamin A/C gene mutations: A cohort observation. Muscle Nerve. 2012 Aug;46(2):187-92'},{id:"B60",body:'Quarta G, Syrris P, Ashworth M, Jenkins S, Zuborne Alapi K, Morgan J, et al. Mutations in the Lamin A/C gene mimic arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J. 2012 May;33(9):1128-36'},{id:"B61",body:'Taylor M, Graw S, Sinagra G, Barnes C, Slavov D, Brun F, et al. Genetic Variation in Titin in Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy–Overlap Syndromes. :13'},{id:"B62",body:'MacLENNAN DH, Asahi M, Tupling AR. The Regulation of SERCA-Type Pumps by Phospholamban and Sarcolipin. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003 Apr;986(1):472-80'},{id:"B63",body:'Cerra MC, Imbrogno S. Phospholamban and cardiac function: a comparative perspective in vertebrates. Acta Physiol. 2012 Jan;n/a-n/a'},{id:"B64",body:'van der Zwaag PA, van Rijsingen IAW, Asimaki A, Jongbloed JDH, van Veldhuisen DJ, Wiesfeld ACP, et al. Phospholamban R14del mutation in patients diagnosed with dilated cardiomyopathy or arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy: evidence supporting the concept of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. Eur J Heart Fail. 2012 Nov;14(11):1199-207'},{id:"B65",body:'van Hengel J, Calore M, Bauce B, Dazzo E, Mazzotti E, De Bortoli M, et al. Mutations in the area composita protein αT-catenin are associated with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J. 2013 Jan 14;34(3):201-10'},{id:"B66",body:'Li J, Goossens S, van Hengel J, Gao E, Cheng L, Tyberghein K, et al. Loss of αT-catenin alters the hybrid adhering junctions in the heart and leads to dilated cardiomyopathy and ventricular arrhythmia following acute ischemia. J Cell Sci. 2012 Feb 15;125(4):1058-67'},{id:"B67",body:'Yu J, Hu J, Dai X, Cao Q , Xiong Q , Liu X, et al. SCN5A mutation in Chinese patients with arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. Herz. 2014 Mar;39(2):271-5'},{id:"B68",body:'te Riele ASJM, Agullo-Pascual E, James CA, Leo-Macias A, Cerrone M, Zhang M, et al. Multilevel analyses of SCN5A mutations in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy suggest non-canonical mechanisms for disease pathogenesis. Cardiovasc Res. 2017 Jan 1;113(1):102-11'},{id:"B69",body:'Vermij SH, Abriel H, van Veen TAB. Refining the molecular organization of the cardiac intercalated disc. Cardiovasc Res. 2017 Jan 8;cvw259'},{id:"B70",body:'Turkowski KL, Tester DJ, Bos JM, Haugaa KH, Ackerman MJ. Whole exome sequencing with genomic triangulation implicates CDH2 -encoded N-cadherin as a novel pathogenic substrate for arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy: Turkowski et al. Congenit Heart Dis. 2017 Mar;12(2):226-35'},{id:"B71",body:'Mayosi BM, Fish M, Shaboodien G, Mastantuono E, Kraus S, Wieland T, et al. Identification of Cadherin 2 ( CDH2 ) Mutations in Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Cardiomyopathy. Circ Cardiovasc Genet [Internet]. 2017 Apr [cited 2020 Oct 30];10(2). Available from: https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCGENETICS.116.001605'},{id:"B72",body:'Poloni G, Calore M, Rigato I, Marras E, Minervini G, Mazzotti E, et al. A targeted next-generation gene panel reveals a novel heterozygous nonsense variant in the TP63 gene in patients with arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. Heart Rhythm. 2019 May;16(5):773-80'},{id:"B73",body:'Begay RL, Graw SL, Sinagra G, Asimaki A, Rowland TJ, Slavov DB, et al. Filamin C Truncation Mutations Are Associated With Arrhythmogenic Dilated Cardiomyopathy and Changes in the Cell–Cell Adhesion Structures. JACC Clin Electrophysiol. 2018 Apr;4(4):504-14'},{id:"B74",body:'Ortiz-Genga MF, Cuenca S, Dal Ferro M, Zorio E, Salgado-Aranda R, Climent V, et al. Truncating FLNC Mutations Are Associated With High-Risk Dilated and Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathies. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016 Dec;68(22):2440-51'},{id:"B75",body:'Tiso N. Identification of mutations in the cardiac ryanodine receptor gene in families affected with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy type 2 (ARVD2). Hum Mol Genet. 2001 Feb 1;10(3):189-94'},{id:"B76",body:'Kannankeril PJ, Mitchell BM, Goonasekera SA, Chelu MG, Zhang W, Sood S, et al. Mice with the R176Q cardiac ryanodine receptor mutation exhibit catecholamine-induced ventricular tachycardia and cardiomyopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2006 Aug 8;103(32):12179-84'},{id:"B77",body:'Patel H, Shah P, Rampal U, Shamoon F, Tiyyagura S. Arrythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy (ARVD/C) and cathecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT): A phenotypic spectrum seen in same patient. J Electrocardiol. 2015 Sep;48(5):874-8'},{id:"B78",body:'van den Hoogenhof MMG, Beqqali A, Amin AS, van der Made I, Aufiero S, Khan MAF, et al. RBM20 Mutations Induce an Arrhythmogenic Dilated Cardiomyopathy Related to Disturbed Calcium Handling. Circulation. 