These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\n
Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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The topics covered in this book encapsulate research trends from fundamental theoretical aspects of robust stereo correspondence estimation to the establishment of novel and robust algorithms as well as applications in a wide range of disciplines. Particularly interesting theoretical trends presented in this book involve the exploitation of the evolutionary approach, wavelets and multiwavelet theories, Markov random fields and fuzzy sets in addressing the correspondence estimation problem. 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1. Introduction
High-Throughput Screening (HTS) is a programmed process that can rapidly identify active compounds (chemical /biological), antibodies, genes, or one or more candidates based on specific criteria [1]. In the pharmaceutical industry, HTS has been applied for novel drug discovery to overcome the conventional “trial and error” strategies to discover new therapeutic targets or validate their biological effects. Thus, a large number of biological effectors and modulators can be screened against specific targets in a short period using HTS technology during humanitarian emergencies [2]. HTS can also be used to evaluate pharmacological targets and pharmacological profile of agonists and antagonists for various receptors such as G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and enzymes. In recent years, a large number of drugs in clinical trials have come through HTS campaigns, establishing HTS as a reliable hit-finding technique. HTS has recently emerged as one of the important methods in the area of drug and vaccine design [3, 4, 5, 6]. It also allows the immediate incorporation of broad screening collections such as GPCR, kinase, and ion channel-based libraries, as well as the use of client-supplied libraries, into an HTS campaign [7]. Over the past decades, HTS mainly focused on several fundamental technologies like homogeneous assays, high-density microplates, high-performance microliter dispensers, imaging, laboratory automation, and combinatorial chemistry and genomics [8]. The success of HTS is dependent on the identification of meaningful assay systems. HTS is mainly performed using in silico methods (ligand-based drug design and structure-based drug design) in vitro methods (cell-based assays and biochemical assays), in-vivo methods (whole organism-based assays) [9].
Recently, with a rising need to store, access, and compute more sequencing reads and other biological data, HTS technology is becoming more important in the therapeutic context [10]. High-throughput biochemical measures of new variation, thorough health records, and open data sharing will improve our capacity to read individual genomics and understand exactly human health and diseases. The availability of HTS has surpassed current procedures for reporting on data analysis techniques. Lower prices and better accessibility led to an influx of data and related studies, which helped to progress bioinformatics. Innovative, dependable, and accurate omics-based study (i.e., genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics) would aid novel drug development and precision medicine research [11].
This book also provides an in-depth look at the technologies utilized to detect biological reactions in HTS bioassays, such as fluorescence, luminescence, and atomic absorbance. In the context of anti-infective drug design, discovery, and development, the applications of HTS, reverse pharmacology, present obstacles, and future views of HTS in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries are explored. In this book, we describe a novel, multiplex immuno-assay platform based on high-throughput flow cytometry technology and advanced computational algorithms for data analysis. The assay simultaneously measures T cell dynamics including phenotype, time-dependent expression of activation markers, secreted effector cytokines, and proliferation. Further, this book covers the recent advances that use high-throughput methods to move towards the generation of a comprehensive network of extracellular protein-protein interactions (ePPIs) in humans for future targeted drug discovery. Furthermore, the book focuses on the advancement of technologies in HTS methods and research advances in three major technology areas including miniaturization, automation and robotics, and artificial intelligence, which promises to help speed up the discovery of medicines and their development process. At last, this book provides comprehensive knowledge about the use of various machine-learning algorithms for the screening of Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) modulators that have minimum errors compared with structure-based methods.
Precision medicine has gained a lot of attention in recent years due to its unique approach i.e., “to target the right treatments to the right patients at the right time”. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), precision medicine is a new therapy and preventative strategy based on knowledge about an individual’s genes, environment, and lifestyle [12, 13]. Precision medicine aims to give accurate and personalized treatment to patients by using genomes, proteomics, and other related technologies to evaluate and identify biomarkers in huge sample groups for specific diseases [14]. Precision medicine attempts to limit medical expenses while achieving an optimal treatment impact by bringing humanism, ethics, economics, sociology, and other knowledge factors together [15]. Precision medicine is a new medical concept for gaining a comprehensive knowledge of a patient’s genetic and genomic data to estimate disease and make better preventive, diagnostic, and treatment decisions [16]. Medical oncology has progressed through three stages: cytotoxic chemical treatment, gene-driven precision medicine, and personalized molecule-targeted treatment (Figure 1) [17]. Precision medicine has entered a new phase in clinical practice today. Its overall purpose is to minimize mortality, morbidity, and disability from serious diseases, improve healthcare service quality (Table 1) [18, 19].
