Microbial diseases associated with health care waste (Akter, 2010)
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6209",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Endothelial Dysfunction - Old Concepts and New Challenges",title:"Endothelial Dysfunction",subtitle:"Old Concepts and New Challenges",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The endothelium enables communication between blood and tissues and is actively involved in cardiovascular homeostasis. Endothelial dysfunction has been recognized as an early step in the development of cardiovascular diseases: respectively, endothelium represents a potential therapeutic niche with multiple targets. The purpose of the book is to point out some recent findings of endothelial physiology and pathophysiology emphasizing various aspects of endothelial dysfunction connected to the body's internal and external environment. While basic features of the endothelium are presented in an introductory chapter, the authors of the following 17 chapters have provided extensive insight into some selected topics of endothelial (dys)function. The book would hopefully be useful for anyone interested in recapitulating endothelial (patho)physiology and expanding knowledge of molecular mechanisms involved in endothelial dysfunction, relevant also for further clinical investigations.",isbn:"978-1-78984-254-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-253-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-339-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68656",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"endothelial-dysfunction-old-concepts-and-new-challenges",numberOfPages:430,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"f6e76bbf7858977527679a6e6ad6a173",bookSignature:"Helena Lenasi",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6209.jpg",numberOfDownloads:22444,numberOfWosCitations:31,numberOfCrossrefCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:68,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:135,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 17th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 8th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 4th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 2nd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 1st 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"68746",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Lenasi",slug:"helena-lenasi",fullName:"Helena Lenasi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68746/images/4880_n.jpg",biography:"Helena Lenasi is asisstant professor of physiology employed at Institute of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. She obtained her MD title in 1996 and her PhD in 2003, both at University of Ljubljana. Her working activities mainly include teaching and education. She gives lectures in physiology for pre- and postgraduate students at Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Sport at University of Ljubljana. Her main research interests are cardiovascular and exercise physiology with a focus on human microcirculation in health and disease. She is a member of Slovenian Physiological Society as part of the Federation of European Physiological Societies, Medical Chamber of Slovenia and European Society for Microcirculation. She is an editor of Slovenian Medical Journal and Southeastern European Medical Journal and has served as a reviewer and author of scientific papers and textbook chapters.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"170",title:"Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine",slug:"cardiology-and-cardiovascular-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"63745",title:"Endothelium at a Glance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81286",slug:"endothelium-at-a-glance",totalDownloads:1264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Exposed to the blood milieu and variable hemodynamic forces, endothelial cells of different vessels exhibit significant heterogeneity, directing also the variety of endothelial functions. Endothelial cells are actively involved in many physiological processes, including vascular tone regulation, fluid filtration and reabsorption processes, maintenance of blood fluidity and proper hemostasis, leucocyte trafficking, tissue repair, and angiogenesis; accordingly, healthy endothelium is crucial for vascular homeostasis. On the other hand, many exo- and endogenous harmful factors can cause endothelial dysfunction, associated with inflammation, thrombosis, pathological vascular wall remodeling, and predisposing to the development of cardiovascular and other diseases. In order to design accurate clinical and pharmacological strategies to postpone or ameliorate endothelial dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction should firstly be recognized. Therefore, understanding endothelial physiology is crucial for clinical measures to be timely taken. The review briefly outlines some basic concepts of endothelial structure and function, focusing on endothelial barrier function and endothelium-dependent vasodilation, and addressing some potential therapeutic targets. Additional specific concepts of endothelial (dys)function, with particular emphasis on its involvement in inflammation, hemostasis, and its (mal)adaptation to environmental challenges are extensively described in the following book chapters.",signatures:"Helena Lenasi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63745",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63745",authors:[{id:"68746",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",surname:"Lenasi",slug:"helena-lenasi",fullName:"Helena Lenasi"}],corrections:null},{id:"61008",title:"Hox Genes in Adult Tissues and Their Role in Endothelial Cell Differentiation and Angiogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76745",slug:"hox-genes-in-adult-tissues-and-their-role-in-endothelial-cell-differentiation-and-angiogenesis",totalDownloads:1375,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"HOX genes belong to a family of transcription factors characterized by a 183 bp DNA sequence called homeobox, which code for a 61-amino-acid domain defined as the homeodomain. These genes play a central role during embryonic development by controlling body organization, organogenesis, and stem cell differentiation. They can also play a role in adult processes such as embryo implantation, hematopoiesis, and endothelial differentiation. Since endothelial cell differentiation is one of the main steps to initiate vasculogenesis and angiogenesis, we analyzed the role of several Hox genes in the regulation of these two processes. In this chapter, we summarized the evidence to support the function of Hox genes in adult tissues, specifically in endothelial cell differentiation, by studying their mechanism of action and how their target genes regulate vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms triggered by Hox biological effects is pivotal for designing new drugs or therapies for high prevalent pathologies, such as cardiovascular diseases.",signatures:"Estefanía Nova-Lampeti, Valeria Aguilera, Katherine Oporto, Paula\nGuzmán, Valeska Ormazábal, Felipe Zúñiga, Carlos Escudero and\nClaudio Aguayo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61008",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61008",authors:[{id:"166180",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Escudero",slug:"carlos-escudero",fullName:"Carlos Escudero"},{id:"183934",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudio",surname:"Aguayo",slug:"claudio-aguayo",fullName:"Claudio Aguayo"},{id:"187834",title:"Dr.",name:"Estefania",surname:"Nova-Lamperti",slug:"estefania-nova-lamperti",fullName:"Estefania Nova-Lamperti"},{id:"187835",title:"Dr.",name:"Felipe",surname:"Zuñiga",slug:"felipe-zuniga",fullName:"Felipe Zuñiga"},{id:"211035",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeska",surname:"Ormazabal",slug:"valeska-ormazabal",fullName:"Valeska Ormazabal"}],corrections:null},{id:"59276",title:"Endothelial Cell Senescence in the Pathogenesis of Endothelial Dysfunction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73024",slug:"endothelial-cell-senescence-in-the-pathogenesis-of-endothelial-dysfunction",totalDownloads:1499,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Aging is the main risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and senescence in endothelial cells seems to be an initial step in the cascade of events that will culminate with the development of these pathologies. In this chapter, we examine the pathophysiological mechanism(s) involved in endothelial senescence, leading to CVD as well as the biochemical and cellular pathways that may explain the activation and development of the process of endothelial senescence, and we discuss new hypotheses supported by experimental results which suggest that the senescent endothelial cell may induce a general process of vascular senescence. This process is probably induced either by soluble molecules secreted by these senescent cells and/or by intercellular signals transported in cellular vesicles that may be useful as biomarkers and as potential therapeutic targets in endothelial senescence.",signatures:"Julia Carracedo, Rafael Ramírez-Carracedo, Matilde Alique and\nRafael Ramírez-Chamond",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59276",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59276",authors:[{id:"210596",title:"Prof.",name:"Julia",surname:"Carracedo",slug:"julia-carracedo",fullName:"Julia Carracedo"},{id:"210597",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rafael",surname:"Ramirez-Carracedo",slug:"rafael-ramirez-carracedo",fullName:"Rafael Ramirez-Carracedo"},{id:"210598",title:"Dr.",name:"Matilde",surname:"Alique",slug:"matilde-alique",fullName:"Matilde Alique"},{id:"210600",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Ramirez-Chamond",slug:"rafael-ramirez-chamond",fullName:"Rafael Ramirez-Chamond"}],corrections:null},{id:"58644",title:"Targeting Endothelial SIRT1 for the Prevention of Arterial Aging",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73019",slug:"targeting-endothelial-sirt1-for-the-prevention-of-arterial-aging",totalDownloads:1059,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the elderly population all over the world. Arterial aging is the earliest manifestation and a key risk factor for age-induced cardiovascular abnormalities. The longevity regulator Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) is abundantly expressed in the endothelium of the arteries and elicits potent protective functions against arterial aging. Targeting endothelial SIRT1 represents a promising approach for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. This chapter provides an overview of SIRT1’s regulation and function in endothelial cells and discusses the potential applications of targeting endothelial SIRT1 for arterial aging-related cardiovascular diseases.",signatures:"Yumeng Guo and Yu Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58644",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58644",authors:[{id:"38667",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu",surname:"Wang",slug:"yu-wang",fullName:"Yu Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"59025",title:"Sensing Fluid-Shear Stress in the Endothelial System with a Special Emphasis on the Primary Cilium",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73134",slug:"sensing-fluid-shear-stress-in-the-endothelial-system-with-a-special-emphasis-on-the-primary-cilium",totalDownloads:1132,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fluid shear stress (FSS) is able to generate phenotypic changes in the cells in direct contact with the strain force. In order to detect and transduce FSS into intracellular pathways, biological systems use a specific set of sensors, called mechanosensors. The process involves the conversion of the mechanical force into a chemical or electrical signal. Primary cilium is a non-motile organelle that emanates from the cell surface of most mammalian cell types that act as a mechanosensor. Increasing evidence suggests that primary cilia are key coordinators of signaling pathways in tissue homeostasis and when defective may cause human diseases and developmental disorders. Here, we will describe the endothelial primary cilium as a mechanotransductory organelle sensing FSS. To fulfill this function, primary cilium requires the localization of mechanoproteins, polycystin-1 and -2, in their membrane and the structural gene product, polaris. Physiologically, deflection of primary cilium increases the intracellular calcium concentration triggering a signaling pathway that leads to nitric oxide (NO) formation and vasodilation. Additionally, ciliopathies, such as polycystic kidney disease and atherosclerosis, will also be discussed. We also analyze available information regarding a trio of membrane receptors involved in FSS sensing and transducing such as vascular endothelial growth factor receptors (VEGFRs) and its coreceptor neuropilin (NRP), as well as purinergic receptors (P2Y2). Whether or not they modulate, the primary cilium role in sensing FSS is poorly understood. This chapter highlights the main relevance of primary cilium in sensing blood flow, although exact mechanisms are not fully known yet.",signatures:"Meriem Rezgaoui, Andres Rodriguez, Kurt Herlitz and Carlos\nEscudero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59025",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59025",authors:[{id:"166180",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Escudero",slug:"carlos-escudero",fullName:"Carlos Escudero"},{id:"211062",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",surname:"Rodriguez",slug:"andres-rodriguez",fullName:"Andres Rodriguez"},{id:"220791",title:"Prof.",name:"Meriem",surname:"Rezgaoui",slug:"meriem-rezgaoui",fullName:"Meriem Rezgaoui"},{id:"220853",title:"Mr.",name:"Kurt",surname:"Herlitz",slug:"kurt-herlitz",fullName:"Kurt Herlitz"}],corrections:null},{id:"61045",title:"Endothelial Dysfunction as a Consequence of Endothelial Glycocalyx Damage: A Role in the Pathogenesis of Preeclampsia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75043",slug:"endothelial-dysfunction-as-a-consequence-of-endothelial-glycocalyx-damage-a-role-in-the-pathogenesis",totalDownloads:1379,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The endothelial glycocalyx is an intravascular compartment which consists of carbohydrate part of membrane glycoconjugates, free proteoglycans and associated proteins. It is thought to play an important role in the vascular tone regulation, vascular permeability and thromboresistance. It was suggested that the leading cause of endothelial dysfunction in various cardiovascular, inflammatory, and kidney diseases is the damage of the endothelial glycocalyx. This review presents the changes in the composition and structure of the endothelial glycocalyx in the settings of damage and under systemic inflammatory response, and the impact of these changes on the functions of endothelial cells and intercellular contacts, mediating the interaction of endothelium and the immune cells. The second issue, discussed in this article is a possible role of endothelial glycocalyx in the pathogenesis of preeclampsia—a complication of pregnancy associated with hypertension, proteinuria and edema. The reviewed data contribute a new insight in the endothelial dysfunction pathogenesis.",signatures:"Marina M. Ziganshina, Ekaterina L. Yarotskaya, Nicolai V. Bovin and\nGennady T. Sukhikh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61045",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61045",authors:[{id:"193025",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marina",surname:"Ziganshina",slug:"marina-ziganshina",fullName:"Marina Ziganshina"},{id:"196926",title:"Dr.",name:"Ekaterina L.",surname:"Yarotskaya",slug:"ekaterina-l.-yarotskaya",fullName:"Ekaterina L. Yarotskaya"},{id:"196927",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennady T.",surname:"Sukhikh",slug:"gennady-t.-sukhikh",fullName:"Gennady T. Sukhikh"},{id:"221695",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicolai",surname:"Bovin",slug:"nicolai-bovin",fullName:"Nicolai Bovin"}],corrections:null},{id:"59581",title:"Endothelial Cell von Willebrand Factor Secretion in Health and Cardiovascular Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74029",slug:"endothelial-cell-von-willebrand-factor-secretion-in-health-and-cardiovascular-disease",totalDownloads:1343,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The main function of von Willebrand factor (vWF) is to initiate platelet adhesion upon vascular injury. The hallmark of acute and chronical inflammation is the widespread activation of endothelial cells which provokes excessive vWF secretion from the endothelial cell storage pool. The level of vWF in blood not only reflects the state of endothelial activation early on in the pathogenesis, but also predicts disease outcome. Elevation in the blood level of vWF occurs either by pathologic increase in the rate of basal vWF secretion or by increased evoked vWF release from dysfunctional/activated endothelial cells (ECs). The increase in plasma vWF is predictive of prothrombotic complications and multi-organ system failure associated with reduced survival in the context of severe inflammatory response syndrome, type II diabetes mellitus, stroke and other inflammatory cardiovascular disease states. This chapter focuses on the role of high circulating vWF levels in thrombotic and inflammatory disease while paying attention to the emerging vWF-related drug development strategies.",signatures:"Luiza Rusu and Richard D. Minshall",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59581",authors:[{id:"210679",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiza",surname:"Rusu",slug:"luiza-rusu",fullName:"Luiza Rusu"},{id:"211402",title:"Prof.",name:"Richard",surname:"Minshall",slug:"richard-minshall",fullName:"Richard Minshall"}],corrections:null},{id:"57915",title:"Hyperglycemia-Induced Endothelial Dysfunction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71433",slug:"hyperglycemia-induced-endothelial-dysfunction",totalDownloads:1579,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Glucose-induced endothelial dysfunction plays a fundamental role in the development of diabetic vascular complications and glycemic control (the foundation of diabetes care) provides limited protection against the cardiovascular complications. Therefore, identification of novel drug targets and treatment approaches for diabetes complications represent a key direction of current pharmaceutical research. The “unifying theory” of hyperglycemia-induced endothelial cell injury organizes the events of cellular dysfunction in a linear cascade and identifies mitochondrial superoxide generation as the triggering event of the injury. Exposure to high glucose concentration for long periods or repeated glycemic swings may induce changes in metabolic substrate availability and lead to mitochondrial hyperpolarization. Changes in the mitochondrial membrane potential induce superoxide production by the electron transport chain and result in oxidative stress. Mitochondrial superoxide is also responsible for the induction of other sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within the cells, including advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and the NADPH oxidase. Mitochondria also show morphological changes and impaired assembly of the respiratory complexes occurs, which results in cellular energy failure, cell senescence and vascular dysfunction. Current intervention strategies aim to inhibit the mitochondrial ROS production and novel therapeutic approaches are expected to provide valuable tools in diabetes therapy in the upcoming years.",signatures:"Domokos Gero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57915",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57915",authors:[{id:"191058",title:"Dr.",name:"Domokos",surname:"Gero",slug:"domokos-gero",fullName:"Domokos Gero"}],corrections:null},{id:"58939",title:"Impact of Advanced Glycation End Products on Endothelial Function and Their Potential Link to Atherosclerosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73025",slug:"impact-of-advanced-glycation-end-products-on-endothelial-function-and-their-potential-link-to-athero",totalDownloads:1343,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The role of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in cardiovascular diseases is a matter of interest in the last years and the strong association between the action of AGEs on their receptor (RAGE) and atherosclerosis has attracted increased attention. The aim of this chapter is to review the results of our laboratory and others on the molecular mechanisms triggered by AGEs in the endothelium that could participate in the atherosclerotic process. These mechanisms and molecular pathways could be the source of new therapeutic targets against atherosclerosis or vascular disease. Oxidative stress in endothelium induced by AGEs triggers molecular signaling pathways that produce an inflammatory response or even endothelial dysfunction. Adhesion molecules expression at the membranes of endothelial cells as a consequence of this response or induced by other mechanisms involving AGEs mediates the adhesion of leukocytes to endothelium. This adhesion is a key step in the atherogenesis process and the possible involvement of AGE-RAGE axis in this process should be considered as a potential therapeutic target. Finally, potential pharmacological modulation of AGE-RAGE axis activity at the endothelium is suggested, but the specific pharmacological tools available nowadays are missing; respectively, drugs used for the treatment of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases could be helpful for AGE-RAGE axis modulation, thus also affecting endothelial (dys)function.",signatures:"Ezequiel Alvarez, Beatriz Paradela-Dobarro, Mercedes González-\nPeteiro and José Ramón González-Juanatey",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58939",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58939",authors:[{id:"200771",title:"Dr.",name:"Ezequiel",surname:"Álvarez",slug:"ezequiel-alvarez",fullName:"Ezequiel Álvarez"},{id:"220873",title:"Ms.",name:"Beatriz",surname:"Paradela-Dobarro",slug:"beatriz-paradela-dobarro",fullName:"Beatriz Paradela-Dobarro"},{id:"220875",title:"Dr.",name:"Mercedes",surname:"González-Peteiro",slug:"mercedes-gonzalez-peteiro",fullName:"Mercedes González-Peteiro"},{id:"220876",title:"Prof.",name:"José R.",surname:"González-Juanatey",slug:"jose-r.-gonzalez-juanatey",fullName:"José R. González-Juanatey"}],corrections:null},{id:"61378",title:"Endothelial Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetes: Targeting Inflammation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76994",slug:"endothelial-dysfunction-in-type-2-diabetes-targeting-inflammation",totalDownloads:1956,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several experimental and clinical studies have indicated a prominent role of vascular inflammation in the development of endothelial dysfunction. In endothelial dysfunction, the endothelium loses its physiological features, decrements nitric oxide bioavailability, and shifts towards a vasoconstrictor, pro-thrombotic and pro-inflammatory state. Within arterial wall, the interplay between the pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidant milieus promotes vascular dysfunction, and perivascular adipose tissue seems to play an important role. Inflammation is now considered a key event in vascular dysfunction and the development of vascular disease associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes. This concept is supported by the fact that anti-inflammatory adipokines such as adiponectin protect endothelial function, and interventions resulting in reduced inflammation such as the administration of salicylates prevent vascular dysfunction and cardiovascular events. Thus, the aim of this review is to address the role of inflammation and its mechanisms in endothelial dysfunction associated with diabetes, describing the impact of these conditions on vascular function.",signatures:"Cristina M. Sena, Fernanda Carrilho and Raquel M. Seiça",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61378",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61378",authors:[{id:"33878",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",surname:"Sena",slug:"cristina-sena",fullName:"Cristina Sena"},{id:"45039",title:"Prof.",name:"Raquel",surname:"Seiça",slug:"raquel-seica",fullName:"Raquel Seiça"},{id:"219514",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",surname:"Carrilho",slug:"fernanda-carrilho",fullName:"Fernanda Carrilho"}],corrections:null},{id:"58606",title:"Angiogenesis in Adipose Tissue: How can Moderate Caloric Restriction Affects Obesity-Related Endothelial Dysfunction?