Microbiological quality of grass silages (n = 109) from practical farms in Germany.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Despite its highefficiency, widely acclaimed potentials, and limitations, the Low Salinity Water Flooding (LSWF), hybrid, and nanotechnology applications have gained vast interest with promising future to increase ultimate oil recovery, tackle operational challenges, reduce environmental damage, and allow the highest feasible recoveries with lower production costs. This synergistic combination has opened new routes for novel materials with fascinating properties. This book aims to provide an overview of EOR technology such as LSWF, hybrid, and nanotechnology applications in EOR processes.",isbn:"978-1-78985-108-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-107-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-153-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77411",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"enhanced-oil-recovery-processes-new-technologies",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"62359d9c21b76f899be04fa0f8b46668",bookSignature:"Ariffin Samsuri",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7609.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6728,numberOfWosCitations:12,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:38,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:67,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 9th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 8th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 7th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 26th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 24th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"120519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ariffin",middleName:null,surname:"Samsuri",slug:"ariffin-samsuri",fullName:"Ariffin Samsuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/120519/images/system/120519.jfif",biography:"Professor Dr. Ariffin Samsuri is a Senior Professor of the Petroleum Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) with vast experience in managing R&D projects, faculty and department. He had more than 36 years teaching and supervising experiences in petroleum engineering including academic program development, staffing, faculty, and facilities establishment. He also had been appointed as a visiting professor at Universiti Teknologi Petronas, peer reviewers, external examiners, expert and academic advisory panels. He has published 142 technical papers for conferences/seminars and journals, authored 6 books, 3 book chapters, translated 4 books, edited 11 books and 5 research monographs. He also involved in more than 30 research projects in production optimization, rock mechanics, wellbore stability, well stimulation, cement and cementing, drilling and drilling fluid, biofuel and nanotechnology application in oil & gas.",institutionString:"University of Technology Malaysia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"768",title:"Petroleum Engineering",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-petroleum-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"68009",title:"Hybrid EOR Methods Utilizing Low-Salinity Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88056",slug:"hybrid-eor-methods-utilizing-low-salinity-water",totalDownloads:1277,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Low-salinity water (LSW) flooding has been applied in sandstone and carbonate formations to improve oil recovery. Wettability alteration by LSW has been identified as the dominant driving mechanism for the incremental oil recoveries. LSW flooding has been combined with other EOR methods to develop new hybrid approaches to improve crude/brine/rock (CBR) interactions with the objective of overcoming some of the LSW flooding downsides, which include oil trapping and fine migration. Hybrid methods can provide higher oil recovery than each stand-alone technique. For instance, changes in gas solubility during LSW injection positively affect the performance of LSW/gas hybrid injection. LSW/surfactant flooding can contribute to incremental recovery by simultaneously lowering interfacial tension (IFT) and wettability alteration. The synergistic effect of fluid redistribution by LSW and enhanced water mobility by polymer flooding improves oil detachment and displacement in porous media through the application of the hybrid approach LSW/polymer flooding. Nanoparticles (NPs), mainly SiO2, can alter wettability toward more water wetness in combination with LSW, and hot LSW can improve heavy oil production by reducing viscosity. Hence, the synergistic effect of hybrid EOR methods based on LSW flooding is considered a novel EOR approach to improve oil recovery.",signatures:"Peyman Pourafshary and Nikoo Moradpour",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68009",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68009",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69126",title:"Nanotechnology Application in Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery: Current Opinion and Recent Advances",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88140",slug:"nanotechnology-application-in-chemical-enhanced-oil-recovery-current-opinion-and-recent-advances",totalDownloads:1136,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chemical enhanced oil recovery (EOR) has been adjudged as an efficient oil recovery technique to recover bypassed oil and residual oil trapped in the reservoir. This EOR method relies on the injection of chemicals to boost oil recovery. Recently, due to the limitations of the application of chemical EOR methods to reservoirs having elevated temperatures and high salinity and hardness concentrations, nanotechnology have been applied to enhance its efficiency and improve oil productivity. The synergistic combination of nanoparticles and conventional EOR chemicals has opened new routes for the synthesis and application of novel materials with sterling and fascinating properties. In this chapter, an up-to-date synopsis of nanotechnology applications in chemical EOR is discussed. A