Figure 1.
Applications of precision medicine in cancer management, therapeutic drug monitoring, drug discovery and delivery.
Examples of precision medicine applications for the management of various clinical conditions.
2. Applications of high throughput screening (HTS) in precision medicine
Improvements in sequencing technology over the last 10 years have allowed several high-throughput sequencing platforms to provide novel insights to design personalized medicine [20]. Modern sequencing technology (Ion, Illumina, Torrent, Oxford Nanopore Technologies, pacific biosciences, etc.) created new paths for HTS in the area of medicine. Epigenetic applications, Genomic (DNA-seq), and transcriptomic (RNA-seq), are all part of HTS. To determine genomic variants (insertion or deletion, single nucleotide variants, copy number alterations, and fundamental changes) from biological samples, whole-genome sequencing (WGS), and whole-exome sequencing (WES) is used (Figure 2) [21, 22]. Identification of new transcripts, characterization of gene expression profiles, alternative splicing, RNA editing, and fusion transcripts are all feasible using RNA-seq. [23]. Similarly, next-generation sequencing (NGS) may quickly identify or “sequence” huge parts of a person’s genome and are significant advancements in precision medicine clinical applications. These tests can assist patients, doctors, and researchers uncover genetic variations that can help them diagnose, treat, and know more about human disease. Apart from this, NGS techniques can also be applied in the area of metagenomics, RNAseq, ribosome profiling, targeted sequencing, and minor variant reconstruction, as well as a wide range of post-pipeline studies that combine genomic, clinical, epidemiological, and ecological data [24, 25].
Figure 2.
Scheme for the high-throughput screening based development of personalized/precision medicine. Samples collected from the patients are subjected to DNA isolation and sequencing (NGS) for pharmacogenomics. Based on the analysis of sequencing (NGS) data, high-throughput screening (HTS) of the compound library is performed to identify the drug(s) of choice. Patient treatment with these drug(s) is monitored for its therapeutic and ADME profile. Based on the therapeutic effect of the drug(s), multi-population genome-wide association studies (GWAS) study may lead to development of personalized/precision medicine.
HTS has mostly been applied to specific areas of the genome or in the context of identifying microscopic pathogens. Prenatal assays intended to identify chromosomal abnormalities in cell-free DNA from maternal blood are clinically accessible [26]. Targeted HTS of clinically actionable mutations is also being used to guide illness diagnosis and therapy [27]. HTS has also been used in clinical settings to track pathogen outbreaks like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. The development and usage of these specialized assays will continue to grow, but precision medicine depends on the potential therapeutic use of more extensive methods like WGS, which is still facing complications. WGS is the most comprehensive technique for potential therapeutic use since that marks the next stage in the path to a complete understanding of the genetic determinants of a patient’s heritable character [28]. Additional genome sequencing, and data from large-scale genomics efforts like ENCODE and GTEx, which allow the development of even more extensive datasets, will help interpret the variations. Community resources for correlating phenotypes to sequences will be provided through open access programs including the Personal Genomes Project and integrated Personal Omics Profiling [29].
3. Few prime areas of high throughput screening (HTS) for precision medicine
3.1 Management of infectious diseases
Efforts have recently been made to combine these technologies with bioinformatics and epidemiology to improve public health surveillance, investigations, and control of infectious diseases [30]. The previous 40 years had a substantial influence on the knowledge of infectious diseases. A broad spectrum of medically important viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungus, and other pathogens have been studied using next-generation sequencing [31]. Many of these pathogens are directly important to the development and assessment of vaccinations, medicines, infection control, and a variety of nonmedical pandemic countermeasures [32].
3.2 Management of cancer
Recently HTS has been coupled with various sequencing techniques in the design of precision medicine for the treatment of various types of cancers like multiple myeloma, glioblastoma, and pediatric cancers. A wide range of FDA approved drugs such as temsirolimus (mTOR inhibitor), ceritinib (ALK inhibitor), and BI2536 (PLK1 inhibitor), panobinostat, bortezomib, ixazomib, carfilzomib, and selinexor, bortezomib (proteasome inhibitor), Bcl-2 inhibitor ABT-263 with the mTOR inhibitor AZD-8055 have been tested as precision therapy for multiple myeloma, glioblastoma, and pediatric cancer [33, 34, 35].