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72624",slug:"angiogenesis-in-adipose-tissue-how-can-moderate-caloric-restriction-affects-obesity-related-endothel",totalDownloads:1152,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The plasticity of adipose tissue (AT) is related to its angiogenic ability. Angiogenesis is a multistep process which involves endothelial cell (EC) proliferation, migration, invasion and finally tube formation. AT as a secretory organ produces adipokines, which contributes to the development of subclinical inflammation. The inflammation-related adipokines deteriorate EC function and in consequence change the production of endothelial mediators responsible for vascular homeostasis and angiogenesis, leading to cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in obese patients. Additionally, the recent observation suggests that AT is poorly oxygenated in obesity. Hypoxia limits the healthy expansion of AT and stimulates a molecular response, enhancing nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-kB) and hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) expression. HIF-1α induction does not start a normal angiogenic process but rather induces inflammatory response and fibrosis that is strongly associated with insulin resistance (IR). It is believed that EC dysfunction in obesity can be reduced by caloric restriction (CR). Moderate CR reflects a real-life situation and could be optimal to achieve an EC improvement. It reduces adiposity leading to pro-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory and—to a lesser extent—anti-oxidative cellular effects, which not only preserves the healthy EC phenotype but also leads to an improvement of AT remodeling and prevent systemic IR.",signatures:"Katarzyna Korybalska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58606",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58606",authors:[{id:"209940",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Katarzyna",surname:"Korybalska",slug:"katarzyna-korybalska",fullName:"Katarzyna Korybalska"}],corrections:null},{id:"61198",title:"Pulmonary Vascular Endothelial Cells",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76995",slug:"pulmonary-vascular-endothelial-cells",totalDownloads:1533,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pulmonary vascular endothelial cells (ECs) line the surface of the lung vasculature and accommodate the various levels of blood flow. Pulmonary endothelium is a critical regulator of vascular homeostasis by inhibiting coagulation of the blood. The ECs bind tissue factor pathway inhibitors (TFPI), modulate hemostasis with opposing effects such as antiplatelet, anticoagulant and fibrinolytic properties. Lung endothelium regulates synthesis and metabolism of vasoactive compounds such as nitric oxide and endothelin-1, both potent regulators of vascular tone. Cytokines, chemokines, interleukins, adhesion molecules, and growth factors can be secreted by pulmonary ECs with positive and adverse effects. Pulmonary endothelium exhibits heterogeneity with diverse expression of molecules and specific differences in signaling induced by various infections such as Gram-positive bacteria. The distinction of macro or microvascular endothelium occurs from the larger vessels to small capillaries in the lung alveoli system. Lectin-binding patterns discriminate between pulmonary artery and pulmonary microvascular capillary endothelium. The lung is one of the body’s organs with the highest expression of vascular endothelial growth factor that stimulates small vessel formation of the microvascular endothelium. Acute respiratory distress syndrome and acute chest syndrome in sickle cell disease are two prototypes of devastating diseases caused by pulmonary EC dysfunction.",signatures:"Joyce N. Gonzales and Alexander D. Verin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61198",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61198",authors:[{id:"210624",title:"Dr.",name:"Joyce",surname:"Gonzales",slug:"joyce-gonzales",fullName:"Joyce Gonzales"}],corrections:null},{id:"59153",title:"Smoking, Respiratory Diseases and Endothelial Dysfunction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73555",slug:"smoking-respiratory-diseases-and-endothelial-dysfunction",totalDownloads:1109,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vascular endothelium actively participates in inflammatory reactions in the majority of chronic respiratory diseases. Smoking is a major risk factor for bronchopulmonary diseases, and it plays an important role in endothelial dysfunction development. Some experiments prove that aggressive pollutants of tobacco smoke (benzopyrene, peroxynitrite, acrolein, cyanides, peroxides, etc.) can cause direct damage to endothelial cells due to expression of adhesion molecules on their surface and intensification of lipid peroxidation. In turn, oxidized lipoproteins in the tunica intima of the vessel work as attractants for chemotaxis of leukocytes and monocytes that start to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines in big amounts. These processes trigger systemic inflammatory response that leads to irreversible thickening of the vessel walls and deterioration of their mechanical properties. Chronic exposure to tobacco smoke and the products of combustion of tobacco leads to chronic system inflammatory reaction, oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction and morpho-functional damage of target organs. Nowadays, the connection between chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and some cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases has been well established. Studying the mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction in brain blood vessels of patients with smoking habits and COPD can be very important for preventing acute vascular events.",signatures:"Vera Nevzorova, Tatiana Brodskaya and Natalia Zakharchuk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59153",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59153",authors:[{id:"73567",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatyana",surname:"Brodskaya",slug:"tatyana-brodskaya",fullName:"Tatyana Brodskaya"},{id:"209082",title:"Prof.",name:"Vera",surname:"Nevzorova",slug:"vera-nevzorova",fullName:"Vera Nevzorova"},{id:"209113",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Zakharchuk",slug:"natalia-zakharchuk",fullName:"Natalia Zakharchuk"}],corrections:null},{id:"58245",title:"Vascular Sympathetic Neurotransmission and Endothelial Dysfunction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72442",slug:"vascular-sympathetic-neurotransmission-and-endothelial-dysfunction",totalDownloads:959,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Endothelium is an important regulator of vascular tone via release of various endothelium-derived substances. Several studies have reported that endothelium may decrease the release of noradrenaline from vascular postganglionic sympathetic nerves and thus neurogenic vasoconstriction. Endothelium derived-mediators (adenosine and NO) can modify vascular sympathetic neurotransmission and are relevant for vascular homeostasis. This is a relevant issue in terms of vascular homeostasis and, any modification, may lead to a deregulation process and to pathologies. Focus on NO-mediated effects on vascular sympathetic transmission will be done, discriminating the effects ascribed to NO generated by NO synthases located in the different vascular layers. A comparison between mesenteric/tail arteries will also be explored, particularly the relevance of the transsynaptic modulation on noradrenaline release mediated by endothelial NO and adenosine in normotensive/hypertensive vascular tissues. Adenosinergic system, namely adenosine, nucleoside transporters and adenosine receptors, can be influenced by endothelium mediators, namely by NO, causing alterations on the way these players interact with each other. In conditions where endothelium is compromised, a deregulation occurs with an increase in vascular sympathetic neurotransmission (as a consequence of adenosinergic system dynamic alteration). In summary, the impact of endothelial dysfunction on vascular neurotransmission is debated with particular focus on adenosinergic and nitroxidergic system dynamics.",signatures:"Joana Sousa and Carmen Diniz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58245",authors:[{id:"117816",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",surname:"Diniz",slug:"carmen-diniz",fullName:"Carmen Diniz"},{id:"117822",title:"Prof.",name:"Joana",surname:"Sousa",slug:"joana-sousa",fullName:"Joana Sousa"}],corrections:null},{id:"58583",title:"Endothelial Cell Dysfunction in HIV-1 Infection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73023",slug:"endothelial-cell-dysfunction-in-hiv-1-infection",totalDownloads:965,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) promotes a generalized immune activation that alters the physiology of cells that are not sensitive to viral infection. Endothelial cells (ECs) display heavy dysfunctions in HIV-1-seropositive (HIV+) patients that persist even in patients under successful combined antiretroviral therapy (cART). In vivo studies failed to demonstrate the presence of replicating virus in ECs suggesting that a direct role of the virus in vascular dysfunction is unlikely. This finding paves the way to the hypothesis of a key role of molecules released in the microenvironment by HIV-1-infected cells in sustaining aberrant EC function. Here we review the current understanding regarding the contribution of HIV-1 infection to vascular dysfunction. In particular, we argue that different HIV-1 proteins may play a key role in driving and sustaining inflammation and EC dysregulation, thus underlining the need to target them for therapeutic benefit.",signatures:"Pietro Mazzuca, Arnaldo Caruso and Francesca Caccuri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58583",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58583",authors:[{id:"209939",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Caccuri",slug:"francesca-caccuri",fullName:"Francesca Caccuri"},{id:"210438",title:"Dr.",name:"Pietro",surname:"Mazzuca",slug:"pietro-mazzuca",fullName:"Pietro Mazzuca"},{id:"210439",title:"Prof.",name:"Arnaldo",surname:"Caruso",slug:"arnaldo-caruso",fullName:"Arnaldo Caruso"}],corrections:null},{id:"58273",title:"Selected Endothelial Responses after Ionizing Radiation Exposure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72386",slug:"selected-endothelial-responses-after-ionizing-radiation-exposure",totalDownloads:1131,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Along with the development of novel chemotherapeutic agents, radiation therapy has revolutionized the prognosis of patients with various cancers. However, with a longer life expectancy, radiation treatment-related comorbidity, like cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), becomes an issue for cancer survivors. In addition, exposure to X-rays for medical diagnostics is dramatically increasing at the present times. A pressing question is whether or not exposure to these very low doses can cause health damage. Below 0.5 gray (Gy), an increased risk cannot be evidenced by epidemiology alone, and in vitro and in vivo mechanistic studies focused on the elucidation of molecular signaling pathways are needed. Given the critical role of the endothelium in normal vascular functions, a complete understanding of radiation-induced endothelial dysfunction is crucial. In this way, the current radiation protection system could be refined if needed, making it possible to more accurately assess the cardiovascular risk in the low-dose region. Finally, radiation-induced CVD, like CVD in general, is a progressive disorder that may take years to decades to manifest. Therefore, experimental studies are warranted to fulfill the urgent need to identify noninvasive biomarkers for an early detection and potential interventions—together with a healthy lifestyle—that may prevent or mitigate these adverse effects.",signatures:"Bjorn Baselet, Raghda Ramadan, Abderrafi Mohammed\nBenotmane, Pierre Sonveaux, Sarah Baatout and An Aerts",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58273",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58273",authors:[{id:"51589",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",surname:"Sonveaux",slug:"pierre-sonveaux",fullName:"Pierre Sonveaux"},{id:"210638",title:"Dr.",name:"An",surname:"Aerts",slug:"an-aerts",fullName:"An Aerts"},{id:"210641",title:"MSc.",name:"Bjorn",surname:"Baselet",slug:"bjorn-baselet",fullName:"Bjorn Baselet"},{id:"210642",title:"MSc.",name:"Raghda",surname:"Ramadan",slug:"raghda-ramadan",fullName:"Raghda Ramadan"},{id:"210644",title:"Dr.",name:"Abderrafi Mohammed",surname:"Benotmane",slug:"abderrafi-mohammed-benotmane",fullName:"Abderrafi Mohammed Benotmane"},{id:"210645",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarah",surname:"Baatout",slug:"sarah-baatout",fullName:"Sarah Baatout"}],corrections:null},{id:"60875",title:"The Markers of Endothelial Activation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74671",slug:"the-markers-of-endothelial-activation",totalDownloads:1670,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomarkers are biological indicators of processes that are part of ethiopathogenesis of the diseases, and can, but do not have to be causal to diseases. One very important question is how specific and sensitive the marker is, since one molecule can appear in many conditions. Biomarkers of endothelial cell activation can be very diverse, from biochemical/metabolic to functional biomarkers. Activation of endothelial cells is part of physiological as well as pathophysiological response of cardiovascular system in conditions as physical activity, growth, pregnancy and in all cardiometabolic diseases (e.g., hypertension, diabetes mellitus, autoimmune inflammatory diseases, coronary artery disease, atherosclerosis, ischemia and reperfusion, etc.). During activation, there is a change in endothelial cell morphology and function, which could be a defensive response of endothelium to provoking factor or could lead to increased risk for the injury and end organ damage. This chapter aims to overview current knowledge on established biomarkers of normal and disease-related endothelial activation and to provide information on novel, potential biomarkers in common cardiometabolic diseases.",signatures:"Ines Drenjancevic, Ivana Jukic, Ana Stupin, Anita Cosic, Marko\nStupin and Kristina Selthofer-Relatic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60875",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60875",authors:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević"},{id:"186049",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana",surname:"Stupin",slug:"ana-stupin",fullName:"Ana Stupin"},{id:"216257",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana",surname:"Jukić",slug:"ivana-jukic",fullName:"Ivana Jukić"},{id:"216259",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",surname:"Ćosić",slug:"anita-cosic",fullName:"Anita Ćosić"},{id:"216262",title:"Prof.",name:"Martina",surname:"Mihalj",slug:"martina-mihalj",fullName:"Martina Mihalj"},{id:"216263",title:"Mr.",name:"Marko",surname:"Stupin",slug:"marko-stupin",fullName:"Marko Stupin"},{id:"216264",title:"Prof.",name:"Kristina",surname:"Selthofer-Relatic",slug:"kristina-selthofer-relatic",fullName:"Kristina Selthofer-Relatic"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5281",title:"Microcirculation Revisited",subtitle:"From Molecules to Clinical Practice",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7f470d69a6403e887b362de09d244f73",slug:"microcirculation-revisited-from-molecules-to-clinical-practice",bookSignature:"Helena Lenasi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5281.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68746",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",surname:"Lenasi",slug:"helena-lenasi",fullName:"Helena Lenasi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6373",title:"Myocardial Infarction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10bca0bf18d68ec3c1641dbc3a1ae899",slug:"myocardial-infarction",bookSignature:"Burak Pamukçu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70686",title:"Dr.",name:"Burak",surname:"Pamukçu",slug:"burak-pamukcu",fullName:"Burak Pamukçu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7556",title:"Dyslipidemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dfd1faefe925f0f8335c42cdb36256c1",slug:"dyslipidemia",bookSignature:"Samy I. McFarlane",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7556.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"53477",title:null,name:"Samy I.",surname:"McFarlane",slug:"samy-i.-mcfarlane",fullName:"Samy I. McFarlane"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6777",title:"Advances in Extra-corporeal Perfusion Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1e52fb6e834ada962495c512111f684e",slug:"advances-in-extra-corporeal-perfusion-therapies",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6777.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael S.",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7842",title:"Basic and Clinical Understanding of Microcirculation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a57d5a701b51d9c8e17b1c80bc0d52e5",slug:"basic-and-clinical-understanding-of-microcirculation",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad, Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi and Nazar Luqman Bilgrami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7842.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6752",title:"Cholesterol",subtitle:"Good, Bad and the Heart",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"599b1f8bc760449a4ee6ecd816a1df93",slug:"cholesterol-good-bad-and-the-heart",bookSignature:"Madan L. Nagpal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6752.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182681",title:"Dr.",name:"Madan L.",surname:"Nagpal",slug:"madan-l.-nagpal",fullName:"Madan L. Nagpal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6158",title:"Atherosclerosis",subtitle:"Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b4e6172f3280b85d9db8a3d88e1a1eeb",slug:"atherosclerosis-yesterday-today-and-tomorrow",bookSignature:"Luigi Gianturco",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"208539",title:"Dr.",name:"Luigi",surname:"Gianturco",slug:"luigi-gianturco",fullName:"Luigi Gianturco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6311",title:"Blood Pressure",subtitle:"From Bench to Bed",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e393b1d66ff57ba49a6e00a6f50714d",slug:"blood-pressure-from-bench-to-bed",bookSignature:"Aise Seda Artis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6311.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99453",title:"Dr.",name:"Aise Seda",surname:"Artis",slug:"aise-seda-artis",fullName:"Aise Seda Artis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8204",title:"Vascular Malformations of the Central Nervous System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b6a8a26a78af3ac73731663a494fbad",slug:"vascular-malformations-of-the-central-nervous-system",bookSignature:"Bora Gürer and Pinar Kuru Bektaşoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8204.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95341",title:"Prof.",name:"Bora",surname:"Gürer",slug:"bora-gurer",fullName:"Bora Gürer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8629",title:"Visions of Cardiomyocyte",subtitle:"Fundamental Concepts of Heart Life and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1cae2b319d6f3c230849834f10715701",slug:"visions-of-cardiomyocyte-fundamental-concepts-of-heart-life-and-disease",bookSignature:"Angelos Tsipis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77462",title:"Dr.",name:"Angelos",surname:"Tsipis",slug:"angelos-tsipis",fullName:"Angelos Tsipis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"correction-to-chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",title:"Correction to: Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57158.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57158",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57158",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57158",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57158",chapter:{id:"54028",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",dateSubmitted:"June 7th 2016",dateReviewed:"December 19th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 15th 2017",book:{id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",email:"fatiha.brahmi@univ-bejaia.dz",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Béjaïa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",email:"madani28dz@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",email:"pduez@umons.be",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",email:"chibanem@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"54028",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",dateSubmitted:"June 7th 2016",dateReviewed:"December 19th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 15th 2017",book:{id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",email:"fatiha.brahmi@univ-bejaia.dz",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Béjaïa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",email:"madani28dz@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",email:"pduez@umons.be",position:null,institution:null},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",email:"chibanem@yahoo.fr",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",publishedDate:"March 15th 2017",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5612.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11520",leadTitle:null,title:"Direct Torque Control",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tAs the modern electromechanical drive systems are composed fundamentally of electrical machines, transformers, power electronic converters, sensors or observers, and management, supervision, and control methods, this book will be divided, and not limited, into three sections. This book will be the results of the contributions and scientific developments of many researches, which are in the majority focalized around the torque and speed control. Any research work related to new techniques and intelligent methods of torque control in various applications finds its natural place in this book. Priority will be given to research work with experimental validation and/or with the development of fundamental and original control techniques and methods. The first section will concern the research’s work devoted to developing optimal and intelligent techniques of speed and torque control. The second part relates to generators control systems used in various applications such as renewable energies, electric/hybrid vehicles, embedded systems, multi-sources systems, etc. The last part will cover the torque control for special machines used in various fields as well as computational tools and methods based on the reduction and the elimination of machine faults and noises, etc.