detailed explanation of the mechanism and applications of these novel methods for oil recovery are appraised and analyzed. Finally, experimental and laboratory results were outlined. This overview presents extensive information about new frontiers in chemical EOR applications for sustainable energy production.",signatures:"Afeez Gbadamosi, Radzuan Junin, Muhammad Manan, Augustine Agi and Jeffrey Oseh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69126",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69126",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68749",title:"Surfactant Flooding for EOR Using Sodium Lignosulfonate Synthesized from Bagasse",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88689",slug:"surfactant-flooding-for-eor-using-sodium-lignosulfonate-synthesized-from-bagasse",totalDownloads:802,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surfactant injection is one of the types of chemical injections used in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) process. Surfactant can increase the interfacial tension between oil and water in the rock matrix. The surfactant used is an anionic surfactant, which is one of the lignosulfonate surfactants known as sodium lignosulfonate (SLS) surfactant derived from lignin. Bagasse is one of the raw materials having a high content of lignin (24–25%). The synthesized bagasse becomes lignosulfonate used as an isolation of lignin and transformed into sodium lignosulfonate by sulfonation process. Based on the characteristic test, the bagasse’s SLS surfactant has some qualified characteristics which are a good aqueous stability, clear solution and not causing turbidity, and capability to form middle-phase microemulsion with light oil. Synthesized SLS has a hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) value of 11.6 which can be classified as oil in water (O/W) emulsion. Middle-phase emulsion as a characteristic SLS surfactant affects the performance of the SLS surfactant injection. So the use of sodium lignosulfonate surfactant synthesized from bagasse is a challenge to be developed further as a surfactant flooding.",signatures:"Rini Setiati, Septoratno Siregar, Taufan Marhaendrajana and Deana Wahyuningrum",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68749",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68749",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69162",title:"Direct Gas Thickener",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88083",slug:"direct-gas-thickener",totalDownloads:645,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Direct gas thickening technique has been developed to control the gas mobility in the miscible gas injection process for enhanced oil recovery. This technique involves increasing the viscosity of the injected gas by adding chemicals that exhibit good solubility in common gasses, such as CO2 or hydrocarbon (HC) solvents. This chapter presents a review of the latest attempts to thicken CO2 and/or hydrocarbon gases using various chemical additives, which can be broadly categorised into polymeric, conventional oligomers, and small-molecule self-interacting compounds. In an ideal situation, chemical compounds must be soluble in the dense CO2 or hydrocarbon solvents and insoluble in both crude oil and brine at reservoir conditions. However, it has been recognised that the use of additives with extraordinary molecular weights for the above purpose would be quite challenging since most of the supercritical fluids are very stable with reduced properties as solvents due to the very low dielectric constant, lack of dipole momentum, and low density. Therefore, one way to attain adequate solubility is to elevate the system pressure and temperature because such conditions give rise to the intermolecular forces between segments or introduce functional groups that undergo self-interacting or intermolecular interactions in the oligomer molecular chains to form a viscosity-enhancing supramolecular network structure in the solution. According to this review, some of the polymers tested to date, such as polydimethylsiloxane, polyfluoroacrylate styrene, and poly(1,1-dihydroperfluorooctyl acrylate), may induce a significant increase of the solvent viscosity at high concentrations. However, the cost and environmental constraints of these materials have made the field application of these thickeners unfeasible. Until now, thickeners composed of small molecules have shown little success to thicken CO2, because CO2 is a weak solvent due to its ionic and polar characteristics. However, these thickeners have resulted in promising outcomes when used in light alkane solvents.",signatures:"Nasser Mohammed Al Hinai, Matthews Myers, Colin D. Wood and Ali Saeedi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69162",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69162",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69025",title:"Potential of Low-Salinity Waterflooding Technology to Improve Oil Recovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88082",slug:"potential-of-low-salinity-waterflooding-technology-to-improve-oil-recovery",totalDownloads:1056,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Low-salinity waterflooding (LSWF) is a potential new method for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in sandstone and carbonate rock formations. LSWF approach has gained an attention in the oil and gas industry due to its potential advantages over the conventional waterflooding and other chemical EOR technologies. The efficiency of waterflooding process is effected via reservoir and fluid parameters such as formation rock type, porosity, permeability, reservoir fluid saturation and distribution and optimum time of water injection. Combined effect of these factors can define the ultimate recovery of hydrocarbon. The main objective of this chapter is to review the mechanism of LSWF technique in improving oil recovery and the mechanism under which it operates. Various laboratory studies and few field applications of LSWF in recent years have been presented mainly at the lab scale. Also it will explore numerical modeling developments