2018 Sep 25;138(13):1330-42'},{id:"B79",body:'Hey TM, Rasmussen TB, Madsen T, Aagaard MM, Harbo M, Mølgaard H, et al. Pathogenic RBM20 -Variants Are Associated With a Severe Disease Expression in Male Patients With Dilated Cardiomyopathy. Circ Heart Fail [Internet]. 2019 Mar [cited 2020 Oct 28];12(3). Available from: https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.118.005700'},{id:"B80",body:'Parikh VN, Caleshu C, Reuter C, Lazzeroni LC, Ingles J, Garcia J, et al. Regional Variation in RBM20 Causes a Highly Penetrant Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy. Circ Heart Fail [Internet]. 2019 Mar [cited 2020 Oct 28];12(3). Available from: https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.118.005371'},{id:"B81",body:'Peters S, Kumar S, Elliott P, Kalman JM, Fatkin D. Arrhythmic Genotypes in Familial Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Implications for Genetic Testing and Clinical Management. Heart Lung Circ. 2019 Jan;28(1):31-8'},{id:"B82",body:'De Bortoli M, Postma AV, Poloni G, Calore M, Minervini G, Mazzotti E, et al. Whole-Exome Sequencing Identifies Pathogenic Variants in TJP1 Gene Associated With Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy. Circ Genomic Precis Med [Internet]. 2018 Oct [cited 2020 Oct 28];11(10). Available from: https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCGEN.118.002123'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Marta Vallverdú-Prats",address:null,affiliation:'
Cardiovascular Genetics Center, University of Girona – IDIBGi, Spain
Cardiovascular Genetics Center, University of Girona – IDIBGi, Spain
Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Cardiovasculares (CIBERCV), Spain
Medical Science Department, School of Medicine, University of Girona, Spain
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Our reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
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We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
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Our platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
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Our reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
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Our expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
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Our reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 184,650 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
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Our services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
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A Creative Commons license, so authors always keep their copyright;
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A dedicated Author Service Manager to guide the publication process from submission to publication;
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Professional copyediting and language editing;
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Monitoring with CrossCheck plagiarism identification software;
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Professional typesetting in fulltext, interactive XML;
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An open access e-book, plus beautifully produced hardcover and affordable paperback print-on-demand editions;
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Professional cover design;
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Access to our online Manuscript Tracking System;
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A dedicated landing page;
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Real-time user statistics for each book and chapter;
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Automated citation and reference options for each chapter;
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DOI for every book and every individual chapter;
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ISBN and ISSN registration;
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Long-term archiving in CLOCKSS;
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Distribution to libraries;
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Indexing in Web of Science Book Citation Index, OAPEN, PubMed Bookshelf;
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SEO optimization;
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Inclusion in and metadata distribution to repositories such as Google Scholar, EBSCO, WorldCat, OpenAIRE, CNKI;