\r\n\t
Waste generated by health care activities includes a broad range of materials, from used needles and syringes to soiled dressings, body parts, diagnostic samples, blood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical devices and radioactive materials (WHO, 2011).
\nPoor management of health care waste potentially exposes health care workers, waste handlers, patients and the community at large to infection, toxic effects and injuries, and risks polluting the environment. It is essential that all medical waste materials are segregated at the point of generation, appropriately treated and disposed of safely(WHO, 2011). Healthcare waste (HCW) is a by-product of healthcare that includes sharps, non-sharps, blood, body parts, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, medical devices and radioactive materials.
\nWHO Programme activities include developing technical guidance materials for assessing the quantities and types of waste produced in different facilities, creating national action plans, developing national healthcare waste management (HCWM) guidelines and building capacity at national level to enhance the way HCW is dealt with in low-income countries (LICs).
\nClassification of Health Care wastes shows that
\nOf the total amount of waste generated by health-care activities, about 80% is general waste.
The remaining 20% is considered hazardous material that may be infectious, toxic or radioactive.
Every year an estimated 16 000 million injections are administered worldwide, but not all of the needles and syringes are properly disposed of afterwards.
Health-care waste contains potentially harmful micro organisms which can infect hospital patients, health-care workers and the general public.
Health-care activities protect and restore health and save lives. But what about the wastes and by-products they generate
\n\n
Waste and by-products cover a diverse range of materials, as the following list illustrates (percentages are approximate values):
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
The type of radioactive material used in HCF results in low level radioactive waste. It concerns mainly therapeutic and imaging investigation activities where Cobalt 60Co, Technetium 99mTc, Iodine 131I and Iridium 192Ir are most commonly used.
\nWith the noticeable exception of Cobalt 60Co, their half-life is reasonably short (6 hours for 99mTc, 8 days for 131I and 74 days for 192Ir) and the concentrations used remain low. A proper storage with an appropriate retention time is sufficient to prevent radioactivity spillage in the environment.
\nInfectious and anatomic wastes together represent the majority of the hazardous waste, up to 15% of the total waste from health-care activities. Sharps represent about 1% of the total waste but they are a major source of disease transmission if not properly managed. Chemicals and pharmaceuticals account for about 3% of waste from health-care activities while genotoxic waste, radioactive matter and heavy metal content account for around 1% of the total health-care waste.
\nThe major sources of health-care waste are:
\nhospitals and other health-care establishments
laboratories and research centres
mortuary and autopsy centres
animal research and testing laboratories
blood banks and collection services
Nursing homes for the elderly.
High-income countries generate on average up to 0.5 kg of hazardous waste per bed per day; while low-income countries generate on average 0.2 kg of hazardous waste per hospital bed per day. However, health-care waste is often not separated into hazardous or non-hazardous wastes in low-income countries making the real quantity of hazardous waste much higher.
\n\n
\n
Health-care waste contains potentially harmful micro-organisms which can infect hospital patients, health-care workers and the general public. Other potential infectious risks may include the spread of drug-resistant micro-organisms from health-care establishments into the environment.
\nWaste and by-products can also cause injuries, for example:
\nradiation burns;
sharps-inflicted injuries;
poisoning and pollution through the release of pharmaceutical products, in particular, antibiotics and cytotoxic drugs;
poisoning and pollution through waste water; and
Poisoning and pollution by toxic elements or compounds, such as mercury or dioxins that are released during incineration.
\n
WHO estimates that, in 2000, injections with contaminated syringes caused 21 million hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections, two million hepatitis C virus infections and 260 000 HIV infections worldwide. Many of these infections were avoidable if the syringes had been disposed of safely. The re-use of disposable syringes and needles for injections is particularly common in certain African, Asian and Central and Eastern European countries.
\nIn developing countries, additional hazards occur from scavenging at waste disposal sites and the manual sorting of hazardous waste from health-care establishments. These practices are common in many regions of the world. The waste handlers are at immediate risk of needle-stick injuries and exposure to toxic or infectious materials.
\n\n
In June 2000 six children were diagnosed with a mild form of smallpox (vaccinia virus) after having played with glass ampoules containing expired smallpox vaccine at a garbage dump in Vladivostok (Russia). Although the infections were not life-threatening, the vaccine ampoules should have been treated before being discarded.
\n\n
The use of radiation sources in medical and other applications is widespread throughout the world. Occasionally, the public is exposed to radioactive waste, which originates from radiotherapy treatment, which has not been disposed of properly. Serious accidents have been documented in Brazil in 1988 (where four people died and 28 had serious radiation burns), Mexico and Morocco in 1983, Algeria in 1978 and Mexico in 1962.
\nBoxes for sharps disposal (AIHPPRP, 2007)
Risks associated with other types of health-care waste, in particular blood waste and chemicals, may be significant but have not been fully assessed. In the meantime, precautionary measures should be taken.
\n\n
Although treatment and disposal of health-care waste reduces risks, indirect health risks may occur through the release of toxic pollutants into the environment through treatment or disposal.
\nLandfills can contaminate drinking-water if they are not properly constructed. Occupational risks exist at disposal facilities that are not well designed, run, or maintained.
Incineration of waste has been widely practised but inadequate incineration or the incineration of unsuitable materials results in the release of pollutants into the air and of ash residue. Incinerated materials containing chlorine can generate dioxins and furans, which are human carcinogens and have been associated with a range of adverse health effects. Incineration of heavy metals or materials with high metal content (in particular lead, mercury and cadmium) can lead to the spread of toxic metals in the environment. Dioxins, furans and metals are persistent and bio-accumulate in the environment. Materials containing chlorine or metal should therefore not be incinerated.
Only modern incinerators operating at 850-1100 °C and fitted with special gas-cleaning equipment are able to comply with the international emission standards for dioxins and furans.
Alternatives to incineration are now available, such as autoclaving, microwaving, steam treatment integrated with internal mixing, and chemical treatment.
\n\n
Lack of awareness about the health hazards related to health-care waste, inadequate training in proper waste management, absence of waste management and disposal systems, insufficient financial and human resources and the low priority given to the topic are the most common problems connected with health-care waste. Many countries either do not have appropriate regulations, or do not enforce them. An essential issue is the clear attribution of responsibility for the handling and disposal of waste. According to the \'polluter pays\' principle, the responsibility lies with the waste producer, usually the health-care provider, or the establishment involved in related activities. To achieve the safe and sustainable management of health-care waste, financial analyses should include all the costs of disposal.
\n\n
Improvements in health-care waste management rely on the following key elements:
\nbuilding a comprehensive system, addressing responsibilities, resource allocation, handling and disposal. This is a long-term process, sustained by gradual improvements;
raising awareness of the risks related to health-care waste, and of safe and sound practices;
selecting safe and environmentally-friendly management options, to protect people from hazards when collecting, handling, storing, transporting, treating or disposing of waste.
Government commitment and support is needed for universal, long-term improvement, although immediate action can be taken locally.
\n\n
The first global and comprehensive guidance document,
It is aimed at managers of hospitals and other health-care establishments, policy makers, public health professionals and managers involved in waste management. It is accompanied by a
Additionally, WHO guidance documents on health-care waste are now available including:
\na monitoring tool
a cost assessment tool
a rapid assessment tool
a policy paper
guidance to develop national plans
management of waste from injection activities
management of waste at primary health care centres
management of waste from mass immunization activities
Management of waste in emergencies.
Poor management of health care waste potentially exposes health care workers, waste handlers, patients and the community at large to infection, toxic effects and injuries, and risks polluting the environment. It is essential that all medical waste materials are segregated at the point of generation, appropriately treated and disposed of safely.
\nHowever in most countries including Nigeria, such wastes are not given appropriate treatment, thus it is impacting negatively on the environment.
\nIn Europe, wastes are defined by their European Waste Catalogue (EWC) Codes. EWC Codes are 6 digits long, with the first two digits defining the overarching category of waste, the next two defining the sub-category, and the last two defining the precise waste stream. Clinical waste comes under the "18" codes, for example: "18 01 01" corresponds to healthcare waste (18), from humans (01), that is sharp and not infectious [01].
\n\n
In the UK, clinical waste and the way it is to be handled is closely regulated Applicable legislation includes the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (Part II), Waste Management Licencing Regulations 1994, and the Hazardous Waste Regulations (England & Wales) 2005, as well as the Special Waste Regulations in Scotland.
\n\n
In 1988 the Federal government passed The Medical Waste Tracking Act which set the standards for governmental regulation of medical waste. After the Act was repealed in 1991, States were given the responsibility to regulate and pass laws concerning the disposal of medical waste. All fifty states vary in their regulations from no regulations to very strict. Disposal of this waste is an environmental concern, as many medical wastes are classified as
In the United States, there are three main methods for medical waste generators to dispose of their waste: On-site, truck service, and mail-back disposal. On-site treatment involves the use of very expensive equipment, and is generally only used by very large hospitals and major universities who have the means to afford such equipment. Truck service involves hiring of a medical waste disposal service whose employees are trained to collect and haul away medical waste in special containers (usually cardboard boxes, or reusable plastic bins) for treatment at a facility designed to handle large amounts of medical waste. Mail-back medical waste disposal is similar, except that the waste is shipped through the U.S. postal service instead of by private hauler. Although currently available in all 50 U.S. states, mail-back medical waste disposal is limited to very strict postal regulations (collection and shipping containers must be approved by the postal service for use) and only available by a handful of companies.
\nIn developing countries like Nigeria, where many health concerns are competing for limited resources, it is not surprising that the management of healthcare wastes has received less attention and the priority it deserves (Abah and Ohimain, 2010). Unfortunately, practical information on this important aspect of healthcare management is inadequate and research on the public health implications of inadequate management of healthcare wastes are few and limited in scope (Abah and Ohimain, 2010). Although reliable records of the quantity and nature of healthcare wastes and the management techniques to adequately dispose of these wastes has remained a challenge in many developing countries of the world, it is believed that several hundreds of tones of healthcare waste are deposited openly in waste dumps and surrounding environments, often alongside with non hazardous solid waste (Alagoz and Kocasay, 2007; Abah and Ohimain, 2010).
\nA near total absence of institutional arrangements for HCW in Nigeria has been reported by others (Coker et al., 1998). Various methodologies have been used all over the world to assess and quantify HCW. They include the use of physical observation, questionnaire administration and quantification (Adegbita et al., 2010; Olubukola, 2009; Phengxay et al., 2005), as well as checklists (Townend and Cheeseman, 2005) and private and public records (Coker et al., 2009). Recent studies in Nigeria has estimated waste generation of between 0.562 to 0.670 kg/bed/day (Abah and Ohimain, 2011) and as high as 1.68 kg/bed/day (Abah and Ohimain, 2011). As reported in the literature, there may not be much of a difference in the way and manner wastes generated in various health care institutions are managed in Nigeria. A good example is given by the findings of the study in Lagos by Olubukola which reported the similarity in waste data and HCW management practices in two General hospitals, characterized by a lack of waste minimization or waste reduction strategies, poor waste segregation practices, lack of instructive posters on waste segregation and disposal of HCW with general waste (Olubukola, 2009). The mismanagement of healthcare waste poses health risks to people and the environment by contaminating the air, soil and water resources. Hospitals and healthcare units are supposed to safeguard the health of the community. However, healthcare wastes if not properly managed can pose an even greater threat than the original diseases themselves (PATH, 2009).
\nA study of Health Care Waste management in Jos Metropolis, Nigeria has demonstrated that the waste management options in the hospitals did not meet the standard practices (Ngwuluka et al., 2009). Waste management with safe and environmentally sound methods cannot be over-emphasized. The hospital management board and the hospitals should make a conscious and deliberate effort to ensure they do not contribute to the present and future threats to human health and the environment by poor waste management practices. In order to execute standard waste management, an understudy of a healthcare establishment with standard waste management practices in or outside the country may be the first practical step to undertake (Ngwuluka et al., 2009). A waste management team should be constituted which will prepare waste management plan, policy documents and technical guidelines and in addition supervise waste management activities (Ngwuluka et al., 2009).
\nIn another study in Port-Harcourt metropolis, Nigeria carried out to assess hospitals waste management practice (Ogbonna, 2011). The study enquired into waste generation rates and various waste disposal options by different categories of hospital. It was further evident in this study that hospital waste management issues and problems are not peculiar to Port Harcourt metropolis alone. Solid waste disposal methods indicated that open dump sites is most preferred while incineration was non existent in the hospitals, clinics. Most other hospitals do not segregate wastes into marked or colour coded containers for the different waste streams neither do they keep records of waste generation and disposal (Ogbonna, 2011). In addition, the survey revealed that both hospital waste generators and handlers treat hospital wastes as a usual domestic waste (Ogbonna, 2011).
\nDomestic Waste Dump Site at LSUTH-Ayinke House (AIHPPRP, 2007)
Therefore disposal of ashes containing toxic metals from Hospital waste incineration can be done through solidification-stabilization of fly and bottom ash with cement because it appears to be the best method to render ash less toxic. Similarly, the concentration of toxic heavy metals in the ash of hospital waste incinerator can be avoided to some extent through segregation of the waste prior to incineration. Lack of relevant training and protective equipment for waste handlers was a common feature in the survey. Generally, Port Harcourt, as a fast growing city in Nigeria, like most developing countries, lacked the infrastructure, as well as institutional capacity necessary to effectively manage medical wastes as part of the effort to enhance protection of human life and the environment from health hazards arising from improper management of hazardous waste (Ogbonna, 2011).
\nIt was further observed that open dump sites are not even engineered or treated, thus expose the entire public to risks of infection. Ogbonna (2011) reported that except for the oil company clinics such as the SPDC, all the other hospitals sampled do not have any unit or department responsible for waste management. Knowledge, attitude and practices towards environmental issues are relatively low among the various actors in the tasks of hospital waste management.
\nTemporary storage area at NOH, Igbobi (AIHPPRP, 2007)
The following groups of persons are at the risk of health care waste Medical staff: doctors, nurses, sanitary staff and hospital maintenance personnel; In and out-patients receiving treatment in healthcare facilities as well as their visitors. Workers in support services linked to healthcare facilities such as laundries, waste handling and transportation services; Workers in waste disposal facilities and the general public. Presence of various microorganisms such as pathogenic viruses and bacteria have been investigated by both cultivation and by (RT)-PCR assays. A number of (opportunistic) pathogenic bacteria, including
Health service waste gives rise to controversy regarding its importance for human, animal and environmental health (Nascimento et al., 2009). Occurrences of clinically relevant bacteria in piles of health service waste in a sanitary landfill and their antimicrobial susceptibility profile have been previously studied by Nascimento et al., 2009. Nascimento et al., 2009 reported that aliquots of leachate from health care waste in Brazil contained pathogenic strains of
\n | \n \n | \n \n | \n
1 | \nBacterial | \nTetanus, gas gangrene and other wound infection, anthrax, cholera, other diarrhoeal diseases, enteric fever, shigellosis, plague etc | \n
2 | \nViral | \nVarious hepatitis, poliomyelitis, HIV-infections, HBV, TB, STD rabies etc. | \n
3 | \nParasitic | \nAmoebiasis, Giardiasis, Ascariasis, Ancylomastomiasis, Taeniasis, Echinococcosis, Malaria, Leishmaniasis, Filariasis etc. | \n
4 | \nFungal infections | \nVarious fungal infections like Candidiasis, cryptococcoses, coccidiodomycosis etc. | \n
Microbial diseases associated with health care waste (Akter, 2010)
Transmission of disease through infectious waste is the greatest and most immediate threat from healthcare waste.
\nIf waste is not treated in a way that destroys the pathogenic organisms, dangerous quantities of microscopic disease-causing agents—viruses, bacteria, parasites or fungi—will be present in the waste. These agents can enter the body through punctures and other breaks in the skin, mucous membranes in the mouth, by being inhaled into the lungs, being swallowed, or being transmitted by a vector organism (World Health Organization, 1992).People who come in direct contact with the waste are at greatest risk. Examples include healthcare workers, cleaning staff, patients, visitors, waste collectors, disposal site staff, waste pickers, drug addicts and those who knowingly or unknowingly use “recycled” contaminated syringes and needles. Although sharps pose an inherent physical hazard of cuts and punctures, the much greater threat comes from sharps that are also infectious waste. Again, healthcare workers, waste handlers, waste pickers, drug addicts and others who handle sharps can, and have, become infected with HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B and C viruses through pricks or reuse of syringes/needles. These infections may be fatal (Johannessen, 2000). Contamination of water supply from untreated healthcare waste can also have devastating effects. If infectious stools or bodily fluids are not treated before being disposed of, they can create and extend epidemics, since sewage treatment in Africa is almost nonexistent.