of this EOR approach.",signatures:"Hisham Ben Mahmud, Shattia Arumugam and Walid Mahmud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69025",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69025",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68839",title:"Development and Application of Chemical EOR Technologies in China Offshore Oil Fields",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88942",slug:"development-and-application-of-chemical-eor-technologies-in-china-offshore-oil-fields",totalDownloads:784,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"At present, polymer flooding as the most effective chemical EOR technique is widely used in onshore oil fields in the world. Also, it has been successfully applied in China offshore oil fields as a major EOR technology. CNOOC has preliminarily established a chemical flooding (polymer, polymer-surfactant, weak gel, etc.) technology system including high-efficiency chemical flooding agents, platform injection facilities, and produced liquid treatment technology. Since 2003, pilot tests and field applications were carried out in S, L, and JW oil fields, and predicted oil increment and good economic benefits have been achieved, which proved that offshore chemical EOR technology is feasible and economical. It has explored a new road for increasing the recovery of offshore oil fields and provided a solid technical guarantee for their economic and efficient development.",signatures:"Jian Zhang, Fengjiu Zhang, Xiaodong Kang and Baozhen Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68839",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69763",title:"CO2-EOR/Sequestration: Current Trends and Future Horizons",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89540",slug:"co-sub-2-sub-eor-sequestration-current-trends-and-future-horizons",totalDownloads:1030,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of carbon dioxide (CO2) as an improved oil recovery (IOR) method has been a common practice in petroleum engineering. In this chapter, various technical aspects of application of CO2 to increase oil recovery are discussed. From the required laboratory tests prior to field applications to postinjection monitoring of injected plume, the required onshore and offshore facilities, the environmental considerations, and challenges concerning the application of CO2 for EOR purposes have been covered in this chapter. Moreover, the emerging methods and industry trends in applications of CO2 for EOR will be discussed. The second part of this chapter is dedicated to CO2 sequestration as a method to mitigate CO2 emitted due to the anthropogenic activities. CO2 sequestration is the injection of large quantities of CO2 into underground reservoirs (oil and gas, aquifers, and coal deposits) where it can be securely and permanently stored.",signatures:"Erfan Mohammadian, Badrul Mohamed Jan, Amin Azdarpour, Hossein Hamidi, Nur Hidayati Binti Othman, Aqilah Dollah, Siti Nurliyana Binti Che Mohamed Hussein and Rozana Azrina Binti Sazali",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69763",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6532",title:"Drilling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3bb91a4e4eb17b4395091940cf1c36fe",slug:"drilling",bookSignature:"Ariffin Samsuri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6532.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"frontiers_in_adaptive_control",bookSignature:"Shuang Cong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3697.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3118",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuang",surname:"Cong",slug:"shuang-cong",fullName:"Shuang Cong"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"78861",title:"Nutrition of the High-Yielding Dairy Cow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99438",slug:"nutrition-of-the-high-yielding-dairy-cow",body:'In everyday life, the feeding of cattle is usually judged from an economic point of view: A feed fulfils its purpose if it supplies the animal in such a way that it achieves its performance and is also as cost-effective as possible. In the process, animal welfare is sometimes overlooked, although this in turn has an influence on performance, useful life and thus also on the economic viability of cattle farming.
Since the 1970s, the performance of dairy cows has increased by more than 35%. At the same time, however, the age of life decreased significantly [1]. Thus, about 30% of dairy cows already drop out in the first lactation. This is mainly caused by udder diseases (around 30% of mergers), but hoof and joint diseases as well as metabolic disorders (around 10% each) are also cited as causes [2]. There is no doubt that several factors are responsible for these developments and must be taken into account and optimised accordingly. However, the question arises as to the importance of feeding in this context. According to the Animal Welfare Act (§ 2), anyone who keeps, looks after or has to look after an animal must feed, care for and house the animal in a manner appropriate to its species and needs.
Here, the interlink between feeding and husbandry becomes clear. In order to ensure sufficient feed intake, the housing conditions must first be designed in such a way that the animal is able to carry out its physiological behaviour with regard to food and water intake as well as chewing behaviour. The design of housing follows the concept of the “five freedoms”, which requires freedom from (1) hunger and thirst, (2) discomfort, (3) pain, injury and disease, (4) fear and stress, and (5) the exercise of normal behaviour. The importance of this behavioural concept for the general performance of animals is underpinned by studies carried out within the AgroClustEr PHÄNOMICS at the University of Rostock and the Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology. It was shown that different temperament types differ not only in their behaviour, but also in their metabolism [3]. Taking into account the species-specific (preferably temperament-specific) requirements helps to make optimal use of existing metabolic pathways.