4. Conclusions
In clinical and preclinical research, there have been a few attempts to integrate throughput screening technologies with precision medicine. The relevance of high-throughput screening approaches in identifying and designing precision therapies for the treatment of various diseases is highlighted in this chapter. Over the last ten years, advances in sequencing technology have enabled several high-throughput sequencing platforms to bring unique insights into the creation of customized medicine. The sequencing technologies of the present day (Ion, Illumina, Torrent, Oxford Nanopore Technologies, pacific biosciences) created a new roadmap for HTS technologies to identify and design precision therapeutics.
5. Future perspectives
The development of a single definition for precision medicine will aid transdisciplinary areas with a shared understanding of concepts and enhance collaborative ideas. Standardization of HTS and analytical methods will make it easier to validate and replicate findings in clinically relevant timeframes. This, along with interdisciplinary cooperation, will allow it to be fully integrated into patient care and treatment via the development of novel diagnostic, predictive, and prognostic tests. The creation of broad conceptual frameworks that address the underlying drivers of health across specialized areas will be facilitated by the establishment of a shared precision medicine definition, which will promote collaboration between the transdisciplinary domains that make up precision medicine. It may be beneficial to establish a set of recommendations in the next 5–10 years to assist in deciding whether or not research activities or therapies fit precision medicine requirements. These principles might determine if the endeavor should include efforts to personalize therapies, a focus on genetics/biology, the environment, nutrition, and/or lifestyle, as well as the amount to which these distinct variables interact.
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Future perspectives",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Szymański P, Markowicz M, Mikiciuk-Olasik E. Adaptation of high-throughput screening in drug discovery-toxicological screening tests. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2012;13(1):427-452. DOI: 10.3390/ijms13010427'},{id:"B2",body:'Sachinidis A. High-throughput base editing: A promising technology for precision medicine and drug discovery. Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 2021;6(1):221. DOI: 10.1038/s41392-021-00633-0'},{id:"B3",body:'Maurya VK, Kumar S, Prasad AK, Bhatt MLB, Saxena SK. Structure-based drug designing for potential antiviral activity of selected natural products from Ayurveda against SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein and its cellular receptor. VirusDisease. 2020;31(2):179-193. DOI: 10.1007/s13337-020-00598-8'},{id:"B4",body:'Maurya VK, Kumar S, Bhatt MLB, Saxena SK. Antiviral activity of traditional medicinal plants from Ayurveda against SARS-CoV-2 infection. 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Centre for Advanced Research (CFAR), Faculty of Medicine, King George’s Medical University (KGMU), India
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1. Introduction
Hemorrhoids are a disease of the anorectal area, that is often found in clinical practice, it is an enlargement and prolapsing (shift to the distal) of the anal cushion that gives clinical signs and symptoms [1]. Dilation and deformity of the blood vessels in the anal cushions, accompanied by destruction of the supporting tissues are the main pathological conditions of hemorrhoids. Inflammatory reactions and hyperplasia of blood vessels can also be found in hemorrhoids [2, 3].
Patients with complaints of bloody stools or anal discomfort are often caused by hemorrhoids, but the exact prevalence is unknown and will be lower than reality because many are under-reported and patients are self-medicating. The prevalence varies greatly from country to country, depending on the recording system. Data in the United States in 1990 showed that more than 10 million people suffered from hemorrhoids, or about 4.4% of the total population, while in the UK it was reported to be 13–36% of the general population [3]. The prevalence of men and women is comparable, and mostly occurs at the age of 45–65 years. White and high socioeconomic populations are more frequently affected than blacks and low socioeconomic populations [2].
Considering that hemorrhoids are the most common anal canal abnormalities and also the reason for patients’ visits to the doctor or physician, a deep understanding of the anatomy, physiology, pathogenesis, risk factors, diagnosis, and rational management is needed for doctors, to be able to treat hemorrhoids correctly and effectively, so that the patient is protected from irresponsible hemorrhoid management practices.