\nFor example, the absence of proper sterilization procedures is believed to have increased the severity and size of cholera epidemics in most parts of Africa during the last decade.
\n\n
Chemical and pharmaceutical wastes, especially large quantities, can be health and environmental threats. Since hazardous chemical wastes may be toxic, corrosive, flammable, reactive, and/or explosive, they can poison, burn or damage the skin and flesh of people who touch, inhale or are in close proximity to them. If burned, they may explode or produce toxic fumes. Some pharmaceuticals are toxic as well (Johannessen, 2000).
\nWhen chemical and pharmaceutical waste is disposed of in unlined landfills, especially unlined pits, these wastes may contaminate ground and surface water—particularly when large quantities are disposed of. This can threaten people who use the water for drinking, bathing and cooking, and damaging plants and animals in the local ecosystem. Burning or incinerating healthcare waste, while often a better option than disposal in an unlined pit, may create additional problems. Burning or incineration of healthcare waste may produce toxic air pollutants such as Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), particulates, dioxins and heavy metals and distribute them over a wide area. Dioxins and heavy metals are of particular concern (Prüss and Townend, 1998). Dioxins believed to be potent cancer-causing agents, do not biodegrade, and accumulate in progressively higher concentrations as they move up the food chain (WHO, 1999).
\nHeavy metals such as mercury and cadmium are toxic and/or cause birth defects in small quantities and can also concentrate in the food chain.
\nDisposable pressurized containers pose another hazard for incineration, as they can explode if burned.
\nIn fact, disposal of large quantities of hazardous chemicals and pharmaceuticals is a serious problem. In most of Africa, no methods are available to small-scale facilities that are safe and affordable (Prüss and Townend, 1998).
\nImprovised incinerator at UCH, Ibadan
Medical waste storage area at LUTH, Lagos, Nigeria without proper symbols to differentiate wstes into categories (AIHPPRP, 2007)
\n
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is resistance of a microorganism to an antimicrobial medicine to which it was previously sensitive. Resistant organisms (they include bacteria, viruses and some parasites) are able to withstand attack by antimicrobial medicines, such as antibiotics, antivirals, and anti-malarials, so that standard treatments become ineffective and infections persist and may spread to others. AMR is a consequence of the use, particularly the misuse, of antimicrobial medicines and develops when a microorganism mutates or acquires a resistance gene (WHO, 2012). In places like Nigeria most families become financially distressed after hospitalization of members of their families. Many infectious diseases risk becoming uncontrollable and could derail the progress made towards reaching the targets of the health-related United Nations Millennium Development Goals set for 2015. When infections become resistant to first-line medicines, more expensive therapies must be used. The longer duration of illness and treatment, often in hospitals, increases health-care costs and the financial burden to families and societies (WHO, 2012). Multidrug resistance is described as a phenomenon where a microbial pathogen resists at least three groups of antibiotics (CDC, 2005). Healthcare liquid wastes are the reservoirs of harmful infectious agents such as the pathogens and multiple drug resistant microorganisms (Sharma et al., 2010). Potential infectious risks include the spread of infectious diseases and microbial resistance from health-care establishments into the environment and thereby posing risks of getting infections and antibiotic resistance in the communities (Sharma et al., 2010).
\nTherefore, even if the hospitals are discharging their healthcare liquid waste into Sewage system, it is mixed with the sewage and gets in surface water without proper treatment. If the hospital effluents are not treated, concentrated forms of infectious agents and antibiotic resistant microbes are shed into communities resulting in water borne diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery and gastroenteritis. Antibiotics, disinfectants and bacteria resistant to them have been detected in the environmental compartments such as waste water, surface water, ground water, sediments and soils (Kummerer, 2004). Studies have discovered trace level concentrations of antibiotics in waste water treatment plant effluents and surface waters (Kolpin et al, 2002). Long term exposure of microorganisms to low concentrations of antibiotics in wastewater and surface water has the potential for the development of antibiotic resistance in these organisms (Smith
The concerns about antimicrobial resistance are increasing. In a report by the United Kingdom, House of Lords, it is stated that the resistance to antibiotics and other anti-infective agents constitutes a major threat to public health and ought to be recognized (HLSCST, 1998). Input of resistant bacteria as well as of antibiotics can disturb the established well balanced and important interdependencies (Hiraishi, 1998). The input of resistant bacteria into the environment seems to be an important source of resistance in the environment.
\nTherefore, the development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria and their dissemination in the environment is of serious public health concern because an individual patient can develop an antibiotic resistant infection by contacting a resistant organism and spread in the communities. Hospitals and public health care units must safeguard the health of the community. However, the waste produced by the health care centres if disposed of improperly, can pose an even greater threat than the original diseases themselves due to the presence of concentrated forms of numerous risks including pathogenic and antibiotic resistant microorganisms (Sharma et al., 2010).
\nIn Nepal, where several thousand die due to infectious diseases and several more, losing quality of lives, untreated hospital liquid waste discharge into surface water directly or indirectly must have been adding more problems. It is our common observation that majority of the healthcare facilities do not practice safe healthcare liquid waste treatment and disposal.
\n\n
This convention is a global agreement, ratified by some 178 member countries to address the problems and challenges posed by hazardous waste. Nigeria is a signatory to this convention.
\nThe Secretariat, based in Geneva (Switzerland) is administered by UNEP. It facilitates the implementation of the Convention and related agreements. It also provides assistance and guidelines on legal and technical issues and conducts training on the proper management of hazardous waste.
\nThe key objectives of the Basel Convention are:
\nto minimize the generation of hazardous wastes in terms of quantity and hazardousness;
to dispose of them as close to the source of generation as possible;
to reduce the movement of hazardous wastes.
A central goal of the Basel Convention is “environmentally sound management” (ESM), the aim of which is to protect human health and the environment by minimizing hazardous waste production whenever possible. ESM means addressing the issue through an “integrated life-cycle approach”, which involves strong controls from the generation of a hazardous waste to its storage, transport, treatment, reuse, recycling, recovery and final disposal. Health Care Related Wastes (HCRW) is one of the
The
Parties at its sixth meeting in December 2002 adopted a Strategic Plan for the implementation of the Basel Declaration to 2010 building on and using the framework of the 1999 Ministerial Basel Declaration on Environmentally Sound Management. The
\n
This Convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs). POPs are chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of living organisms and are toxic to humans and wildlife. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) circulate globally and can cause damage wherever they travel. In implementing the Convention, Governments will take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment. The countries that have signed these conventions are Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Bosnia, and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei, Darussalam, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Cape Verde, Central African Rep, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Comoros, Congo, Costa Rica, Cote d\'Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba Cyprus, Czech Republic, Dem. Rep. of Korea, Dem. Rep. of the Congo, Denmark, Niger, Nigeria and many more other countries.
\n\n
\n
\n
The
\n
\n
1. Duty of care principle
\nThis principle stipulates that any organisation that generates waste has a
2. Polluter pays principle
\nAccording to this principle all
3. Precautionary principle
\nFollowing this principle
4. Proximity principle
\nThis principle recommends that
Five fundamental principles for handling health care wastes
\nThese principles include Minimization and Recycling, Sorting receptacles and handling, Collection and Storage, Transportation, and Treatment and Disposal (ICRC, 2011).
\n\n
The reduction of waste generation must be encouraged by the following practices: Reducing the amount of waste at source, Choosing products that generate less waste: less wrapping material, for example, Choosing suppliers who take back empty containers for refilling (cleaning products); returning gas cylinders to the supplier for refilling, Preventing wastage: in the course of care, for example, or of cleaning activities, Choosing equipment that can be reused such as tableware that can be washed rather than disposable tableware (Bassey et al., 2006; ICRC, 2011).
\n\n
Sorting consists of clearly identifying the various types of waste and how they can be collected separately. There are two important principles that must be followed. The simplest way to identify the different types of waste and to encourage people to sort them is to collect the various types of waste in separate containers or plastic bags that are colour-coded and/or marked with a symbol (ICRC, 2011).
\nWaste sorting must always be the responsibility of the entity that produces them. It must be done as close as possible to the site where the wastes are produced. There is no point in sorting wastes that undergo the same treatment process, with the exception of sharps, which must at all times be separated at source from other wastes (Longe and Williams, 2006).
\n\n
Waste must be collected regularly - at least once a day. It must never be allowed to accumulate where it is produced. A daily collection programme and collection round must be planned. Each type of waste must be collected and stored separately with different known signs on the containers (Longe and Williams, 2006).
\nInfectious wastes must never be stored in places that are open to the public.
\nThe personnel in charge of collecting and transporting wastes must be informed to collect only those yellow bags and sharps containers which the care staff have closed. They must wear gloves. The bags that have been collected must be replaced immediately with new bags (Longe and Williams, 2006).
\n\n
This means of conveyance must meet the following requirements: they must be easy to load and unload; they must not have any sharp corners or edges that might tear the bags or damage the containers; they must be easy to clean; (with a 5% active chlorine solution); they must be clearly marked.
\nFurthermore, off-site means of transport must meet the following requirements: they must be closed in order to avoid any spilling on the road; they must be equipped with a safe loading system (to prevent any spilling inside or outside the vehicle); they must be marked according to the legislation in force if the load exceeds 333 kg (for some countries). The entity producing the waste is responsible for packaging and labelling the waste to be transported outside the hospital. Packaging and labelling must be in conformity with national legislation on the transport of dangerous substances and with the Basel Convention in the case of cross-border transport. If there is no national legislation on the subject, the [United Nations] Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods1312or the European Agreement on the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) 1413 should be referred to. If a vehicle is carrying less than 333 kg of medical waste entailing the risk of contamination (UN 3291), it is not required to be marked. Otherwise it must bear sign plates
\n\n
Choices of treatment and disposal technique depend on a number of parameters (Bassey et al., 2006). These include the quantity and type of waste produced, availability of waste treatment site near the waste generating facility, availability of reliable means of transport, availability of National legislation on health care waste management, climate conditions, groundwater level, regular supply of electricity in the area etc. The handling and treatment of waste entails health risks for staff throughout the chain. The purpose of protective measures is seriously recommended. The purpose of protective measures is to reduce the risks of accident/exposure or the consequences (Sharma
\n
The need to protect the environment in Nigeria started with the pronouncement prohibiting water pollution through the colonial hygiene of public health inspectors. In 1975, a Division was created in the Federal Ministry of Economic Development to deal with pollution and other industrial matters. Lack of effective implementation of its mandate led to the relocation of the Division from one Ministry to another (Rain Forest, 2012; FMenv, 2012)
\nThe discovery of six ship loads of toxic waste of Italian origin in Koko, Delta State in 1988, exposed the need for stringent environmental laws and its effective enforcement with monitoring mechanism put in place. The Federal Government promulgated the Harmful Wastes Criminal Provision Decree 42 of 1988, which made it a criminal offence to import or trade in toxic waste. The Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) was created by Decree 58 of 1988 as a parastatal of the Ministry of Works and Housing. The agency authority was strengthened through Decree 59 of 1992 and October 12th, 1999 saw the creation of the Federal Ministry of Environment (FMEnv) (FMenv, 2012). The Federal Ministry of Environment is charged with the overall responsibility of protecting the Nigerian environment including biodiversity, conservation and sustainable development of natural resources (Rain Forest, 2012).
\n\n
Prohibits the release of hazardous or toxic substances into the environment beyond the limits approved by the Agency,
Solid, liquid and gaseous discharge should be analyzed and reported to their nearest office,
The factory is required to submit yearly environmental audit report within 90 days of demand by the Agency( FMenv, 2012).
\n
Regulates the collection, treatment and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes from municipal and industrial sources (FMenv, 2012).
\n
Directs industries to improve the quality of the environment.
Serves more or less as recommended standards of environmentally good behaviour for industries.
\n
Requires the government, its agency and private enterprises to carry out EIA study of a proposed project,
The study also covers for proposed expansion of existing project or facility/ industry( FMenv, 2012).
In November 1989, the present Nigeria Environmental Policy was launched to guide environmental activities in Nigeria. The main objective of the policy is to achieve sustainable development which can be achieved by;
\nSecuring for all Nigerians a quality of Environment adequate for their health and well being;
Conserving and using the natural resources for the benefit of the present and future generations;
Restoring, maintaining and enhancing the ecosystem and ecological process essential for the preservation of biological diversity;
Raising public awareness and promoting understanding of the essential linkages between environment and development;
Co-operation with other countries and international organizations and agencies to achieve the above specific goals, and prevent transboundary environmental pollution( FMenv, 2012)..
\n
The basis of environmental policy in Nigeria is contained in the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Section 20 of the Constitution empowers the state to protect and improve the environment; and safeguard the water, air and land, forest and wildlife of Nigeria. Hitherto, various laws and regulations have been enacted to safeguard the Nigerian environment. These include:
\nNational Environmental Protection (Effluent Limitation) Regulations;
National Environmental Protection (Pollution Abatement in Industries and Facilities Generating Wastes) Regulations; and
National Environmental Protection (Management of Solid and Hazardous Wastes) Regulations.
- National Environmental Health Practice Regulations 2007; and
- Nigerian Radioactive Waste Management Regulations 2006.
Environmental Impact Assessment Act of 1992 (EIA Act).
The Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulations 1969, made pursuant to The Petroleum Act.
Harmful Wastes (Special Criminal Provisions etc.) Act of 1988 (Harmful Wastes Act).
The National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (Establishment) Act 2006 (the NOSDRA Act).
Nigerian Radioactive Waste Management Regulations 2006 issued pursuant to the Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection Act 1995
The National Environmental Standards and Regulations Agency 2007 (NESREA Act).
The NESREA Act was enacted on the 31st July, 2007 to provide for the establishment of the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Agency (NESREA). This Act repealed the Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act (the FEPA Act) pursuant to which the FEPA which was formerly charged with the protection and development of the environment in Nigeria was established. However all regulations, authorizations and directions made pursuant to the FEPA act and which were in force at the commencement of the NESREA Act shall continue to be in force and have effect as if made by the NESREA Act. The NESREA Act applies to the regulation and the protection and development of the environment in Nigeria with the exception of the oil and gas sector. The NESREA is responsible for the protection and development of environmental standards, regulations, rules, laws, policies and guidelines within Nigeria. The NESREA’s functions do not however include enforcement of environmental standards, regulations, policies and guidelines in the oil and gas sector of Nigeria. The NESREA Act give authorized officers of the NESREA powers to:
\nenter and search any land, building, vehicle, tent, vessel, floating craft or any inland water; for the purpose of conducting inspection, searching and taking samples for analysis which are reasonably believed to be carrying out activities or storing goods which contravene environmental standards or legislation
seize or detain for such a period as may be necessary articles which are reasonably believed to contravene provisions of the legislation or any of its regulations; and
Obtain an order of a court to suspend activities, seal and close down premises including land, vehicle, tent, vessel, floating craft or any inland water and other structure.
\n
Under the NESREA Act, the Minister charged with the responsibility of the environment is empowered by regulations to prescribe any specific removal methods and reporting obligations on the owners or operators of vessels discharging harmful substances and waste into the environment.
Public authorities are statutorily required to inform the public of Environment-related issues. The NESREA Act requires NESREA to enforce compliance with environmental regulations, to create public awareness, provide environmental education on sustainable environmental management and to publish data resulting from the performance of its functions.
The NESREA Act provides that a person who breaches the provisions of the Act commits an offence and shall on conviction be liable to a fine, or imprisonment, or both.
The NESREA Act also provides that where there has been a discharge of any hazardous substance in violation of environmental laws/permits, the person responsible for the discharge will bear the liability of the costs of removal and clean up.
In executing its functions, the NESREA is required to conduct environmental audits and establish a data bank on regulatory and enforcement standards.
\n
Pollutants from medical waste (e.g. heavy metals and PCBs) are persistent in the environment
\nAccumulation of toxic chemicals within soil (proximity to agricultural fields, humans, soil organisms, wildlife, cattle) ground water contamination, decrease in water quality bio-accumulation in organism’s fat tissues, and biomagnify through the food chain
\nRepeated and indiscriminate application of chemicals over a long period of time has serious adverse effects on soil microbial population - reducing the rate of decomposition, and generally lowering the soil fertility.
\nPathogens leads to long term accumulation of toxic substances in the soil specimens collected for analysis have the potential to cause disease and illness in man, either through direct contact or indirectly by contamination of soil, groundwater, surface water, and air wind blown dusts from indiscriminately dumping also have the potential to carry hazardous particulates with domestic animals being allowed to graze in open dumps, there is the added risk of reintroducing pathogenic micro-organisms into the food chain.
\nPublic nuisance (e.g. odours, scenic view, block the walkway, aesthetics, etc.)
\nImproper sterilization of instruments used in labour room may cause infection to mother and child
\nCombination of both degradable and non-degradable waste increase the rate of habitat destruction due to the increasing number of sites necessary for disposal of wastes (degradation of habitat)
\nPlastic-bags, plastic containers, if not properly destroyed may contaminate the soil and also reduces the chance for water percolation into the soil during precipitation.
\nOpen air burning does not guarantee proper incineration, and releases toxic fumes (dioxin) into the atmosphere from the burning of plastics i.e., PCB’s (Atkin, 2010).