In order to enable the animal to ingest sufficient quantities of feedstuff, there should be (except in the case of stations in which concentrated feed is offered) an animal to feeding place ratio of 1: 1 (control report 2015 for Lower Saxony and Bremen in accordance with Article 41 of EU Regulation No. 809/2014 for the on-the-spot controls on cross compliance [4, 5]). The feed offered must meet clear legal requirements. According to § 3 of the Animal Welfare Act, it is forbidden to offer feed that causes the animal considerable pain, suffering or damage. This certainly refers to contamination such as foreign bodies (stones, wire, etc.) or poisonous plants, but also to the hygiene status of a feed (e.g. yeast content, contamination with mycotoxins), which can have considerable consequences for the animal’s well-being (e.g. tympania in younger cattle after ingestion of heavily contaminated silage). In addition, the ration design itself is also important, which will be discussed in the following chapters. Imbalances in the crude fibre and starch content of the feed, lack of synchronicity in the rumen, energy or mineral deficiencies as well as the use of less palatable feeds are examples to be mentioned here. Finally, the feeding technique is also important, which varies considerably in some cases and affects the quality of the cow’s supply and thus their well-being.
In the following, the general aspects of ration design for high-yielding cows and the problems that arise in practice will be discussed. Data from the service area, in which cases of damage caused by nutritive factors will be presented. In addition, results from ongoing scientific studies will be included accordingly.
Feed rations for dairy cows consist of roughage (basic feed) as well as concentrates and mineral feeds. The quality of the roughage already has a significant influence on the amount of feed consumed [6, 7]. When checking the hygiene status of grass silage (n = 109), 41% of the samples showed an increased yeast contamination, which is associated with poorer acceptance of the feed [8] and thus lower feed intake quantities (see Table 1).
Number of samples (n) | Relative proportion (%) | |
---|---|---|
Aerobic bacteria | ||
Tolerable levels (< 2 x 105 cfu/g*) | 82 | 75 |
Non-tolerable levels (> 2 x 105 cfu/g) | 27 | 25 |
Moulds | ||
Tolerable levels (< 5 x 103 cfu/g) | 96 | 88 |
Non-tolerable levels (> 5 x 103 cfu/g) | 13 | 12 |
Yeasts | ||
Tolerable levels (< 2 x 105 cfu/g) | 64 | 59 |
Non-tolerable levels (> 2 x 105 cfu/g) | 45 | 41 |
Microbiological quality of grass silages (n = 109) from practical farms in Germany.
Fresh matter.
Therefore, it is evident that yeasts are not only found in corn silage, but that in the case of corresponding clinical disorders, the grass silages in the ration should also be considered. In this study, slightly more than 40% of the samples examined had yeast contents that were higher than the usual recommended limit values.
In general, in the case of reduced performance or illnesses in the dairy herd, special attention should be paid to the basic feedstuffs (in addition to corn silage, especially grass silage) and these should be analysed accordingly.
In most cases of clinical disorders in cattle a causal relationship could be established between microbiological findings and pre-reported disorders (see Table 2).
2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | |
Total grass silage sent in*. | 64 | 63 | 80 | 63 | ||||
Deviations in hygiene status | 15 | 23.4 | 16 | 25.4 | 19 | 23.4 | 14 | 22.2 |
Preliminary report | ||||||||
Post-heating after silo opening | 2 | 13.3 | 6 | 37.5 | 3 | 15.8 | 1 | 7.1 |
Deviations in the sensory test | 4 | 26.7 | 4 | 25.0 | 3 | 15.8 | 4 | 28.6 |
Reduced feed intake/milk yield | 2 | 13.3 | 2 | 12.5 | 6 | 31.5 | 5 | 35.7 |
Enteritis, diarrhoea | 4 | 26.7 | 1 | 6.25 | 5 | 26.3 | — | — |
Mastitis, abortions | 1 | 6.7 | 2 | 12.5 | 1 | 5.3 | 4 | 28.6 |
Metabolic disorders, liver diseases | 2 | 13.3 | 1 | 6.25 | 1 | 5.3 | — | — |
Quality of grass silages sent in to the institute (2017–2020).
Analyses due to clinical disorders, no control analyses.
Thus, deviations in the hygiene status could be found in every 5th sample examined (22–25%). On average, 25% of the samples already showed deviations in the sensory test. Therefore, it makes sense to take a critical look at the basic feed from time to time.