2. Anatomy and physiology
The anal canal is a continuation of the distal rectum. The surgical anal canal is formed by the hindgut in the proximal part and the anoderm in the distal part, and the border between both is dentate lines. The proximal part of the anus is covered by a mucous line. The superior rectal artery that flows through the anal canal will branch into two, to the left and right. The right branch of the superior rectal artery branches into anterior and posterior branches. This artery will form an arteriovenous plexus located in the right anterior, right posterior, and left lateral regions, which will be covered by mucosa that produces an anal cushion. For practical purposes, from a perineal view, we call it 11.00 o’clock the right anterior, 07.00 o’clock the right posterior, and 03.00 o’clock the left lateral anal cushion [4].
There are two anal canal sphincters, the internal anal canal sphincter (IAS) as a continuation and thickening of the circular layer of rectal muscle and the external anal sphincter (EAS). The IAS is made of smooth muscle. It is an involutory muscle, while the external sphincter muscle is a voluntary muscle consisting of three layers—deep, superficial, and subcutaneous [1]. Anal incontinence during rest is caused by the contraction of the IAS and anal cushion, which participate 70–80% and 20–30%, respectively. During defecation, the anal cushion will prolapse downward to protect the anal crypt, estuary of the anal gland, and anal canal skin, and return after defecation. The ability of the anal cushion to return is due to the function of the muscle of Treitz, the continuation of muscle fiber from the longitudinal muscle fiber of the rectum. The Treitz muscle consists of two parts—the submucous muscle and the Park ligament, where the last part of it is located at the bottom of the anal cushion [4].
According to Aigner, et al., (2009), there are sphincter-like structures in the vascular plexus, formed by thickened tunica media that contain 5–15 layers of smooth muscle cells located between the vascular plexus and the subepithelial space of the anal cushions in normal anorectal specimens. The role of these sphincter-like structures is to coordinate the filling and drainage of the anorectal vascular plexus. This vascular plexus is without tunica media and larger than usual, like a lacuna [5].
3. Pathogenesis and risk factors
The pathogenesis of hemorrhoids is still largely unknown. Hemorrhoids occur based on the theory of varicose veins, as in the case of leg varicose veins, but in the case of hemorrhoids, they occur in the anus. This theory has been abandoned because various studies have shown that varicose veins and hemorrhoids are different entities. There was no increase in the incidence of hemorrhoids in patients with portal hypertension. The theories of vascular hyperplasia and hypertrophy of the anal sphincter are not supported by the evidence. Today, the theory of the sliding of the anal cushions is widely accepted [2, 4].
As it has been stated in the physiology of the anus and rectum, the anal cushion plays a role in protecting the anal canal during defecation. After the stool comes out, the anus cushions will return to their place due to the work of the Treitz muscles. In constipation, there will be difficulty in defecating. The patient will push a lot so that the anal cushions are often forced to shift distally. Over time, it will be followed by damage to the supporting tissue, so that the anal cushions cannot return to their own position. Prolapsing anal cushions will be followed by venous dilatation, vascular thrombosis, degeneration of fibroelastic tissue, and damage to the Treitz muscles. Inflammatory reactions are also seen in the vascular wall and the surrounding supporting tissues, ulceration, ischemia, and thrombosis [4].
Several enzymes play a role in the degradation of the supporting tissues of the anal pads. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP), a zinc-dependent proteinase, is the most potent enzyme and is capable of degrading elastin, fibronectin, and collagen. MMP-9 is overexpressed in hemorrhoids and degrades elastin fibers. Activation of MMP-2 and MMP-9 by thrombin, plasmin or other proteinases results in damage to the capillary bed and stimulates the vascular proliferative activity of TGF (transforming growth factor). This also explains the thinning of the tunica media in the sphincter-like structures that control blood flow from the arteries to the venous plexus. Hemorrhoids have an overexpressed endoglin attachment site with TGF. Microvascular density also increases, influenced by Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors (VEGF), which increases, especially when there is thrombosis [4].
Morphological and hemodynamic studies showed that in hemorrhoids there was an increase in the diameter of the branches of the superior rectal artery, the amount of blood flowing and its flow rate increased significantly. There is a correlation between the diameter of the arterial branches and the degree of hemorrhoids [6]. Physiological changes in the anal canal in hemorrhoids have also been reported. Anal canal pressure at rest in patients with prolapsed and unprolapsed hemorrhoids was higher than in normal people, without internal anal sphincter hypertrophy. This pressure will decrease after hemorrhoidectomy is performed, so it can be said that this increase in pressure is due to the effect of hemorrhoids, not the cause [7].