\nMedical waste management has received very little attention in waste management process in Nigeria. Neither the government nor hospital authorities pay proper attention to its management. Unwholesome waste disposal by many hospitals, clinics and health centers in Abuja pose serious health hazard to the city dwellers in general and people living within the vicinity of the health care institutions in particular (Bassey et al., 2006).
\nAlmost all the health care institutions surveyed dispose every kind of waste generated into municipal dumpsites without pre-treatment, leading to an unhealthy and hazardous environment around the health institutions, affecting patients and staff (Bassey et al., 2006).
\nScavengers who collect waste from dustbins are at risk of injury from sharp instruments and direct contact with infectious materials. Liquid medical wastes are disposed directly into the municipal sewer system by all the institutions surveyed (Bassey et al., 2006). Direct disposal of faces and urine of infectious patients in municipal sewer system may cause outbreak of epidemic diseases. The scavengers that engage in recycling operations are unaware of the harmful consequences of exposure to contaminate and hazardous waste (Bassey et al., 2006).
\nScavenging at Ojota dumpsite in Lagos, Nigeria
Infected carcasses gathered in a dump for burning (AIHPPRP, 2007)
Most at times, the absence of Environmental impact assessments before commencement of public health and pharmaceutical industry projects is responsible for the archive of challenges associated waste management in the developing worlds including Nigeria. Nigeria lacks both effective and adequate waste management facilities and an inadequate Government policy to guide health providers and punish offenders. There is great need to incorporate standard EIA processes into the Nigerian regulatory documents for Public health institutions and pharmaceutical industries. These regulatory bodies need to establish mitigatory measures especially on waste management during the EIA process of Health care facility in Nigeria.
\nIncidentally, lapses on these bodies have resulted in no or poor implementation of hazard/ risk/ waste management processes in health care institutions.
\nNESREA and FMEnv are required to follow-up medical laboratories, hospitals, Pharmaceutical companies springing up all over Nigeria on laboratory waste, and Industrial effluent treatment and disposal.
\nWithout this strict implementation of impact mitigation and management of health care waste, Sustainable development is far from being attained.
\nHealth care waste should be treated with utmost attention, since the wastes could be virulent, pathogenic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. This shows that its impact on environment and human and plant’s health is greater than that of petroleum hydrocarbon spill.
\nThere is no proper waste management system in place in most developing countries. On-site incineration, autoclaving, and steam disinfection are a few processes currently in use for treating very small amounts of hazardous wastes.
\nCountries found to practice incineration are Brazil, Argentina, Peru, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh etc. Clinical waste incinerators, particularly in developing and poorer countries, often operate under sub-optimal conditions. Most of the cases the percentage of incinerators that were functioning poorly or not operational (HCWH, 1999). Most medical administrations usually focus on installing disposal technologies such as incinerators and do not implement a “practice” of waste management within the hospital. Over 6500 incinerators were installed in the US alone in the 1980s (Agarwal, 1998). Chronic problems both relating to very high toxic levels as well as difficulties in operating a sophisticated engineering technology in a medical setting have given rise to a debate which attempts to define a clean technology for medical waste disposal. There are some techniques practiced by different countries all over the world such as: Incineration, Autoclave Disinfection, Microwave Disinfection, and Mechanical/Chemical Disinfection. Each of this technique has limitations in terms of technological aspect, environmental condition and waste composition. Burning and incineration of medical and municipal waste have been linked to severe public health threat and pollution resulting in the release of toxic dioxin as well as mercury and other toxic substances. These substances produce a remarkable variety of adverse affects in humans at extremely low doses (Basset
However, most of the developed countries have defined policy and regulations to handle and manage medical waste such as Germany, France, Canada, and USA. Unfortunately, health care waste management is not yet carried out with a satisfactory degree of safety in many parts of the globe especially in the underdeveloped world (Stanley et al., 2011).
\nIn Nigeria, the lack of will by policy makers and implementation groups to adopt current technology in Health Care Waste management is an emerging challenge towards HCW management. The Health Care system is not developed in Nigeria, and by extension Health Care Waste Management.
\nIn Nigeria Health Care facilities are constructed and flagged off in terms of operations without due considerations to Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Its hazards are numerous to be counted. The regulatory agencies in Nigeria on the Environment such as NESREA, FMEnv etc must rise to the challenges of environmental pollution coming from health care facilities. Community engagement during the process of establishing Public health institutions and pharmaceutical companies is also advisable. This will ensure the development of robust Terms of Reference, EIA document, Environmental Management Plan (EMP). The EMP should address the issues or negative impacts of the health care facility on the bio-physical, social environment and health.
\nIt is worthy to note that some health care facilities such as medical and Environmental Laboratories are small projects and may not require full blown EIA. However, the regulatory agencies should develop a module of monitoring their waste disposal to avoid pollution. The situation is bit different in developed countries, where there is integrated Health management system; medical laboratories are usually part of large health care facilities. It is good to state categorical that laboratory wastes are among the most infectious group of health care waste. They contain live virulent pathogens and mutagenic, teratogenic chemicals including dyes. Laboratories must be forced to have a standard waste tracking protocol, in line with the international convention called Polluters Pay Principles (PPP).
\nFederal Republic of Nigeria will gain a lot from the battery of Public health benefits of Health Care waste Management. It is still not well understood why Nigeria at its level of development, Health Care Waste management is not well legislated and thus proper attention has not been given to it by Environmental regulators and Health Care operators. The issues are to be treated as urgent and very critical by Government. Immediate interventions are also required. All hands including the National Orientation Agencies and communities must be on deck to get over this challenge.
\nThere is great need for effective Environmental regulatory Surveillance in Nigeria. National laws on Health Care waste management should be established and be moved to an act.
\nThis is the best time for Nigerian Government to establish a regulatory agency to effectively monitor medical wastes and its treatment in Nigeria. Otherwise, the FMEnv and NESREA are to be strengthened to establish a well funded unit (Finance and good Human Resources) for monitoring of Health Care Institutions over Health Care Wastes.
\nThe healthy ear functions much like a receiver (Rx) of acoustic signals, which can be described as time-varying pressure waves in a specific frequency range (20–20,000 Hz). These signals propagate toward the cochlear, which analyzes them based on their spectral content. Specifically, each pressure wave traveling inside the cochlea not only actuates inner and outer hair cells at different locations along its length based on the frequency components of the wave, but also determines the intensity of the perceived sound according to the amplitude of the wave [1]. The various spiking characteristics of the spiral ganglion neurons, such as spike rate, number, and location, encode the amplitude and frequency of the sound.
The most common sensory defect is hearing loss, which plagues more than 466 million people around the world and is mostly caused by cochlear abnormalities [2]. When unaddressed, hearing loss can negatively impact the quality of life in various ways, such as social isolation, limited education, and unemployment, which are estimated to cost 980 billion dollars annually. To counterbalance this, substantial research effort has been directed toward neuron regenerative techniques, such as pharmacological, gene, as well as cell therapies [3, 4]. Unfortunately, none of the aforementioned approaches is considered to be close to clinical use. Therefore, the most successful hearing restoration approaches to this day are based on cochlear implants (CIs). Of note, CIs can be used in almost all forms of hearing loss.
Conventional CIs are comprised of two parts: one external and one implanted. The former houses a sound receiver and the processor, while the latter contains the stimulation unit. Specifically, the captured sound signal is decomposed to its major frequency components that are assigned to the corresponding channels of the stimulation unit. Each channel delivers the electrical stimulation signal to the spiral ganglion neurons that match the frequency content of the decomposed electrically encoded sound signal. However, due to the relatively high electrical conductivity of the cochlea, the applied electrical stimulation spreads to nearby spiral ganglion neurons, thus stimulating wider spectral windows than the appropriate one. In conjunction with their low-dynamic range [5], conventional CIs offer limited spectral and intensity sound encoding, which is proven to be detrimental for their hearing restoration capabilities [6].
In this chapter, we introduce the major advances that paved the way for the revolution of CIs and the realization of hearing restoration. Initially, we investigate the current state of the art of hearing restoration through CIs. Next, an in-depth analysis of most promising techniques of light-based hearing restoration is presented. Finally, we offer design guidelines as well as future directions for the next generation of CIs.
To aid the reader in understanding the requirements of hearing restoration, we provide some background that covers the CIs’ evolution since their conceptualization as well as the current research progresses toward the next generation of CIs (Figure 1).
The evolution of CIs from 1982, when the first CI manufacturing company was founded, until the current state-of-the-art research that validated the feasibility of optogenetics-enabled optical CIs.
The concept of hearing restoration through the electrical stimulation of the auditory nerve was conceived by André Djourno and Charles Eyriés in 1957. In their attempt to restore the functionality of the facial nerve through electrical signal applied via a wire, the deaf patient experienced auditory sensations [7]. Based on these findings, multiple attempts were made around the world to develop the first CI with William House performing the first implantation in 1972 [8, 9]. Moreover, the first cochlear implant manufacturing company was founded in 1982 under the name MedEl Corporation, closely followed by Cochlear Limited in 1984, and Advanced Bionics in 1996.
Since their creation, CI companies have iteratively updated their architecture designs, hardware, and optimizing stimulation techniques. The first generation of CIs was released in the early 1980s and included Nucleus 22 and Comfort CI, combined analog signal processing strategies with a multichannel stimulation unit that housed 22 and 4 channels, respectively. These designs were followed by the initial model of Advanced Bionics called Clarion in 1996 that was encased in a ceramic case, contained eight channels, and used rechargeable batteries. The second generation included Clarion II, Nucleus 24 Contour, and Combi 40+. These were introduced in the market with 24 electrodes and new sound processors with novel features such as precurved electrode arrays, backward compatibility, frequency modulation capabilities, dual electrodes, and behind-the-ear external components. However, in the early 2000s, completely redesigned highly customizable CI models, namely, Freedom, Pulsar, and HiRes90k, were developed. Their modularity and customization options were the distinguishing factors for these new models that were available in straight or precurved, standard, medium, condensed, and split electrode array architectures, based on the individual particularities of the cochlea of each patient. Moreover, these electrodes were encased in flexible plastic and housed a plastic tip that enabled nontraumatic implantation. In the era after 2010, the latest iterations of CIs have been focused toward higher fidelity sound that enhances the perception of music through state-of-the-art sound processing, wireless control, and software-enabled programability, as well as waterproof designs.
The utilization of light-based communications and stimulation has been proposed as a promising alternative for electrical hearing restoration techniques. The superior communication performance of optical wireless communications in trandermal applications revealed the benefits that can be achieved by utilizing light for the communication between the external and implanted components of CIs [10, 11]. Moreover, optogenetics was initially reported by Izzo et al. [12] and has been proven achieve more efficient coding of the spectral information of sound due to its higher temporal confinement compared to the electronic stimulation techniques [13, 14, 15]. Although optical stimulation has great potential, it exhibits increased energy requirements for achieving the actuation of spiral ganglion neurons, and thus, future research is necessary for developing more energy-efficient techniques [16]. Finally, the combination of optogenetics and optical wireless communications offers great promise for the realization of an all-optical CI architecture capable of achieving unprecedented performance [17].
Two main research directions remain to be investigated. First, transdermal communication plays an important role in propagating the sound information captured by the microphone of the external component toward the one implanted. Conventional CIs are based on magnetic coupling, a near-field technique that uses low radio frequencies (RFs) in the range of 5–50 MHz for communication [18, 19]. The required power of conventional CIs lies around some decades milliwatts. Although this technology has been successfully applied in the majority of CIs, it suffers from low data rates, which constrain the performance of artificial hearing aids in their attempt to simulate high-quality normal hearing [20, 21, 22]. In addition, the aforementioned spectral window is used by numerous applications, which generate a great amount of interference that diminishes the quality of communication [23, 24, 25]. On the other hand, the optical activation of the auditory nerve via optogenetics has been experimentally verified, but the propagation of the spiral ganglion neuron potential through the auditory pathway toward the brain and its successful perception have yet to be demonstrated [26]. Moreover, the superiority of optical over electrical cell stimulation must be validated in order to justify the research effort toward the all-optical cochlear implant (AOCI) [17]. Recently, multiple experiments have progressed these goals by implanting novel tiny optical fibers in animals models of human sensorineural hearing loss [27, 28, 29].
To overcome the aforementioned CI restrictions, researchers have investigated the viability of transdermal wireless networks that operate in nonstandard frequencies. Owing to increased bandwidth, surprisingly high tolerance to external interference, and partial skin transparency at near-infrared wavelengths, optical wireless communications have been applied to transdermal channels instead of the traditional RF-based techniques [30, 31]. In the past decade, numerous contributions have experimentally verified the practicality of transdermal optical links [32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. Abita established a transdermal optical link from the inside toward the outside component of a medial system achieving high-data-rate communications [32], while Ackermann et al. investigated the design principles and tradeoffs that are entangled to optical-based CIs [33, 37]. Moreover, Liu introduced a high-data-rate transdermal optical link for implantable biomedical systems with high energy efficiency under the assumption of deterministic misalignment [24]. Similarly, the interactions between data rate, transmission power, receiver characteristics, and tissue thickness as well as their impact on the system’s performance were evaluated for transdermal optical links applied in neural signal extraction scenarios [38]. In addition, the same authors validated the proposed system by conducting
Building upon the aforementioned contributions, the development of optical-based CIs needs to leverage breakthrough technologies while taking into consideration the particularities of the transdermal and in-body optical channels, the space and energy design limitations, as well as the directionality of the optical links. Moreover, a novel information-theoretic framework is required for the design of energy-efficient physical and medium access schemes, as well as the development of simultaneous light information and power transfer policies and resource allocation strategies. Motivated by the above, recent research effort has been devoted toward delivering safety and high quality of experience in CIs and identifying the critical technology gaps and the appropriate enablers.
After communicating the information from the external environment toward the implanted component of the CI, the techniques of neural stimulation must be applied in order to excite the cochlear spiral ganglion neurons, which, in turn, will generate the desire action potential that will propagate along the acoustic nerve toward the brain. Over the years, various methods of neural stimulation have been developed. These can be categorized based on the nature of the applied stimulus as acoustic, thermal, magnetic, chemical, optical, and electrical, with the last ones being the most recognized [39]. Specifically, electrical neural stimulation is the most common technique and has been used in a wide gamut of biomedical applications [40, 41, 42]. Electrical neural stimulation applies an electrical stimulus (voltage, current [40], or charge [42]) on the target nerves that manipulates their membrane potential so that it exceeds a certain threshold and, therefore, generates or inhibits action potentials. Specifically, deep brain and cardiac muscle stimulation techniques that use voltage control mechanisms have been investigated with regard to power consumption [41, 43], while current-controlled electrical neural stimulation in CIs is characterized by power waste in the tissue that leads to limited longevity and tissue damage [40]. Voltage-controlled electrical neural stimulation is proven to be more power efficient and less complex, but with very limited stimulus tuning options that result in faster degradation of the electrode contacts. The opposite is valid for current-controlled electrical neural stimulation that can apply fine-tuned charge to the electrodes but exhibits lower power efficiency. Finally, charge control mechanisms for electrical neural stimulation have been applied on the peripheral neural system [42] and offer a middle ground between stimulus control and power consumption. Despite the control mechanism, the determining factors of electrical neural stimulation techniques include human safety, energy efficiency, stimulation waveform, and spatial resolution. The latter significantly affects the stimulation accuracy and is correlated with the distance from the targeted neurons as well as the size of the electrode, which is limited by maximum permissible charge per tissue surface and the electrode’s manufacturing process. In addition, the unique characteristics of different types of neurons greatly affect their response to stimulations with variable waveform properties, such as amplitude, width, and frequency. To this end, a great amount of research effort has been devoted toward optimizing the waveform for the stimulus [44, 45, 46, 47]. Finally, throughout the optimization procedure of electrical neural stimulation techniques, safety for humans must be ensured.
The solution to the several limitations of electrical neural stimulation was introduced almost two decades ago in the form of optical neural stimulation that uses light for the actuation and control of neurons. Specifically, light-gated ion channels found in proteins, termed opsins, have been proven to mediate light-driven action potentials in mammalian neurons by manipulating the polarization of their membrane and, therefore, suppressing or exciting them. Optical neural stimulation is highly dependent on the type of the utilized opsin, which incentivized research toward experimentally verifying its performance in terms of precision, accuracy, frequency, and scalability [48, 49, 50, 51]. Optical neural stimulation was successfully applied in the motor control system of rodents [48], while the causal relationship of frequency-based optical neural stimulation and behavior state transitions was verified [49]. The increased specificity of exciting neurons was illustrated through efficiently mapping the spatial distribution of synaptic inputs [50]. Moreover, a high-precision optical neural stimulation technique for inhibiting neurons with temporal fidelity was developed [51]. The performance of this technique was evaluated based on novel key performance indicators such as light sensitivity. The aforementioned works illustrate that the development of opsins offering stable performance over multiple stimulations is accompanied by long desensitization periods and short channel-off durations. To this end, research was intensified toward developing opsins with different kinetic features and wavelength sensitivity for monitoring and controlling biological processes in subcellular and cellular levels [52, 53]. A major breakthrough was achieved with the application of channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2) in mammalian neurons that enabled accurate stimulation with light pulses [54]. Since its development, ChR2 has been heavily investigated, and multiple variants have been introduced with applications in cardiology [55, 56, 57, 58] and neuroscience [59, 60]. The performance of these variants greatly outperforms electrical neural stimulation in terms of stimulation pulse intensity and frequency (up to 200 Hz), as well as the ability to trigger large current action potentials with higher fidelity [61, 62].
Based on the literature review presented in the previous section, the main bottlenecks of CIs are low accuracy and low precision of nerve stimulation methods, bandwidth scarcity and constraint capacity of RF communication techniques, and high energy consumption of both. To this end, we present two architectures capable of mitigating the effect of these limitations and even eliminating them [11, 17].