In addition to the hygiene status, attention should also be paid to the botanical composition of the green fodder. The presence of velvet grass leads to a poorer acceptance of the forage and to a reduced regurgitation. While the number of chews per bolus averaged 250 ± 57 when hay is offered, the chewing frequency is significantly lower (146 ± 91 chews per bolus) due to the proportion of velvet grass (
Due to the more intensive nitrogen (N) fertilisation and the partly developing resistance to common herbicides, there has been an increasing trend in recent years towards the infestation of monocultures with poisonous plants [9]. Examples are the occurrence of black nightshade (
This development can be explained, among other things, by altered management of agricultural land, such as the trend towards extensification (migration of poisonous plants from fallow land into cropland, restrictions of fertilisers, ban on herbicides). Renaturation measures (e.g. raising the groundwater level) can also promote the spread of certain poisonous plants (e.g. marsh horsetail). In addition, there are neophytes, i.e. plants that are not endemic to the respective area but are spreading more and more over time and as a result of climate change. For example, golden oat grass (Vit. D efficacy!), whose distribution was previously limited to the Alpine regions and southern Germany [11], is now also increasingly found in northern Germany. On the outskirts of cities, ruminants also come into contact with ornamental plants containing toxic substances that are not usually part of their food spectrum (e.g. planting hedges for privacy protection). In this context, the improper “recreational horticultural disposal” of ornamental plants with toxic ingredients on adjacent pastures should be mentioned [12].
Sometimes, under the assumption that detoxification processes generally take place in the rumen, feeds with a reduced hygiene status are used in ruminants, which is obsolete in other species (e.g. horses). The same applies to contamination of the feed with poisonous plants, although some can be quite lethal, these are used in ruminants under the assumption that they are detoxified in the rumen.
While in the years 2000 to 2005 only about 5 to 10 cases per year were sent in, in which feed was to be checked for the presence of poisonous plants or plants with poisonous ingredients, in the past two years there were already 87 (2019) and 117 cases (2020) in which the suspicion of possible contamination with poisonous plants was expressed in the preliminary report.
Offering a feed contaminated with dog’s mercury resulted in severe clinical signs. This toxic plant contains mercurialin (= methylamine), trimethylamine, hermidine, saponin (1% in the herb, highest content at fruit ripeness) and essential oils. The main ingredient mercurialin, which belongs to the saponins, leads to liver damage and haemolysis in cattle (typical clinical sign: icterus). The animals typically show apathy, salivation, reduced rumen motility and are often laying in autoscultatory posture. Corresponding laboratory analyses show a high degree of haemolytic anaemia as well as haemoglobinuria [10].
The effect of mercurialin is also present in dried plant material, whereas no information is available on a possible influence of ensiling on the toxic ingredients. In order to clarify the extent to which the ensiling process leads to a degradation of the toxic ingredients, heifers (n = 6) were offered beet leaf silage contaminated with 20% dog’s mercury in a feeding trial. Compared to the control group (n = 6), there was a significantly reduced basal feed intake (see Figure 1).
Roughage intake of heifers feeding beet leaf silage with and without dog’s mercury.
The presence of marsh horsetail in a total mixed ration TMR for dairy cows also leads to a significantly reduced feed intake (see Figure 2) and thus poorer milk production even at levels of only 1.25%.
DM intake of dairy cows when offered a TMR with different contents of marsh horsetail.
In addition to the roughage, the composition of the milk performance feed is also significantly responsible for the performance of the dairy cow. Macroscopically noticeable deviations (also in comparison to the previous batch) upon delivery of the feed should be a reason to have not only the chemical but also the botanical composition of the feed checked. A check revealed considerable discrepancies between declared and actually found feed materials in almost 35%. In one clinical case report (reduced milk yield), a high proportion of rapeseed cake instead of rapeseed extraction meal led to a fat content in the milk performance feed of 7.5% (instead of the declared 3.5%). The use of this feed led to a fat content of over 1500 g/animal/d (tolerated limit: 800 g crude fat/cow/d) and thus to fermentation disorders in the rumen.
The calculation of the ration by means of a computer program and table values must be preceded by an assessment (sensory testing, laboratory analyses), especially in the case of farm-produced feedstuff, as the nutrient content of feed can vary in a high range. This often results in discrepancies between calculated and actually fed rations, which give rise to complaints (see Table 3).
Checked rations (n) | Objections (%) | |
---|---|---|
Lactation | 87 | |
Crude fibre↓, Σ starch + sugar ↑ | 42 | 48.3 |
Crude fibre ↓, Σ starch + sugar ✓ | 11 | 12.6 |
Calcium ↑ | 13 | 14.9 |
Cu, Zn, Se ↓ | 10 | 11.5 |
Dry period | 52 | |
Energy density↑ crude fibre↓ | 19 | 36.5 |
Minerals ↑ (DCAB) | 10 | 19.2 |
Cu, Zn, Se ↓ | 5 | 9.6 |
Criticism of rations for cows during lactation and dry period.
Often the rations had insufficient fibre content (< 16%) and at the same time very high starch and sugar content (in total > 300 g/kg dm). This feeding situation involves the risk of rumen acidosis. During the dry period, the animals were often oversupplied with energy. A possible fatty degeneration associated with this is undesirable, especially around the time of birth. In almost 20% of the samples, elevated mineral content was detected, which is contrary to the DCAB concept and involves the risk of milk fever.