Constipation is widely believed to be a risk factor for the occurrence of hemorrhoids, through the sliding mechanism of the anal cushion, as previously stated, but diarrhea has also been reported to increase the risk of hemorrhoids, through an unclear mechanism. Pregnancy is also a predisposing factor for hemorrhoids due to increased intra-abdominal pressure causing congestion of the anal cushion, and the patient can recover after delivery. Many other risk factors have been reported for the occurrence of hemorrhoids, such as a low-fiber diet, spicy foods, and drinking alcohol [2, 4, 7].
4. Pathology and grading
Hemorrhoids due to prolapse of the anal cushions are called internal hemorrhoids. The lump is covered with mucosa and is often accompanied by the skin of the anal canal, thus forming mixed hemorrhoids, but the predominance is internal hemorrhoids. If only the external hemorrhoidal plexus is dilated, it is called external hemorrhoids. On histological examination of the surgical specimen for internal hemorrhoids, a very marked widening of the vascular plexus and fragmentation of the Treitz muscles will be found. When examined deeply, an increase in leukocytes both inside and outside the blood vessels (inflammatory component) and, with special staining, thinning of the blood vessel walls due to thinning of the tunica media (sphincter-forming muscles) will be seen. External hemorrhoids are mainly dilated subcutaneous veins accompanied by an inflammatory reaction, but patients often present with pain due to a thrombus [2, 3, 4].
Stages of internal hemorrhoids need to be determined before starting therapy because the stage will greatly determine the choice of therapy. Goligher was the expert who first proposed the degree of hemorrhoids, so the Goligher classification is known, and is still used today (Figure 1) [8].
Figure 1.
Internal Hemorrhoid grade. Grade I: no prolapse seen from outside, but can be seen by u-turn colonoscopy, Grade II: the lump can be seen during straining and spontaneously return after straining is completed. Grade III: the lump can be seen during and after straining and only by manual help can be reduced to its positions. Grade IV: The lump is already outside the anus, and cannot or fail to be reduced.
Grade I: anal cushion bleeding but no prolapse. Grade II: anal cushions prolapse out of the anus during defecation, but can spontaneously return. Grade III: prolapsed anal cushions that protrude from the anus during defecation but require manual assistance to return to their original position. Grade IV: prolapsed anal cushions out the anus and cannot be reposed manually.
The American Society of Colorectal Surgery (ASCS) made a modification to Goligher grading because in Goligher the classification is based on what the patient says, but in ASCS it is based more on examination. In grades II and III, a Valsalva test should be performed, while in grade IV, this includes being able to manually reposition the prolapsed anal cushions, which will soon come back out. In grade IV, due to obstruction of venous return by the anal sphincter, often accompanied by incarceration and thrombosis under the anal mucosa or skin (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Grade IV mixed hemorrhoids with thrombus in external (orange arrow) and internal (yellow arrow) components.
5. Diagnosis
5.1 Differential diagnosis
Because patients often present with fresh bloody stools and lumps in the anus, the following diseases should be considered: Anorectal malignancy (adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and malignant melanoma), rectal prolapse, prolapsed rectal polyp, anal fistula, anal fissure, Crohn’s disease, and condyloma acuminata [2]. Each has different signs and symptoms, so recognizing the signs and symptoms of each will lead to a good diagnosis.
5.2 Signs and symptoms
Bleeding in hemorrhoids is often fresh red blood without pain. This is different from an acute anal fissure, which causes fresh bloody stools accompanied by intense pain because there is an injury in the anal canal skin, which is rich in pain receptor nerves (somatic nerves). The color of the blood in hemorrhoidal bleeding is fresh because the source of the blood is the arteriovenous shunt. Rectal bleeding in rectal carcinoma is often reddish, along with the mucus. Left colon carcinoma is often accompanied by small stools with blood on their surface, while bleeding in the right colon carcinoma is often brown in color with diarrhea. A positive occult blood test should be considered more proximal to the source of bleeding, so a colonoscopy is recommended to detect the source of bleeding [1]. The prolapsed mucosa will secrete mucus which can irritate the anal skin, causing itching. In large hemorrhoids, the patient may feel incomplete defecation or feeling of fullness in the rectum. Pain in hemorrhoids only occurs when a thrombus occurs, especially in the blood vessels under the skin or at grade IV, which is constricted by a strong anal sphincter, causing strangulation [3].