The utilization of optical wireless communications in order to develop CI transdermal optical links has been recently investigated [11], where the authors proposed a novel system architecture, termed optical wireless cochlear implant (OWCI), that improves the power and spectral efficiency as well as the reliability of the transdermal optical link. Moreover, in the same contribution [11], the capabilities and feasibility of the OWCI are evaluated and design guidelines are provided. The main comparison points between OWCIs and conventional CIs are illustrated in Table 1. In addition, the presented advances in the communications of CIs are in line with optical neural stimulation advances on the acoustic nerve [21, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67].
OWCIs | Conventional CIs |
---|---|
Low data rate | |
Limited bandwidth | |
Low power efficiency | |
Questionable safety | |
Mature technology | |
with compact designs | |
Very high electronic interference | |
Stringent alignment requirements | |
Multiple design guidelines | |
(IrDA, EU COST 1101, IEC LSS, IEEE Std 1073.3.2-2000, etc.) |
OWCIs versus conventional CIs (bold fonts demonstrate the advantages).
The unique technical contributions of the OWCI entail the establishment of a novel system model for transdermal optical links that incorporates the various design variables such as the stochastic misalignment between the receiver (RX) and the transmitter (TX), the scale of the optical components, the skin thickness, and the transmission power. The external component of the OWCI is comprised of a microphone, the TX, and a digital signal processing (DSP) unit, while the implanted one contains the RX as well as a stimulation and a DSP unit. The external DSP unit is responsible for digitizing and compressing the sound signal from the microphone into coded signals, which are then forwarded from the TX to the RX over the transdermal optical link. In the implanted component, the DSP and stimulation units transform the received signal into a series of electrical pulses that will stimulate the auditory nerve (Figure 2). Based on this system model, the performance of the OWCI was evaluated with regard to the SNR, channel capacity, outage probability, and spectral efficiency. The results not only validated the feasibility of the proposed architecture and provided meaningful insights that can be used as design guidelines, but also revealed the superior effectiveness and reliability of the OWCI compared to the conventional CI.
Diagrammatic illustration of the architecture of the OWCI. The OWCI captures the sound information via the microphone located outside of the human body. Afterward, it utilizes optical wireless communications to transfer it toward the receiver fixed on the cranial bone. Finally, the implanted unit stimulates the acoustic nerve by delivering the appropriate signals via the stimulation electrode.
In the aforementioned architecture, the transmitted signal,
with
The effect of misalignment with regard to skin thickness. As the RX (photodiode) moves away from the TX under the same severity of misalignment, its distance from the perfect alignment conditions becomes enclosed in the TX’s beam width. This phenomenon creates an equilibrium between the optimal TX-RX distance and the TX beam width under fixed misalignment conditions.
The CI channel’s deterministic term can be expressed as in ([71], Eq. (10.1))
where
The misalignment between the TX and the RX can be modeled as the stochastic channel coefficient, which expresses the collected power due to geometric spread with radial displacement
which is based on the assumption that at distance
Based on this model, if we assume independently and identically Gaussian distributed horizontal and vertical displacement, it has been proven that
where
while
The CI implementations presented so far counterbalance either the RF scarcity that plagues the communications part of the system or the nerve stimulation limitations. To this end, the AOCI has been proposed as an architecture that converts the audio captured from the microphone into a light signal inside the external component for propagation to the cochlea [17] (Figure 4). This way, the AOCI counterbalances the aforementioned challenges and, at the same time, eliminates the need for an energy-consuming DSP unit in the implanted component. The AOCI not only builds upon the fruitful characteristics of the OWCI but also proposes breakthrough alterations such as the fact that it consists of only passive components, and thus, the implanted component has no power demands, which eliminates the requirement of complex power transfer policies and boosts energy efficiency. Furthermore, the AOCI utilizes optical neural stimulation, which is characterized by higher fidelity than electrical neural stimulation due to the lower spread of optical signals in human tissues. The technical advancements include the introduction of the AOCI architecture, its main building blocks, and the end-to-end system model. The AOCI takes into account channel, building block, and biological particularities [17]. Moreover, a novel tractable expression is derived for the instantaneous coupling efficiency in scenarios with misalignment fading. The feasibility of the proposed architecture is proven through the theoretical framework, which also evaluates its performance with regard to the power efficiency, the photon flux, and a plethora of design parameters that greatly influence the success or failure of the system.
Illustration of the architecture of the AOCI. The all-optical nature of the AOCI resides in the combined utilization of optical wireless communications and optogenetics for stimulating the auditory nerve. Initially, the auditory neurons are sensitized to optical radiation with optogenetic techniques. Next, the sound captured from the external microphone is converted into an optical signal capable of stimulating the light-sensitive nerves, which is then forwarded to the cochlea.
Much like OWCI, the architecture of AOCI consists of the implanted and the external component, with the former located on the skull and the latter on the external surface of the skin. The external component captures the acoustic signal with a microphone, performs the necessary DSP, and converts it into the appropriate optical signal capable of generating the desired action potentials on the targeted spiral ganglion neurons. This signal is transmitted from the TX, which is a laser source, to the implanted component, where the guiding lens, the microelectromechanical device, the coupling lens, and the optical fiber ensure its delivery to the appropriate place in the cochlea. Specifically, the guiding lens guides the light toward the microelectromechanical device to maximize the power of the received optical signal. Afterward, the microelectromechanical acts as a mirror that mitigates the misalignment to a degree by steering the light beam to the center of the coupling lens in order to be coupled into the optical fiber. Finally, the latter delivers the light into specific points along the cochlea based on their spectral content.
Microelectromechanical devices have been the subject of much hype during the past decade due to their adaptability as well as low cost, low weight, and small size [80, 81, 82]. In the case of the AOCI, the microelectromechanical device is required in order to account for the individuality of each patient. In particular, the AOCI is required to adapt to the particularities of the patient, such as different skin thickness and color or slightly varied orientation of biological tissues, in order to ensure uninterrupted hearing restoration. Moreover, imperfections during the implantation process can cause slight variations to the final placement of the implant. To this end, the microelectromechanical device provides an externally operated light control system by enabling the steering of the optical beam toward the coupling lens. Finally, the microelectromechanical device adjusts its optical properties and, thus, steers the beam after receiving the appropriate electrical charge that can be applied during implantation, while in normal operation, the need for adjustment is eliminated, and therefore, the microelectromechanical device operates passively [83, 84].
The signal received by the guiding lens presented in (1) is forwarded to the microelectromechanical device, which introduces a collimation gain [85].
Therefore, the updated received signal at the output of the microelectromechanical device can be expressed as
The coupling lens receives the optical beam from the microelectromechanical device and focuses it in the center of the optical fiber. The fact that incident light on the end of the optical fiber that arrives at a greater angle than the acceptable angle of the optical fiber is not coupled highlights the detrimental impact it plays on the maximum achievable coupling efficiency of the system. Moreover, the coupling efficiency is also affected by the dimensions of the coupling lens and the diameter of the optical fiber with its maximum value being in the order of 80% [86].
The coupling lens captures the optical signal that is reflected by the microelectromechanical device and couples it into the optical fiber. The signal that successfully enters the optical fiber can be written as
with the coupling efficiency given by
In Eq. (9),
The optical fiber of the AOCI takes the place of the electrode array of the conventional CI. The incident optical signal must be delivered to specific locations alongside the cochlea in order to generate action potentials at the targeted spiral ganglion neurons that are responsible for the appropriate sound frequency. To achieve the required performance, the optical fiber proposed in the AOCI architecture propagates the optical signal through its single-mode core with a Gaussian beam profile in the output [87, 88]. Furthermore, despite the fact that state-of-the-art conventional CIs can be equipped with a maximum of 20 electrodes, due to the limited spatial resolution of electrical neural stimulation, the sound perceived by the patient has the fidelity of eight functional electrodes [40]. In addition, to achieve speech and music perception under suboptimal noise constraints, CI must house approximately 32 electrodes, which is also the goal of the AOCI [89, 90]. Therefore, tilted fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) were introduced in the AOCI architecture that enable light delivery in various locations alongside the optical fiber [91, 92]. These FBGs are located in the core of the optical fiber, along the propagation direction, with a periodic variation of the refractive index. These components have low insertion loss, low complexity structures, and high wavelength selectivity. Specifically, tilted FBGs allow a limited number of wavelengths to penetrate them by filtering the incident optical signal based on its spectral content and, at the time, redirecting it based to their angle [93, 94].
When the optical signal travels through the optical fiber, it attenuates due to the curvature of the optical fiber and the existence of FBGs, and therefore, the emitted signal can be expressed as
where
From the presented analysis, it is evident that, despite their extensive applications, electrical neural stimulation techniques suffer from insufficient coding of spectral information, low power efficiency, low stimulation precision, accuracy, and frequency, as well as questionable safety. To this end, promising optical neural stimulation methods that surpass these limitations have been proposed. In an effort to establish these methods, the scientific community has pushed toward proving their feasibility as well as theoretically modeling and augmenting them. The state of the art of optical neural stimulation techniques offers great promise toward realizing next-generation biomedical systems.
One of the main offerings of optical neural stimulation is the outstanding stimulation precision it offers compared to electrical neural stimulation. In more detail, the increased precision can be translated into higher customization of the produced neural activity in two respects. First, the increased stimulation frequency that comes with optical neural stimulation leads to higher accuracy of excitation due to the fact that action potentials are delivered faster to the target spiral ganglion neurons and, therefore, to the brain, thus limiting the time between sound acquisition and perception. Second, optical neural stimulation depends on the optical particularities of light sensitive opsins with each one being expressed in a specific type of cell. Therefore, this offers another layer of light selectivity that can be leveraged by optical neural stimulation techniques [97]. The combination of these two aspects equips optical neural stimulation with the necessary tools to achieve unprecedented performance not only in the field of hearing restoration but also in other biomedical application such as retinal implants that would utilize this advantage to provide higher perceived image fidelity.
Another aspect that boosts the performance of optical neural stimulation is the exceptional spectral coding of the information carried by the optical signal. On the contrary to electrical neural stimulation techniques that are characterized by wide current spread from the electrode contacts, optical radiation attenuates with a greater rate when it propagates inside human tissue, and therefore, the applied optical stimulations are more spatially confined than electrical ones. The importance of this phenomenon is highlighted even more by the fact that human sound perception requires at least 32 stimulation channels in order to recognize music or sound in noisy environments [89, 90]. As a result, the superior spectral coding of optical neural stimulation enables support for stimulation units that can house significantly more channels.
Contrary to previous detrimental improvements offered by optical neural stimulation methods, their performance in terms of power efficiency is comparable to the one of electrical neural stimulation. In more detail, optimization is required for optical neural stimulation stimulation policies in order to achieve similar power consumption as electrical neural stimulation [58]. Therefore, the optimization of optical neural stimulation techniques in terms of their power demands is one of the key requirements for their successful application in future biomedical applications. Similarly, the safety and ethical concerns of optical neural stimulation pose another controversial aspect. On the one hand, the optical power that is required for the reliable activation of light-sensitive spiral ganglion neurons is below the limits defined in various standardization protocols [98]; on the other hand, the modification of the targeted spiral ganglion neurons in order to acquire light sensitivity poses ethical concerns.
From a purely biological perspective, action potentials generated from electrical stimulation signals resemble the morphology and waveform of the membrane potential. As a result, these electrical signals are superimposed on each other and become almost indistinguishable, which hinders hearing restoration [58]. However, owing to its core functionality, optical neural stimulation triggers action potentials that differ significantly from membrane potential based on the stimulation protocol and the type of the excited cell. Specifically, not only the waveform of the generated action potential is affected by the amplitude and the duration of the stimulation, but also the instant release of ions when opsins are illuminated, which causes the membrane to react immediately. In addition, each opsin-cell-type combination is characterized by a distinct morphology of transmembrane potential and in conjunction with the wide variety of opsins available; they ensure the generation of a distinct action potential.
Finally, from an engineering point of view, the plethora of opsins that have been developed can highly impact the performance of optical neural stimulation biomedical applications. All future research in this field should take into careful consideration the selection of the applied opsin, as suboptimal ones may result in low stimulation precision and reliability, which, in turn, can determine whether the application is successful or not. The most important design choices include the compatibility with the target cell type, the amplitude and morphology of the resulting action potential, and the nature and the direction of the released ions.
In this chapter, we have provided a vision for hearing restoration from an engineering point of view that could serve as a guide in the research and development of the next-generation CIs. We suggest that the future of digital hearing restoration lies in the optical spectrum, both in terms of communication and stimulation techniques. We envisioned and explained potential architectures that enable the utilization of optical technologies in CIs. Finally, we introduced key features and performance indicators that could decide their success or failure.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
all-optical cochlear implant
bit error rate
channelrhodopsin 2
cochlear implant
digital signal processing
fiber Bragg grating
light-emitting diode
maximum permissible exposure
optical wireless cochlear implant
radio frequency
signal-to-noise ratio
Content alerts
",metaTitle:"Content alerts",metaDescription:"Content alerts",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/content-alerts",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Content alerts
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"Content alerts
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:13389},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:11661},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:4168},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:22334},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:2019},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:33642}],offset:12,limit:12,total:135275},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{},books:[{type:"book",id:"9985",title:"Geostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"423cb3896195a618c4acb493ce4fd23d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jeffrey M. Yarus, Dr. Marko Maucec, Dr. Timothy C. Coburn and Associate Prof. Michael Pyrcz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9985.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"78011",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey M.",surname:"Yarus",slug:"jeffrey-m.-yarus",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Yarus"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10845",title:"Marine Ecosystems - Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Human Impacts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"727e7eb3d4ba529ec5eb4f150e078523",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ana M.M. Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10845.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"320124",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana M.M.",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-m.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Ana M.M. Gonçalves"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11027",title:"Basics of Hypoglycemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"98ebc1e36d02be82c204b8fd5d24f97a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alok Raghav",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11027.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"334465",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok",surname:"Raghav",slug:"alok-raghav",fullName:"Alok Raghav"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11124",title:"Next-Generation Textiles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"093f9e26bb829b8d414d13626aea1086",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hassan Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11124.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses Infection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"52f8a3a1486912beae40b34ac557fed3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11433",title:"Human Migration in the Last Three Centuries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9836df9e82aa9f82e3852a60204909a8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ingrid Muenstermann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11433.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"77112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",surname:"Muenstermann",slug:"ingrid-muenstermann",fullName:"Ingrid Muenstermann"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11438",title:"Fake News in the Era of Global Crises",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f61f975031e13ee705d8b5853f1aa58",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. David Eller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11438.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"476616",title:"Dr.",name:"Jack",surname:"Eller",slug:"jack-eller",fullName:"Jack Eller"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11447",title:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f68e3c3430a74fc7a7eb97f6ea2bb42e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11447.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11452",title:"Cryopreservation - Applications and Challenges",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6c3fd4384ff7deeab32fc82722c60e0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marian Quain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11452.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"300385",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",surname:"Quain",slug:"marian-quain",fullName:"Marian Quain"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11453",title:"Biomimetics - Bridging the Gap",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"173e62fa4d7bf5508cec3bdd8e3cb32d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ziyad S. Haidar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11453.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"222709",title:"Prof.",name:"Ziyad S.",surname:"Haidar",slug:"ziyad-s.-haidar",fullName:"Ziyad S. Haidar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11456",title:"Autonomous Mobile Mapping Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"405e1f7c0ef62700f4d590722cf428be",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Janusz Bȩdkowski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11456.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"63695",title:"Dr.",name:"Janusz",surname:"Bȩdkowski",slug:"janusz-bdkowski",fullName:"Janusz Bȩdkowski"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11459",title:"Soft Robotics - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"06e947238d5d4ea1162509a5d66de887",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mahmut Reyhanoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11459.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:64},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:480},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3737",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"Modelling, Programming and Simulations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"matlab-modelling-programming-and-simulations",bookSignature:"Emilson Pereira Leite",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3737.jpg",editors:[{id:"12051",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilson",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira Leite",slug:"emilson-pereira-leite",fullName:"Emilson Pereira Leite"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"1770",title:"Gel Electrophoresis",subtitle:"Principles and Basics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"279701f6c802cf02deef45103e0611ff",slug:"gel-electrophoresis-principles-and-basics",bookSignature:"Sameh Magdeldin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1770.jpg",editors:[{id:"123648",title:"Dr.