Microbial fermentations during silage preparation not only influence the energy and nutrient intake of cows, but - depending on the amount and proportional composition - also milk yield and composition [13].
For the assessment of ensiling success and protein intake via fresh and preserved green fodder, the pure protein content provides important information (see Table 4).
Feedstuff | n | Crude protein (% TS) | Pure protein (% of dry matter) | Pure protein portion of the crude protein (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Gras, fresh | 40 | 21.3 ± 2.5 | 18.9 ± 2.4 | 87.5 ± 2.87a |
Hay | 36 | 14.2 ± 5.9 | 11.5 ± 3.9 | 82.3 ± 4.57a |
Gras silage | 186 | 17.4 ± 2.4 | 8.9 ± 1.2 | 51.1 ± 9.54b |
Crude protein and pure protein levels in fresh and preserved green fodder.
Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) depending on the preservation method.
If ensiling is only insufficiently successful, proteolytic processes can lead to protein degradation [14]. The result is reduced pure protein content, which - if only the crude protein content of the fresh and preserved green fodder is assessed - can lead to an incorrect assessment of the protein supply of the dairy cow (see Table 5).
High quality | Low quality | ||
---|---|---|---|
Dry matter | g/kg fm | 375 ± 111 | 364 ± 108 |
Crude protein | g/kg fm | 171 ± 20.8 | 180 ± 15.3 |
Pure protein | g/kg fm | 94 ± 12.7 | 70 ± 7.3 |
Relation | % of crude protein | 55 ± 6.1 | 39 ± 4.0 |
Pure protein content in grass silage* of high or poor ensiling quality.
Grass silages with a low true protein percentage in the total crude protein are supposed to contribute to the aetiology of a disease that is described as “factorial disease of dairy herds” or a higher incidence of fertility disorders, respectively [15].
During such proteolyses, biogenic amines are produced, among other things, which significantly influence the acceptance of a feed. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the so-called lead substance, the analytical detection of which can be carried out quickly and without great effort in the laboratory. GABA correlates closely with the pure protein level of a silage (see Figure 3) and thus gives a first impression of the silage quality. It is also known from feeding trials that GABA contents >7 g/kg dry matter lead to a massive reduction in feed intake [15, 16].
GABA-levels in dependence of the pure protein level of grass silages.
In the case of inhomogeneous mixtures (insufficient mixing, strongly inhomogeneous particle lengths of the individual ingredients), the cows can select more palatable components (e.g. maize silage), so that - despite a balanced ration calculation on paper - there can then be insufficient fibre and simultaneously higher starch/sugar intakes [17].
A Total Mixed Ration (TMR) fulfils this requirement offering a simultaneous amount of richly-structured fibre and energy-rich components at the same time. But even if a homogenous and well-balanced feed mixture is offered the chemical composition (especially starch and fibre content) might differ between the offered and the actually ingested feed due to a selective feed intake behaviour in cows. In order to investigate this aspect 158 cows (Holstein Frisian) were split into two groups (group A, n = 76, TMR: 30.0 kg corn silage, 11.0 kg grass silage, 5.0 kg concentrate, 3.0 kg soybean meal, 2.4 kg alfalfa; Group B, n = 82, TMR: 29.0 kg corn silage, 11.0 kg grass silage, 3.6 kg concentrate, 2.0 kg soybean meal, 2.0 kg alfalfa). Starch and crude fibre were analysed using conventional methods. Measurement of particle size distribution followed recommendations of a commercial forage particle separator (Shaky 4.0, Wasserbauer, Waldneukirchen, Austria), consisting of three sieves with hole diameters of 19, 8 and 4 mm besides a collection tray for particles <4 mm.
Already in the first 30 minutes after feed offer a selective feed intake behaviour could be observed (see Table 6).
Sieve analysis | Chemical composition | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Group | n | ≥ 19 mm | < 4 mm | Crude fibre (% i. DM) | Starch (% i. DM) | |
A | Feed offer | 5 | 34.7 ± 21.7 | 31.2 ± 8.38 | 21.5 ± 2.45 | 22.7 ± 1.57 |
After 30 min | 5 | 33.1 ± 4.95 | 29.1 ± 1.45 | 23.4 ± 0.92 | 19.9 ± 3.11 | |
After 7.5 h | 5 | 54.5 ± 16.9 | 12.8 ± 2.46 | 26.7 ± 1.97 | 15.5 ± 1.57 | |
B | Feed offer | 5 | 25.7 ± 10.9 | 32.7 ± 2.12 | 24.0 ± 0.55 | 22.1 ± 3.76 |
After 30 min | 5 | 34.2 ± 14.9 | 27.4 ± 6.79 | 25.0 ± 1.10 | 18.7 ± 3.16 | |
After 7.5 h | 5 | 51.7 ± 9.88 | 24.7 ± 9.19 | 25.7 ± 2.04 | 19.0 ± 3.69 |
Development of particle size distribution and crude and fibre level in a TMR in the period following feed offer.