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The Framework of Achievement Bests provides an explanatory account of a person’s optimal best practice from his/her actual best. Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of optimization, which is central to our understanding of person’s optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman’s PERMA theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan and Bing H. Ngu",authors:[{id:"196435",title:"Prof.",name:"Huy",middleName:"P",surname:"Phan",slug:"huy-phan",fullName:"Huy Phan"}]},{id:"55349",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68596",title:"The Development of a Human Well-Being Index for the United States",slug:"the-development-of-a-human-well-being-index-for-the-united-states",totalDownloads:2019,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a human well-being index (HWBI) that assesses the over-all well-being of its population at the county level. The HWBI contains eight domains representing social, economic and environmental well-being. These domains include 25 indicators comprised of 80 metrics and 22 social, economic and environmental services. The application of the HWBI has been made for the nation as a whole at the county level and two alternative applications have been made to represent key populations within the overall US population—Native Americans and children. A number of advances have been made to estimate the values of metrics for counties where no data is available and one such estimator—MERLIN—is discussed. Finally, efforts to make the index into an interactive web site are described.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"J. Kevin Summers, Lisa M. Smith, Linda C. Harwell and Kyle D. Buck",authors:[{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers"},{id:"197486",title:"Ms.",name:"Lisa",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"lisa-smith",fullName:"Lisa Smith"},{id:"197487",title:"Ms.",name:"Linda",middleName:null,surname:"Harwell",slug:"linda-harwell",fullName:"Linda Harwell"},{id:"197488",title:"Dr.",name:"Kyle",middleName:null,surname:"Buck",slug:"kyle-buck",fullName:"Kyle Buck"}]},{id:"56529",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70237",title:"Well-being and Quality of Working Life of University Professors in Brazil",slug:"well-being-and-quality-of-working-life-of-university-professors-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1664,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter presents a study about the perceptions on quality of working life (QWL) regarding factors and indicator in two public universities in Brazil. It aimed also to analyze their perceptions about university working conditions. This exploratory study is based on quantitative and qualitative analyses. A sample of 715 university professors participated on the research. Data collection was carried out in two steps: online survey and focus groups. There is a moderate negative correlation between psychological well-being and work-related stress. Emotional charge also presents a moderate positive correlation with work-related stress, as well as physical charge and psychological distress. Work-life balance is negatively correlated with physical charge, emotional charge, work-related stress, psychological distress, and burnout. We observed also that 43.6% of the professors reported high levels of work-related stress in their everyday work. The precariousness of university teaching is associated with three main elements, which we defined as the tripod of the precarization of university teaching work. It consists of academic productivism, excess of administrative work and bureaucratic activities, and inadequate working conditions. The operating dynamics of this tripod effect professors’ well-being, their QWL, and even the quality of the work they develop in public universities.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Alessandro Vinicius de Paula and Ana Alice Vilas Boas",authors:[{id:"175373",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Vilas Boas",slug:"ana-alice-vilas-boas",fullName:"Ana Alice Vilas Boas"},{id:"196534",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula",slug:"alessandro-vinicius-de-paula",fullName:"Alessandro Vinicius De Paula"}]},{id:"54833",doi:"10.5772/68018",title:"Professional Pride and Dignity? A Classic Grounded Theory Study among Social Workers",slug:"professional-pride-and-dignity-a-classic-grounded-theory-study-among-social-workers",totalDownloads:1515,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Social workers working with individuals, who are vulnerable and in need of help in different situations, face great demands. They need to be able to respond to people with different kind of needs, yet at the same time handle organizational requirements. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to contribute to an increased understanding of the phenomenon of job satisfaction, its meaning for professionals in the field of social work, and what affects job satisfaction. The study was performed in accordance with classic grounded theory, and all data were collected through three semistructural interviews. The results of the study generated a theoretical model that illustrates how the phenomenon of “work satisfaction” can be understood and reached through a process of balancing, maintaining, and recreating professional pride and dignity in the field of social work. The discussion ends with suggestions for further studies, methodological discussion, and proposals for practical implications.