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Magdeldin",slug:"sameh-magdeldin",fullName:"Sameh Magdeldin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4797},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7175,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1981,editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2308,editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1473,editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",publishedDate:"April 26th 2011",numberOfDownloads:318571,editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",publishedDate:"September 26th 2012",numberOfDownloads:271836,editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",publishedDate:"July 1st 2013",numberOfDownloads:243450,editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1582,editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2082,editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",publishedDate:"October 17th 2012",numberOfDownloads:256294,editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11328",title:"Botulinum Toxin",subtitle:"Recent Topics and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7dd05a316001cef143e209eda51387a7",slug:"botulinum-toxin-recent-topics-and-applications",bookSignature:"Suna Sabuncuoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11328.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"270856",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suna",middleName:null,surname:"Sabuncuoglu",slug:"suna-sabuncuoglu",fullName:"Suna Sabuncuoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11085",title:"Polycystic Ovary Syndrome",subtitle:"Functional Investigation and Clinical Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3066dd3ff29e1fac072fd60b08d4d3e7",slug:"polycystic-ovary-syndrome-functional-investigation-and-clinical-application",bookSignature:"Zhengchao Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"204883",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengchao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"zhengchao-wang",fullName:"Zhengchao Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10833",title:"Tumor Angiogenesis and Modulators",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f29b575c46128b2da061ef7f9bd1070b",slug:"tumor-angiogenesis-and-modulators",bookSignature:"Ke Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10833.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671c629dd86e97f0fb467b9e70e92296",slug:"molecular-cloning",bookSignature:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takcı and Melis Sumengen Ozdenef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf964c52f9e653fac20a7fcab58070e5",slug:"advanced-topics-of-topology",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11195",title:"Recent Advances in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"502",title:"Spectroscopy",slug:"organic-chemistry-spectroscopy",parent:{id:"85",title:"Organic Chemistry",slug:"organic-chemistry"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:117,numberOfWosCitations:97,numberOfCrossrefCitations:110,numberOfDimensionsCitations:203,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"502",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7313",title:"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"455285c6ea843991712abb7b27592471",slug:"nuclear-magnetic-resonance",bookSignature:"Navin Khaneja",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"249371",title:"Prof.",name:"Navin",middleName:null,surname:"Khaneja",slug:"navin-khaneja",fullName:"Navin Khaneja"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7674",title:"Modern Spectroscopic Techniques and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da3cb0d978d197ed95c07e8090e06136",slug:"modern-spectroscopic-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Maaz Khan, Gustavo Morari do Nascimento and Marwa El-Azazy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6257",title:"Raman Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"197e92d225b1d9aae4fe4bd106897d94",slug:"raman-spectroscopy",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6257.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5857",title:"Spectroscopic Analyses",subtitle:"Developments and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1a73e911e2c6e2c94b6c039f602bc719",slug:"spectroscopic-analyses-developments-and-applications",bookSignature:"Eram Sharmin and Fahmina Zafar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5857.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107375",title:"Dr.",name:"Eram",middleName:null,surname:"Sharmin",slug:"eram-sharmin",fullName:"Eram Sharmin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"59012",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73487",title:"Graphene Nanocomposites Studied by Raman Spectroscopy",slug:"graphene-nanocomposites-studied-by-raman-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:2324,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:47,abstract:"The goal of this chapter is to provide a general introduction about graphene nanocomposites studied by Raman spectroscopy. The chapter will therefore begin with a brief description of the major Raman bands of carbon allotropes. In the following chapter a concise comparison between single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), fullerenes and graphene is exposed. The characteristic features in Raman spectra of carbon allotropes, namely the intense signals D and G are investigated. In particular, the chapter will outline the Raman spectrum of graphene and different types of graphene oxide. The last part of the chapter is devoted to graphene nanocomposites.",book:{id:"6257",slug:"raman-spectroscopy",title:"Raman Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Raman Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Elena Iuliana Bîru and Horia Iovu",authors:[{id:"215841",title:"Prof.",name:"Horia",middleName:null,surname:"Iovu",slug:"horia-iovu",fullName:"Horia Iovu"},{id:"215842",title:"Mrs.",name:"Iuliana",middleName:null,surname:"Biru",slug:"iuliana-biru",fullName:"Iuliana Biru"}]},{id:"58475",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72933",title:"Raman Spectroscopy for In Vivo Medical Diagnosis",slug:"raman-spectroscopy-for-in-vivo-medical-diagnosis",totalDownloads:1712,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Raman spectroscopy is a noninvasive optical technique that can be used as an aid in diagnosing certain diseases and as an alternative to more invasive diagnostic techniques such as the biopsy. Due to these characteristics, Raman spectroscopy is also known as an optical biopsy technique. The success of Raman spectroscopy in biomedical applications is based on the fact that the molecular composition of healthy tissue is different from diseased tissue; also, several disease biomarkers can be identified in Raman spectra, which can be used to diagnose or monitor the progress of certain medical conditions. This chapter outlines an overview of the use of Raman spectroscopy for in vivo medical diagnostics and demonstrates the potential of this technique to address biomedical issues related to human health.",book:{id:"6257",slug:"raman-spectroscopy",title:"Raman Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Raman Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Miguel Ghebré Ramírez-Elías and Francisco Javier González",authors:[{id:"214020",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Elias",slug:"miguel-ramirez-elias",fullName:"Miguel Ramirez-Elias"},{id:"215413",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"González",slug:"francisco-javier-gonzalez",fullName:"Francisco Javier González"}]},{id:"58926",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72864",title:"Raman spectroscopy in Zinc Ferrites Nanoparticles",slug:"raman-spectroscopy-in-zinc-ferrites-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1897,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"ZnFe2O4 ferrite nanoparticles are arousing a great interest in the biomedical field, thanks to their superparamagnetic behavior at room temperature. Functional properties depend on composition, size, nanoparticle architecture and, in turn, on the synthesis methods. Bulk ZnFe2O4 has the normal spinel structure (all Zn2+ ions in tetrahedral and all Fe3+ ions in octahedral positions), but at the nanometric size inversion takes place with a cationic mixing on divalent and trivalent sites. The sensitivity of the Raman probe to cation disorder favored the appearance of several works on a rich variety of nanosized zinc ferrites. An overview on these results is reported and discussed at variance with synthesis methods, grain dimensions, and dopants. We add to this landscape our results from new nanosized powder samples made by microwave-assisted combustion, with different dopants (Ca, Sr on Zn site and Al, Gd on Fe site). A detailed analysis of A1g, Eg, 3F2g Raman modes has been performed and Raman band parameters have been derived from best-fitting procedures and carefully compared to literature data. The vibrational results are discussed taking into account the characterization from X-ray powder diffraction raction, SEM-EDS probe, EPR spectroscopy and, of course, the magnetic responses.",book:{id:"6257",slug:"raman-spectroscopy",title:"Raman Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Raman Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Pietro Galinetto, Benedetta Albini, Marcella Bini and Maria Cristina\nMozzati",authors:[{id:"215617",title:"Prof.",name:"Pietro",middleName:null,surname:"Galinetto",slug:"pietro-galinetto",fullName:"Pietro Galinetto"},{id:"215967",title:"Ms.",name:"Benedetta",middleName:null,surname:"Albini",slug:"benedetta-albini",fullName:"Benedetta Albini"},{id:"215968",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcella",middleName:null,surname:"Bini",slug:"marcella-bini",fullName:"Marcella Bini"},{id:"215969",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Mozzati",slug:"maria-cristina-mozzati",fullName:"Maria Cristina Mozzati"}]},{id:"56284",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69891",title:"Factorial Design and Machine Learning Strategies: Impacts on Pharmaceutical Analysis",slug:"factorial-design-and-machine-learning-strategies-impacts-on-pharmaceutical-analysis",totalDownloads:1926,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Pharmaceutical analysis is going through an expeditious progress as the perception of ‘multivariate data analysis’ (MVA) becomes gradually more assimilated. Pharmaceutical analysis comprises a range of processes that covers both chemical and physical assessment of drugs and their formulations employing different analytical techniques. With the revolution in instrumental analysis and the huge amount of information produced, there must be an up-to-date data processing tool. The role of chemometrics then comes up. Multivariate analysis (MVA) has the capability of effectively drawing a complete picture of the investigated process. Moreover, MVA reproduces the arithmetic influence of variables and their interactions through a smaller number of trials, keeping both efforts and capitals. Spectrophotometry is among the most extensively used techniques in pharmaceutical analysis either direct (single component) or derivative (multicomponent). In addition to these recognized benefits, using chemometrics in conjunction with spectrophotometry affects three vital characteristics: accuracy, precision and robustness. The impact of hyphenation of spectrophotometric analytical techniques to chemometrics (experimental design and support vector machines) on analytical laboratory will be revealed. A theoretical background on the different factorial designs and their relevance is provided. Readers will be able to use this chapter as a guide to select the appropriate design for a problem.",book:{id:"5857",slug:"spectroscopic-analyses-developments-and-applications",title:"Spectroscopic Analyses",fullTitle:"Spectroscopic Analyses - Developments and Applications"},signatures:"Marwa S. Elazazy",authors:[{id:"198210",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"El-Azazy",slug:"marwa-el-azazy",fullName:"Marwa El-Azazy"}]},{id:"56996",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70655",title:"Application of Mass Spectroscopy in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis",slug:"application-of-mass-spectroscopy-in-pharmaceutical-and-biomedical-analysis",totalDownloads:4542,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful analytical tool with many applications in pharmaceutical and biomedical field. The increase in sensitivity and resolution of the instrument has opened new dimensions in analysis of pharmaceuticals and complex metabolites of biological systems. Compared with other techniques, mass spectroscopy is only the technique for molecular weight determination, through which we can predict the molecular formula. It is based on the conversion of the sample into ionized state, with or without fragmentation which are then identified by their mass-to-charge ratios (m/e). Mass spectroscopy provides rich elemental information, which is an important asset to interpret complex mixture components. Thus, it is an important tool for structure elucidation of unknown compounds. Mass spectroscopy also helps in quantitative elemental analysis, that is, the intensity of a mass spectra signal is directly proportional to the percentage of corresponding element. It is also a noninvasive tool that permits in vivo studies in humans. Recent research has looked into the possible applications of mass spectrometers in biomedical field. It is also used as a sensitive detector for chromatographic techniques like LC–MS, GC–MS and LC/MS/MS. These recent hyphenated technological developments of the technique have significantly improved its applicability in pharmaceutical and biomedical analyses.",book:{id:"5857",slug:"spectroscopic-analyses-developments-and-applications",title:"Spectroscopic Analyses",fullTitle:"Spectroscopic Analyses - Developments and Applications"},signatures:"Uttam Singh Baghel, Atamjit Singh, Deeksha Singh and Manish\nSinha",authors:[{id:"204152",title:"Dr.",name:"Uttam",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Baghel",slug:"uttam-baghel",fullName:"Uttam Baghel"},{id:"204438",title:"Mrs.",name:"Deeksha",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"deeksha-singh",fullName:"Deeksha Singh"},{id:"204439",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh"},{id:"207608",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",middleName:null,surname:"Sinha",slug:"manish-sinha",fullName:"Manish Sinha"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59012",title:"Graphene Nanocomposites Studied by Raman Spectroscopy",slug:"graphene-nanocomposites-studied-by-raman-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:2324,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"The goal of this chapter is to provide a general introduction about graphene nanocomposites studied by Raman spectroscopy. The chapter will therefore begin with a brief description of the major Raman bands of carbon allotropes. In the following chapter a concise comparison between single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), fullerenes and graphene is exposed. The characteristic features in Raman spectra of carbon allotropes, namely the intense signals D and G are investigated. In particular, the chapter will outline the Raman spectrum of graphene and different types of graphene oxide. The last part of the chapter is devoted to graphene nanocomposites.",book:{id:"6257",slug:"raman-spectroscopy",title:"Raman Spectroscopy",fullTitle:"Raman Spectroscopy"},signatures:"Elena Iuliana Bîru and Horia Iovu",authors:[{id:"215841",title:"Prof.",name:"Horia",middleName:null,surname:"Iovu",slug:"horia-iovu",fullName:"Horia Iovu"},{id:"215842",title:"Mrs.",name:"Iuliana",middleName:null,surname:"Biru",slug:"iuliana-biru",fullName:"Iuliana Biru"}]},{id:"56996",title:"Application of Mass Spectroscopy in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis",slug:"application-of-mass-spectroscopy-in-pharmaceutical-and-biomedical-analysis",totalDownloads:4540,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"Mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful analytical tool with many applications in pharmaceutical and biomedical field. The increase in sensitivity and resolution of the instrument has opened new dimensions in analysis of pharmaceuticals and complex metabolites of biological systems. Compared with other techniques, mass spectroscopy is only the technique for molecular weight determination, through which we can predict the molecular formula. It is based on the conversion of the sample into ionized state, with or without fragmentation which are then identified by their mass-to-charge ratios (m/e). Mass spectroscopy provides rich elemental information, which is an important asset to interpret complex mixture components. Thus, it is an important tool for structure elucidation of unknown compounds. Mass spectroscopy also helps in quantitative elemental analysis, that is, the intensity of a mass spectra signal is directly proportional to the percentage of corresponding element. It is also a noninvasive tool that permits in vivo studies in humans. Recent research has looked into the possible applications of mass spectrometers in biomedical field. It is also used as a sensitive detector for chromatographic techniques like LC–MS, GC–MS and LC/MS/MS. These recent hyphenated technological developments of the technique have significantly improved its applicability in pharmaceutical and biomedical analyses.",book:{id:"5857",slug:"spectroscopic-analyses-developments-and-applications",title:"Spectroscopic Analyses",fullTitle:"Spectroscopic Analyses - Developments and Applications"},signatures:"Uttam Singh Baghel, Atamjit Singh, Deeksha Singh and Manish\nSinha",authors:[{id:"204152",title:"Dr.",name:"Uttam",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Baghel",slug:"uttam-baghel",fullName:"Uttam Baghel"},{id:"204438",title:"Mrs.",name:"Deeksha",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"deeksha-singh",fullName:"Deeksha Singh"},{id:"204439",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh"},{id:"207608",title:"Dr.",name:"Manish",middleName:null,surname:"Sinha",slug:"manish-sinha",fullName:"Manish Sinha"}]},{id:"54928",title:"Metal Complexes of Pharmaceutical Substances",slug:"metal-complexes-of-pharmaceutical-substances",totalDownloads:3296,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Significant progresses have been made in the inorganic and organic chemistry up to the present concerning the synthesis, characterization, and application of the metal complexes of pharmaceutical substances. From the wide range of fields in which these coordination compounds find their application, many efforts were focused on the study of their importance in the biological processes. The coordination complexes of many pharmaceutical substances having different pharmacological effects e.g., pyrazinamide (PZA), nicotinamide (NAM), nicotinic acid (NIC), theophylline (TEO), captopril (CPL), tolbutamide (TBA), clonidine (CLN), guanfacine (GUAF), etc. with transition metals were synthesized and used in order to improve their pharmacological and pharmacotechnical properties and also for the drug analysis and control. Several techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), X-ray spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometry, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, elemental analysis, electrochemical methods, thermal methods, and scanning electron microscopy were used for the physicochemical characterization of the complex composition. A significant interest in the development of metal complex-based drugs with unique research and therapeutic and diagnostic opportunities is currently observed in the medicinal inorganic chemistry area.",book:{id:"5857",slug:"spectroscopic-analyses-developments-and-applications",title:"Spectroscopic Analyses",fullTitle:"Spectroscopic Analyses - Developments and Applications"},signatures:"Tünde Jurca, Eleonora Marian, Laura Graţiela Vicaş, Mariana\nEugenia Mureşan and Luminiţa Fritea",authors:[{id:"192598",title:"Dr.",name:"Fritea",middleName:null,surname:"Luminita",slug:"fritea-luminita",fullName:"Fritea Luminita"},{id:"192813",title:"Prof.",name:"Jurca",middleName:null,surname:"Tünde",slug:"jurca-tunde",fullName:"Jurca Tünde"},{id:"192814",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Eleonora",slug:"marian-eleonora",fullName:"Marian Eleonora"},{id:"192815",title:"Prof.",name:"Vicas",middleName:null,surname:"Laura Gratiela",slug:"vicas-laura-gratiela",fullName:"Vicas Laura Gratiela"},{id:"192816",title:"Prof.",name:"Muresan",middleName:null,surname:"Mariana Eugenia",slug:"muresan-mariana-eugenia",fullName:"Muresan Mariana Eugenia"}]},{id:"69058",title:"Hardware of MRI System",slug:"hardware-of-mri-system",totalDownloads:1018,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is comprehensively applied in modern medical diagnosis and scientific research for its superb soft-tissue imaging quality and non-radiating characteristics. Main magnet, gradient assembly, and radio-frequency (RF) assembly are main hardware in an MRI system. The hardware performance has direct relationship with the ultimate system overall performance. The development of MRI system toward high magnetic field strength will acquire high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and resolution, and meanwhile the manufacture difficulty of main magnet, gradient assembly, and RF assembly will also be significantly elevated. This will make challenges on the design, materials, primitive device, and also the whole machine assembly. This chapter introduces the main hardware of the MRI system and corresponding functions and developments.",book:{id:"7313",slug:"nuclear-magnetic-resonance",title:"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance",fullTitle:"Nuclear Magnetic Resonance"},signatures:"Qiuliang Wang",authors:[{id:"302605",title:"Prof.",name:"Qiu-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"qiu-liang-wang",fullName:"Qiu-Liang Wang"}]},{id:"69423",title:"Atomic Spectroscopy",slug:"atomic-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Atomic spectroscopy includes a number of analytical techniques used to determine the elemental composition of a sample (it can be gas, liquid, or solid) by observing its electromagnetic spectrum or its mass spectrum. Element concentrations of a millionth (ppm) or one billionth part (ppb) of the sample can be detected. There are different variations of atomic spectroscopy, emission, absorption, fluorescence, and mass spectroscopy. Determination of an appropriate technique requires a basic understanding of each technique since each has its individual strengths and limitations. This chapter is designed to provide a basic overview to the atomic spectroscopy techniques and how can you select the one that best suits our analytical problems.",book:{id:"7674",slug:"modern-spectroscopic-techniques-and-applications",title:"Modern Spectroscopic Techniques and Applications",fullTitle:"Modern Spectroscopic Techniques and Applications"},signatures:"Deniz Sahin",authors:[{id:"283971",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"deniz-sahin",fullName:"Deniz Şahin"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"502",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"83065",title:"Interventions and Practical Approaches to Reduce the Burden of Malaria on School-Aged Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106469",signatures:"Andrew Macnab",slug:"interventions-and-practical-approaches-to-reduce-the-burden-of-malaria-on-school-aged-children",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Andrew",surname:"Macnab"}],book:{title:"Malaria - Recent Advances, and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11576.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82804",title:"Psychiatric Problems in HIV Care",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106077",signatures:"Seggane Musisi and Noeline Nakasujja",slug:"psychiatric-problems-in-hiv-care",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Future Opportunities and Tools for Emerging Challenges for HIV/AIDS Control",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82817",title:"Perspective Chapter: Microfluidic Technologies for On-Site Detection and Quantification of Infectious Diseases - The Experience with SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105950",signatures:"Andres Escobar and Chang-qing Xu",slug:"perspective-chapter-microfluidic-technologies-for-on-site-detection-and-quantification-of-infectious",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kasenga is a graduate of Tumaini University, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania and Umeå University, Sweden. He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). Dr. Kasenga is married to Grace and blessed with three children, a son and two daughters: Happy, Lettice and Sungani.",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"11673",title:"Stem Cell Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11673.jpg",hash:"13092df328080c762dd9157be18ca38c",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12215",title:"Cell Death and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12215.jpg",hash:"dfd456a29478fccf4ebd3294137eb1e3",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 29th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{id:"83053",title:"Apologies in L2 French in Canadian Context",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106557",signatures:"Bernard Mulo Farenkia",slug:"apologies-in-l2-french-in-canadian-context",totalDownloads:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Bernard",surname:"Mulo Farenkia"}],book:{title:"Second Language Acquisition - Learning Theories and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11480.