The distribution of particle sizes at the particular points of time as well as the chemical analysis of the feed suggest that the dairy cattle preferably ingest certain nutritious components (here probably corn silage). This selective feed intake behaviour implies the risk of SAARA due to the high starch and low fibre content in the actually ingested feed. The presented results show that selective feed intake is a non-negligible factor in dairy cattle nutrition. A synchronised intake of crude fibre and starch is not ensured even if the feed is offered homogenously. To avoid this selection all components would have to have identical particle sizes (as practiced with the compact-TMR or shredlage). The question is, however, if the cows would still show a physiological rumination behaviour under those conditions.
For decades, the question of the desirable/necessary supply of structured fibre to dairy cows (including cattle) has been the focus of animal nutrition science. Against this background, in 2014 the assessment of rations for dairy cows with regard to “fibre supply” was changed to a new system, namely the “physically effective NDF” (peNDF; [18]). The innovative feature of this concept is the unification of two criteria previously treated separately, namely.
the physical form (length of fibres, size of particles, i.e. structure, determined in a sieve analysis) and
the chemical composition of the total ration (sum of cell wall components, i.e. the NDF);
by multiplying the result of the sieve analysis (%, mass fractions) by the NDF content in the total ration (% of DM). According to previous studies and experience, a TMR should contain >18% peNDF>8 or > 32% peNDF>1.18 in the total DM to achieve optimal structural supply in dairy cows [19].
In feeding practice, the “shaker box” (so-called Penn State Particle Separator) offers an important tool for assessing the particle size distribution of a ration and, together with the NDF content, also for assessing the “structural effectiveness” of a ration. In our own investigations, however, it was shown that this approach is subject to various errors (Figure 4).
Particle size distribution in a grass silage depending on the person carrying out the analyses.
In addition to the mesh size of the sieves and the dry matter content of the silage (moist silage tends to stick together and thus gives the impression of longer particles), the result also depends to a large extent on the person carrying out the analysis. If an identical grass silage is examined by different persons, there is a very high scattering of the results.
A frequent animal welfare-relevant problem in the feeding of dairy cows is the insufficient intake of fibre-rich coarse feeds or the lack of synchronicity in the rumen. Consumption of sufficient quantities initially requires the production of high-quality grass silage and hay. However, studies from practice show that these often have higher contents of spoilage-indicating microorganisms (e.g. yeasts), sand, less palatable components (e.g. velvet grass) and ingredients (e.g. gamma-aminobutyric acid) or even just an unfavourable low dry matter (DM) content [7]. If these are mixed into a total mixed ration, the actually realised DM intake falls short of the expected one and the cow is sometimes not sufficiently supplied with energy and nutrients.
The factors influencing the DM intake of the dairy cow and thus ultimately also the performance are manifold and are summarised in the following Table 7.
Feed | Feeding |
---|---|
DM content, structure | Adaptation (dry period) |
Digestibility (Rfa) | Proportion of basic/fuel feed |
Silage quality (fermentation process) | Quality (silage success) |
Palatability | Availability of feed |
Contamination | Water supply |
Body weight, forestomach volume | Social stress, restlessness |
Energy requirement | Climatic influences |
Body fat content | Movement possibilities |
Lactation status | Metabolic disorders |
Factors influencing the dry matter intake of dairy cows.
A suitable indicator to check whether feeding is in line with animal welfare is the recording of feed intake quantities. Here the question arises as to whether the quantities of feed presented via the feed mixer and the quantities of concentrated feed correspond to the herd size. However, this approach considers the herd as a whole and not the individual animal. The same applies to the milk yield data, which provide conclusions on the supply of energy and nutrients (protein, fibre). Feedback from the slaughterhouse (e.g. increased incidence of fatty liver or liver abscesses) allows an assessment of the feeding situation on the farm, also under animal welfare aspects. For the assessment of the individual animal, the assessment of the Body Condition Score (BCS), which is also a component of the Animal Welfare Quality® Assessment protocol reviewed at PHÄNOMICS, is a suitable method. This procedure enables an assessment of the quality of the husbandry system from the animal’s point of view. This would also satisfy another legal regulation of the Animal Welfare Act (§ 11, para. 8), which reads: “Anyone who keeps farm animals for commercial purposes must ensure through in-house inspections that the requirements of § 2 are met. In particular, he shall collect and evaluate appropriate animal-related characteristics (animal welfare indicators) for the purpose of his assessment that the requirements of § 2 are met.” Thus, the livestock farmer cannot escape the responsibility to continuously check the feeding of his animals under animal welfare aspects (cross compliance; Directive 98/58 Annex No. 2; TierSchNutztV § 4 para. 1).