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Heidi Branta, Tina Jacobson and Aida Alvinius",authors:[{id:"145558",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aida",middleName:null,surname:"Alvinius",slug:"aida-alvinius",fullName:"Aida Alvinius"},{id:"199969",title:"BSc.",name:"Heidi",middleName:null,surname:"Branta",slug:"heidi-branta",fullName:"Heidi Branta"},{id:"199970",title:"BSc.",name:"Tina",middleName:null,surname:"Jacobson",slug:"tina-jacobson",fullName:"Tina Jacobson"}]},{id:"55530",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69151",title:"Quality of Life and Physical Activity: Their Relationship with Physical and Psychological Well-Being",slug:"quality-of-life-and-physical-activity-their-relationship-with-physical-and-psychological-well-being",totalDownloads:1966,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Many studies have been focused on the analysis of different factors that relate to the quality of life. And those studies have found a clear relationship between the quality of life, psychological well-being, and health. It is important to know those relationships and to know factors that can improve these three aspects simultaneously. And one of the most important factors is the realization of physical activity on a regular basis. This study analyzes the effect of physical activity on improving the quality of life (physical health and well-being) and its relationship with psychological well-being through two studies. One was a randomized clinical trial involving 98 low-risk incident cases of acute coronary syndrome, who were randomly assigned to an unsupervised walking program or a cycle ergometer exercise program. The other study is an expost-facto investigation with a total of 841 healthy subjects. We apply them questionnaires to measure subjective well-being, satisfaction with life, positive and negative affect, Short Form-36 Health Survey (SF-36), and the specific Velasco-del Barrio questionnaire for post-myocardial infarction. This study concludes physical activity and exercise are key factors in an individual’s perception for their quality of life, both in the area of physical and psychological health.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Arantzazu Rodríguez-Fernández, Ana Zuazagoitia-Rey-Baltar and\nEstibaliz Ramos-Díaz",authors:[{id:"90485",title:"Dr.",name:"Arantzazu",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Fernández",slug:"arantzazu-rodriguez-fernandez",fullName:"Arantzazu Rodriguez-Fernández"},{id:"205182",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Zuazagoitia-Rey-Baltar",slug:"ana-zuazagoitia-rey-baltar",fullName:"Ana Zuazagoitia-Rey-Baltar"},{id:"205183",title:"Dr.",name:"Estibaliz",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Díaz",slug:"estibaliz-ramos-diaz",fullName:"Estibaliz Ramos-Díaz"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55323",title:"Positive Psychology: The Use of the Framework of Achievement Bests to Facilitate Personal Flourishing",slug:"positive-psychology-the-use-of-the-framework-of-achievement-bests-to-facilitate-personal-flourishing",totalDownloads:1703,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The Framework of Achievement Bests, which was recently published in Educational Psychology Review, makes a theoretical contribution to the study of positive psychology. The Framework of Achievement Bests provides an explanatory account of a person’s optimal best practice from his/her actual best. Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of optimization, which is central to our understanding of person’s optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman’s PERMA theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan and Bing H. Ngu",authors:[{id:"196435",title:"Prof.",name:"Huy",middleName:"P",surname:"Phan",slug:"huy-phan",fullName:"Huy Phan"}]},{id:"54577",title:"Building a Quality of Life Index",slug:"building-a-quality-of-life-index",totalDownloads:1749,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter outlines how an index measuring quality of life should be developed and then applies that work at the county level in the United States. The index we create is a unique and data‐driven approach to calculating quality of life. In the chapter, we explain the process that leads us to selecting our five indicators: public safety, health, economic development, infrastructure, and education. Each indicator breaks apart into subindicators. This chapter theoretically and statistically verifies our chosen indicators. First, we develop theoretical arguments explaining the connections between quality of life and our indicators. Then, we perform confirmatory factor analyses on our index to empirically verify our theoretical arguments for why each component should be included in the index. Further, we finally verify our theory and index using survey results. We use only publicly available data to facilitate replication by others. The results of our confirmatory factor analysis provide statistical evidence for our choice of indicators in measuring quality of life. Our findings indicate that those measuring quality of life must account for the roles of: public safety, health, economic development, infrastructure, and education. Most importantly, our results indicate that our index is a valid measure of quality of life.