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82903",title:"Walking Accessibility to Primary Healthcare Services: An Inequity Factor for Olders in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (Portugal)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106265",signatures:"Eduarda Marques da Costa, Ana Louro, Nuno Marques da Costa, Mariana Dias and Marcela Barata",slug:"walking-accessibility-to-primary-healthcare-services-an-inequity-factor-for-olders-in-the-lisbon-met",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg",subseries:{id:"90",title:"Human Development"}}},{id:"82622",title:"Contemporary Geographical Gerontology: Reconciling Space and Place in Population Ageing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105863",signatures:"Hamish Robertson",slug:"contemporary-geographical-gerontology-reconciling-space-and-place-in-population-ageing",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hamish",surname:"Robertson"}],book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg",subseries:{id:"90",title:"Human Development"}}},{id:"82610",title:"Perspective Chapter: The Role of Learning Styles in Active Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105964",signatures:"Armando Lozano-Rodríguez, Fernanda Inez García-Vázquez and José Luis García-Cué",slug:"perspective-chapter-the-role-of-learning-styles-in-active-learning",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"81909",title:"Educational Paradigm with Ubuntu Mindset: Implications for Sustainable Development Goals in Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104929",signatures:"George Frempong and Raavee Kadam",slug:"educational-paradigm-with-ubuntu-mindset-implications-for-sustainable-development-goals-in-education",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82243",title:"The Language that Grade R Students Use to Achieve the Envisaged Mathematics Outcomes, a South African Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105446",signatures:"Shakespear M. Chiphambo and Nosisi N. Feza",slug:"the-language-that-grade-r-students-use-to-achieve-the-envisaged-mathematics-outcomes-a-south-african",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82394",title:"Learning by Doing Active Social Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105523",signatures:"Anat Raviv",slug:"learning-by-doing-active-social-learning",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82310",title:"Knowledge of Intergenerational Contact to Combat Ageism towards Older People",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105592",signatures:"Alice Nga Lai Kwong",slug:"knowledge-of-intergenerational-contact-to-combat-ageism-towards-older-people",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Social Aspects of Ageing - Selected Challenges, Analyses, and Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11479.jpg",subseries:{id:"90",title:"Human Development"}}},{id:"81993",title:"Emergent Chemistry: Using Visualizations to Develop Abstract Thinking and a Sense of Scale Within the Preschool Setting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105216",signatures:"Karina Adbo",slug:"emergent-chemistry-using-visualizations-to-develop-abstract-thinking-and-a-sense-of-scale-within-the",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}},{id:"82252",title:"Early Childhood: Enriched Environments and Roles of Caring Adults",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105157",signatures:"Analía Mignaton",slug:"early-childhood-enriched-environments-and-roles-of-caring-adults",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg",subseries:{id:"89",title:"Education"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Human Development",value:90,count:3,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Education",value:89,count:8,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10840",title:"Benzimidazole",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",slug:"benzimidazole",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pravin Kendrekar and Vinayak Adimule",hash:"e28c770013e7a8dd0fc37aea6aa9def8",volumeInSeries:34,fullTitle:"Benzimidazole",editors:[{id:"310674",title:"Dr.",name:"Pravin",middleName:null,surname:"Kendrekar",slug:"pravin-kendrekar",fullName:"Pravin Kendrekar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310674/images/system/310674.jpg",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",volumeInSeries:33,fullTitle:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",volumeInSeries:32,fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195290/images/system/195290.png",institutionString:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institution:{name:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",slug:"protein-detection",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",volumeInSeries:31,fullTitle:"Protein Detection",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",volumeInSeries:30,fullTitle:"Cell Culture - Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",slug:"hydrolases",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",volumeInSeries:29,fullTitle:"Hydrolases",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110708/images/system/110708.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10803",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10803.jpg",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rizwan Ahmad",hash:"176adcf090fdd1f93cb8ce3146e79ca1",volumeInSeries:28,fullTitle:"Reactive Oxygen Species",editors:[{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9008",title:"Vitamin K",subtitle:"Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9008.jpg",slug:"vitamin-k-recent-topics-on-the-biology-and-chemistry",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hiroyuki Kagechika and Hitoshi Shirakawa",hash:"8b43add5389ba85743e0a9491e4b9943",volumeInSeries:27,fullTitle:"Vitamin K - Recent Topics on the Biology and Chemistry",editors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",volumeInSeries:26,fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts",subtitle:"Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",slug:"fibroblasts-advances-in-inflammation-autoimmunity-and-cancer",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Katja Lakota",hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",volumeInSeries:25,fullTitle:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Inflammation, Autoimmunity and Cancer",editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",middleName:null,surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/328755/images/system/328755.jpg",institutionString:"BioMed X Institute",institution:{name:"University Hospital of Zurich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinases",subtitle:"Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",slug:"protein-kinases-promising-targets-for-anticancer-drug-research",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rajesh Kumar Singh",hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",volumeInSeries:24,fullTitle:"Protein Kinases - Promising Targets for Anticancer Drug Research",editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8018",title:"Extracellular Matrix",subtitle:"Developments and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",slug:"extracellular-matrix-developments-and-therapeutics",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Zvi Loewy",hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",volumeInSeries:23,fullTitle:"Extracellular Matrix - Developments and Therapeutics",editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Proteomics",value:18,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Metabolism",value:17,count:6},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell and Molecular Biology",value:14,count:9},{group:"subseries",caption:"Chemical Biology",value:15,count:14}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:9},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:7},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:12},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:2}],authors:{paginationCount:35,paginationItems:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",middleName:null,surname:"Lousada",slug:"sergio-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio Lousada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248645/images/system/248645.jpg",biography:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada has an international Ph.D. in Civil Engineering (Hydraulics). He teaches Hydraulics, Environment, and Water Resources and Construction at the University of Madeira, Portugal. He has published articles and books and participated in events mainly in the areas of hydraulics, urban planning, and land management. Furthermore, he collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx); VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; CITUR - Madeira - Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Madeira, Portugal; and Institute of Research on Territorial Governance and Inter-Organizational Cooperation, Dąbrowa Górnicza, Poland. Moreover, he holds an International master\\'s degree in Ports and Coasts Engineering.",institutionString:"University of Madeira",institution:{name:"University of Madeira",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"424419",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew",middleName:"Ayorinde",surname:"Ayorinde Adebayo",slug:"matthew-ayorinde-adebayo",fullName:"Matthew Ayorinde Adebayo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/424419/images/17356_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"215342",title:"Prof.",name:"José Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Naranjo Gómez",slug:"jose-manuel-naranjo-gomez",fullName:"José Manuel Naranjo Gómez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"354033",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Nasri",slug:"ahmed-nasri",fullName:"Ahmed Nasri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"435702",title:"Dr.",name:"Amel",middleName:null,surname:"Hannachi",slug:"amel-hannachi",fullName:"Amel Hannachi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"420857",title:"Prof.",name:"Ezzeddine",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoudi",slug:"ezzeddine-mahmoudi",fullName:"Ezzeddine Mahmoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"420856",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamouda",middleName:null,surname:"Beyrem",slug:"hamouda-beyrem",fullName:"Hamouda Beyrem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"435703",title:"Dr.",name:"Hary",middleName:null,surname:"Demey",slug:"hary-demey",fullName:"Hary Demey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Cartagena",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"425026",title:"Mr.",name:"Kholofelo",middleName:null,surname:"Clifford Malematja",slug:"kholofelo-clifford-malematja",fullName:"Kholofelo Clifford Malematja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tshwane University of Technology",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"435701",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Allouche",slug:"mohamed-allouche",fullName:"Mohamed Allouche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"420855",title:"Prof.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Aïssa",slug:"patricia-aissa",fullName:"Patricia Aïssa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"435699",title:"Dr.",name:"Takoua",middleName:null,surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"takoua-mhadhbi",fullName:"Takoua Mhadhbi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Carthage",country:{name:"Tunisia"}}},{id:"442300",title:"Prof.",name:"Véronique",middleName:null,surname:"Perrier",slug:"veronique-perrier",fullName:"Véronique Perrier",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Montpellier",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"445179",title:"Mr.",name:"Aman",middleName:null,surname:"Jaiswal",slug:"aman-jaiswal",fullName:"Aman Jaiswal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"445178",title:"Mr.",name:"Dhiraj",middleName:null,surname:"Dutta",slug:"dhiraj-dutta",fullName:"Dhiraj Dutta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Defence Research Laboratory",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"445180",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama",middleName:null,surname:"Dubey",slug:"rama-dubey",fullName:"Rama Dubey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Defence Research Laboratory",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424992",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Helal",slug:"mohamed-helal",fullName:"Mohamed Helal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"426808",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yesim",middleName:null,surname:"Gucbilmez",slug:"yesim-gucbilmez",fullName:"Yesim Gucbilmez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Eskisehir Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"428329",title:"Mr.",name:"Collet",middleName:null,surname:"Maswanganyi",slug:"collet-maswanganyi",fullName:"Collet Maswanganyi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Limpopo",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"428546",title:"MSc.",name:"Ndivhuwo",middleName:null,surname:"Shumbula",slug:"ndivhuwo-shumbula",fullName:"Ndivhuwo Shumbula",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"352155",title:"Dr.",name:"Poslet",middleName:"Morgan",surname:"Shumbula",slug:"poslet-shumbula",fullName:"Poslet Shumbula",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Limpopo",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"435064",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammadtaghi",middleName:null,surname:"Vakili",slug:"mohammadtaghi-vakili",fullName:"Mohammadtaghi Vakili",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Yangtze Normal University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"437268",title:"Dr.",name:"Linda Lunga",middleName:null,surname:"Sibali",slug:"linda-lunga-sibali",fullName:"Linda Lunga Sibali",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437269",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter P.",middleName:null,surname:"Ndibewu",slug:"peter-p.-ndibewu",fullName:"Peter P. Ndibewu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"424106",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Siyabonga",middleName:null,surname:"Aubrey Mhlongo",slug:"siyabonga-aubrey-mhlongo",fullName:"Siyabonga Aubrey Mhlongo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"424233",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Ifeoluwa Oluwafunmilayo",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"ifeoluwa-oluwafunmilayo-daramola",fullName:"Ifeoluwa Oluwafunmilayo Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"446429",title:"Dr.",name:"Dev Vrat",middleName:null,surname:"Kamboj",slug:"dev-vrat-kamboj",fullName:"Dev Vrat Kamboj",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"425585",title:"Dr.",name:"NISHA",middleName:null,surname:"GAUR",slug:"nisha-gaur",fullName:"NISHA GAUR",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"226635",title:"Prof.",name:"Amany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Sikaily",slug:"amany-el-sikaily",fullName:"Amany El-Sikaily",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"435668",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Ghanem",slug:"sara-ghanem",fullName:"Sara Ghanem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"8",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",slug:"marcus-vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",slug:"ramana-vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:8,paginationItems:[{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",slug:"thresholding-image-techniques-for-plant-segmentation",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81234",title:"Cognitive Visual Tracking of Hand Gestures in Real-Time RGB Videos",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103170",signatures:"Richa Golash and Yogendra Kumar Jain",slug:"cognitive-visual-tracking-of-hand-gestures-in-real-time-rgb-videos",totalDownloads:50,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"80064",title:"Robust Template Update Strategy for Efficient Visual Object Tracking",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101800",signatures:"Awet Haileslassie Gebrehiwot, Jesus Bescos and Alvaro Garcia-Martin",slug:"robust-template-update-strategy-for-efficient-visual-object-tracking",totalDownloads:74,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"80109",title:"Siamese-Based Attention Learning Networks for Robust Visual Object Tracking",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101698",signatures:"Md. Maklachur Rahman and Soon Ki Jung",slug:"siamese-based-attention-learning-networks-for-robust-visual-object-tracking",totalDownloads:122,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"79005",title:"Smart-Road: Road Damage Estimation Using a Mobile Device",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100289",signatures:"Izyalith E. Álvarez-Cisneros, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, David Araujo-Díaz, Miguel A. Castillo-Martínez and L. Méndez-Segundo",slug:"-em-smart-road-em-road-damage-estimation-using-a-mobile-device",totalDownloads:135,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"78576",title:"A Study on Traditional and CNN Based Computer Vision Sensors for Detection and Recognition of Road Signs with Realization for ADAS",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99416",signatures:"Vinay M. Shivanna, Kuan-Chou Chen, Bo-Xun Wu and Jiun-In Guo",slug:"a-study-on-traditional-and-cnn-based-computer-vision-sensors-for-detection-and-recognition-of-road-s",totalDownloads:106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"77617",title:"Adsorption-Semiconductor Sensor Based on Nanosized SnO2 for Early Warning of Indoor Fires",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98989",signatures:"Nelli Maksymovych, Ludmila Oleksenko and George Fedorenko",slug:"adsorption-semiconductor-sensor-based-on-nanosized-sno-sub-2-sub-for-early-warning-of-indoor-fires",totalDownloads:54,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10840",title:"Benzimidazole",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10840.jpg",slug:"benzimidazole",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Pravin Kendrekar and Vinayak Adimule",hash:"e28c770013e7a8dd0fc37aea6aa9def8",volumeInSeries:34,fullTitle:"Benzimidazole",editors:[{id:"310674",title:"Dr.",name:"Pravin",middleName:null,surname:"Kendrekar",slug:"pravin-kendrekar",fullName:"Pravin Kendrekar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310674/images/system/310674.jpg",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",volumeInSeries:33,fullTitle:"Starch - Evolution and Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",volumeInSeries:32,fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195290/images/system/195290.png",institutionString:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institution:{name:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",slug:"hydrolases",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",volumeInSeries:29,fullTitle:"Hydrolases",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110708/images/system/110708.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10799",title:"Phenolic Compounds",subtitle:"Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10799.jpg",slug:"phenolic-compounds-chemistry-synthesis-diversity-non-conventional-industrial-pharmaceutical-and-therapeutic-applications",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",hash:"339199f254d2987ef3167eef74fb8a38",volumeInSeries:26,fullTitle:"Phenolic Compounds - Chemistry, Synthesis, Diversity, Non-Conventional Industrial, Pharmaceutical and Therapeutic Applications",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9753",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",subtitle:"Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9753.jpg",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids-recent-advances",publishedDate:"July 28th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shagufta Perveen and Areej Mohammad Al-Taweel",hash:"575689df13c78bf0e6c1be40804cd010",volumeInSeries:21,fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids - Recent Advances",editors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",slug:"oxidoreductase",publishedDate:"February 17th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",volumeInSeries:19,fullTitle:"Oxidoreductase",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/224662/images/system/224662.jpg",institutionString:"King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences",institution:{name:"King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8094",title:"Aflatoxin B1 Occurrence, Detection and Toxicological Effects",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8094.jpg",slug:"aflatoxin-b1-occurrence-detection-and-toxicological-effects",publishedDate:"June 3rd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Xi-Dai Long",hash:"44f4ad52d8a8cbb22ef3d505d6b18027",volumeInSeries:14,fullTitle:"Aflatoxin B1 Occurrence, Detection and Toxicological Effects",editors:[{id:"202142",title:"Prof.",name:"Xi-Dai",middleName:null,surname:"Long",slug:"xi-dai-long",fullName:"Xi-Dai Long",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202142/images/system/202142.jpeg",institutionString:"Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities",institution:{name:"University of Macau",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Macau"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8004",title:"Nitrogen Fixation",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8004.jpg",slug:"nitrogen-fixation",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Everlon Cid Rigobelo and Ademar Pereira Serra",hash:"02f39c8365ba155d1c520184c2f26976",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Nitrogen Fixation",editors:[{id:"39553",title:"Prof.",name:"Everlon",middleName:"Cid",surname:"Rigobelo",slug:"everlon-rigobelo",fullName:"Everlon Rigobelo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/39553/images/system/39553.jpg",institutionString:"São Paulo State University",institution:{name:"Sao Paulo State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8028",title:"Flavonoids",subtitle:"A Coloring Model for Cheering up Life",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8028.jpg",slug:"flavonoids-a-coloring-model-for-cheering-up-life",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria and Anthony Ananga",hash:"6c33178a5c7d2b276d2c6af4255def64",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Flavonoids - A Coloring Model for Cheering up Life",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8170",title:"Chemical Properties of Starch",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8170.jpg",slug:"chemical-properties-of-starch",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Martins Emeje",hash:"0aedfdb374631bb3a33870c4ed16559a",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Chemical Properties of Starch",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8019",title:"Alginates",subtitle:"Recent Uses of This Natural Polymer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8019.jpg",slug:"alginates-recent-uses-of-this-natural-polymer",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira",hash:"61ea5c1aef462684a3b2215631b7dbf2",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Alginates - Recent Uses of This Natural Polymer",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/100701",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"100701"},fullPath:"/profiles/100701",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()