Feed and feeding conditions (especially ration design) are not infrequently the cause of health problems and/or performance losses in dairy herds. The possible damage (in terms of financial losses) ranges from reduced performance in the form of lower fertility, reduced milk yield or changes in milk quality to clinical disorders (coupled with treatment costs) and animal losses (e.g. sudden death of one or more animals). In contrast to the conditions in pig and poultry farming, where complete feed concepts are common, in dairy cow feeding the detection of weak points and failures, i.e. the causal clarification of feeding problems, is much more difficult. The variety of feeds and their variation in composition and quality, the differences in ration design depending on farm conditions (housing/feeding technique) and performance stage (dry period/high lactation) and, last but not least, the considerable individual variation in feed intake (concerning the quantity and ratio of various components of the ration) explain the particular challenge when it comes to possibly feed-related problems in dairy farms.
Satisfactory feeding practices require due diligence along the path from feed to food (´from stable to table´). However, ensuring these requirements and striving to avoid feeding-related problems in the dairy herd ultimately requires cooperation between the livestock farmer and the veterinarian.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\\n\\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
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This study’s aim is to reduce traffic congestion, improve safety, and accidents. Path planning algorithms are one of the main elements in autonomous vehicles that make critical decisions. Motion planning methods are required when transporting passengers from one point to another. These methods have incorporated several methods such as generating the best trajectory while considering the constraints of vehicle dynamics and obstacles, searching a path to follow, and avoiding obstacles that guarantee comfort, safety, and efficiency. We suggested an effective path planning algorithm based on Model Predictive Controller that determines the maneuvers mode such as lane-keeping and lane-changing automatically. We utilized two different artificial potential field functions for the road boundary, obstacles, and lane center to ensure safety. On the four scenarios, we examined the proposed path planning controller. 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The presented in this paper power line autonomous inspection allows detecting power line defects caused by thunderstorms, corrosion, insulator malfunctions, and same time monitoring of vegetation under the power line corridor. Traditional inspection is performed by helicopters equipped with high-resolution cameras or by direct visual examination carried out by highly skilled staff climbing over de-energized power lines. However, the visual inspection is time-expensive and costly. Moreover, due to regulatory constraints, the helicopters cannot cover narrow mountainous areas. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are an attractive alternative for power line inspection. In this work, a mathematical model for the quadrotor helicopter used in the autonomous inspection is presented. The model is successfully evaluated through simulations and flight experiments. Next, the construction of a quadrotor helicopter system and its application to power line autonomous inspection is introduced. 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UAVs have the capabilities to reach and execute mission in those areas that are very difficult for humans to even reach such as forest, deserts, and mines. Integration of the latest technologies including reactive controls, sense and avoid, and onboard computations have strengthened their dominance further in various practical missions. Besides the innovative applications, the use of UAVs imposes several challenges, and one of those challenges is computing a low-cost path for aerial mission by avoiding obstacles as well as satisfying certain performance objectives (a.k.a path planning (PP)). To this end, this chapter provides a concise overview of various aspects concerning to PP including basics introduction of the subject matter, categorization of the PP approaches and problems, taxonomy of the essential components of the PP, performance objectives of the PP approaches, recent algorithms that have been proposed for PP in known and unknown environments, and future prospects of research in this area considering the emerging technologies. With this chapter, we aim to provide sufficient knowledge about one of the essential components of robotics technology (i.e., navigation) for researchers.",book:{id:"10655",slug:"motion-planning",title:"Motion Planning",fullTitle:"Motion Planning"},signatures:"Abdul Majeed and Seong Oun Hwang",authors:[{id:"417962",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Majeed",slug:"abdul-majeed",fullName:"Abdul Majeed"},{id:"426451",title:"Prof.",name:"Seong Oun",middleName:null,surname:"Hwang",slug:"seong-oun-hwang",fullName:"Seong Oun Hwang"}]},{id:"79826",title:"Rolling Biped Polynomial Motion Planning",slug:"rolling-biped-polynomial-motion-planning",totalDownloads:128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This work discloses a kinematic control model to describe the geometry of motion of a two-wheeled biped’s limbs. Limb structure is based on a four-bar linkage useful to alleviate damping motion during self-balance. 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