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Ryan M. Yonk, Josh T. Smith and Arthur R. Wardle",authors:[{id:"196259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan Merlin",middleName:null,surname:"Yonk",slug:"ryan-merlin-yonk",fullName:"Ryan Merlin Yonk"},{id:"197814",title:"Mr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"joshua-smith",fullName:"Joshua Smith"}]},{id:"54549",title:"Physical and Psychical Well-Being and Stress: The Perspectives of Leaders and Employees",slug:"physical-and-psychical-well-being-and-stress-the-perspectives-of-leaders-and-employees",totalDownloads:1475,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Stress among employees is a significant issue in each organization and society because of its costs on individual, organizational, and society levels. Addressing and reducing stress is thus an important goal, which leads humans to well-being. The main role of managing stress at work belongs to leaders. Their leadership can have effects on the level of stress of employees as well as for themselves. They also decide about their systemic approaches for overcoming stress within organizations. We therefore conducted a stress (qualitative and quantitative) research of employees and leaders within organizations with the main goal to find out the differences between their stresses. The main purpose of this article was to research stress among leaders and employees and to compare their perceived physical and psychical well-being (and stress). For this purpose, we used descriptive statistics and Mann-Whitney U-test. We confirmed that (1) leaders report a higher frequency of some kinds of the daily work stress than employees, (2) on average, leaders were more frequently under pressure than employees, (3) on average, leaders had more frequently satisfying sleep than employees, and (4) on average, employees could use their strong points at work less frequently than leaders.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Simona Šarotar Žižek and Vesna Čančer",authors:[{id:"192730",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Šarotar Žižek",slug:"simona-sarotar-zizek",fullName:"Simona Šarotar Žižek"},{id:"197783",title:"Dr.",name:"Vesna",middleName:null,surname:"Čančer",slug:"vesna-cancer",fullName:"Vesna Čančer"}]},{id:"55015",title:"The Mammoth Task of Realising the Right to Life: A South African Perspective",slug:"the-mammoth-task-of-realising-the-right-to-life-a-south-african-perspective",totalDownloads:1560,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Concentrating on South Africa, this chapter critically scrutinises the realisation of everyone's right to life as guaranteed in section 11 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. Although the right to life is explored within the ambit of an international legal framework, realising the right to life in South Africa, with its history of demeaning the value of the life of the majority of its inhabitants in the past, forms the main pivot of discussion. It is argued that, despite the 1996 Constitution's promise to heal these past divisions and improve the quality of life of all citizens and free each person's potential, the State has been ambivalent about realising everyone's right to life. As part of post‐apartheid transformation, the State has, on the one hand, made substantial progresses in creating a supporting and legal environment for the attainment of a better life for some of its inhabitants. On the other hand, reality still reflects poignantly flaws in freeing everyone's potential, thus highlighting the mammoth task that lies ahead.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Erika M. Serfontein",authors:[{id:"196203",title:"Prof.",name:"Erika",middleName:null,surname:"Serfontein",slug:"erika-serfontein",fullName:"Erika Serfontein"}]},{id:"54570",title:"Exploring the Antecedents of Happiness: Reconceptualization of Human Needs with Glasser's Choice Theory",slug:"exploring-the-antecedents-of-happiness-reconceptualization-of-human-needs-with-glasser-s-choice-theo",totalDownloads:1625,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter aims to present a review about the antecedents of happiness by using human needs perspective. The chapter briefly includes the definition of happiness as a scientific matter, definition of the need theories approach for explaining the antecedents of happiness, definitions and discussions about the major need theories and reconceptualization of human needs with Glasser’s Choice Theory, and also empirical studies that investigate the relationship between basic needs satisfaction and happiness. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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