5.3 Physical examination
With the patient in the lithotomy or Sim\'s position, laying on the left side with maximum flexion in the hip and knee joints, inspections are carried out in the perineal and anal areas to detect possible skin tags, external hemorrhoids, skin inflammation due to irritation by mucus and feces, the presence of fissures or anal fistula. (Figure 3). When the prolapsed anal cushion is visible, it is necessary to identify the position and number of the main lumps, the presence or absence of the prolapsed anal canal skin, and the presence of thrombus or ulceration [3].
Figure 3.
In Sim’s position, spreading the anus by the left and right finger and asking the patient to strain, two nodules can be seen at 03.00, and 07.00 o’clock, in this case, anal fissure can also be seen at 06.00 o;clock (black arrow). (Personal collection).
Keep in mind that, other than hemorrhoids, other prolapses are rectal prolapse and rectal polyps. In a prolapsed rectal polyp, it will appear as a round lump covered with mucosa and have a stalk (Figure 4a and b). The rectal prolapse is concentric or circular in shape (not lumpy or no radial indentation), not followed by prolapse of the anal skin, and the finger can enter between the prolapse and the anal canal wall [9]. If during the initial examination there is no prolapsed lump, the patient is asked to strain so that prolapse can occur, or more effectively, the patient is asked to squat and be asked to push into the toilet. In addition to the prolapse examination as mentioned above, wait a while to observe the ability of the prolapsing anal cushion to spontaneously disappear, due to self repositioning, or must be pushed with your fingers [8].
Figure 4.
a. Prolapse of rectal polyps, b. the polyps stalk can be seen after retracted outside. (Personal collection).
Anal melanoma can affect the anal canal and distal rectum, and the majority of tumors are located within 6 cm proximal to the anal verge. There are two types, melanotic, which consists 70% of cases and amelanotic 30%. Amelanotic melanoma is mostly located in the mucosa. Anal melanoma is a rare anal neoplasm. It accounts for approximately 1–4% of anal neoplasms and is female predominant. The signs are an anal lump, pain, and bleeding [10].
Melanotic anal melanoma can be confused with hemorrhoids with thrombosis, as both cause black discoloration. Hemorrhoid thrombus is usually more painful, and the pain will subside after day 3 due to the shrinkage of the lump. This phenomenon is not found in melanotic anal melanoma. The presence of a satellite nodule is also specific to melanoma (Figure 5a). The diagnosis is based on the histological picture of the biopsy specimen. A CT scan is needed to confirm the degree of infiltration, lymph node involvement, and distant metastasis. In Figure 5b, the tumor has already infiltrated the anal sphincter. The abdominal perineal ano-recto-sigmoidectomy (Mile’s procedure) with permanent sigmoidostomy is the surgery of choice [1, 10].
Figure 5.
Anal melanoma, melanotic type. a. with satellite nodule (arrow), b. infiltration to anal sphincter on CT scan (Personal collection).
The patient should also have a digital rectal examination (DRE). Uncomplicated internal hemorrhoids are often vaguely palpable as a soft anorectal mass that is absent in normal people, but when a thrombus or scar tissue has occurred, something harder or a narrowing due to a stricture may be felt. During DRE, anal sphincter tone, prostate enlargement, and the presence of other abnormalities in the rectum, as well as outside the rectum in women, such as the uterus and adnexa, should also be evaluated. To palpate rectal cancer that cannot be reached by fingers, it can be done bimanually (one hand on the lower abdomen and pressing down) or the patient is asked to push (Valsalva test). When there is a rectal tumor in a high position and mobile, it is often palpable with the maximal position of the finger during a digital rectal examination. Patients with complaints of pain in the rectal area have the possibility of fissures, but there is also the possibility of arthritis of the sacro-coccigeal joint. For this reason, during a digital rectal examination, it should not be forgotten to move the coccyx from the sacrum bone. The presence of arthritis will cause pain with movement [1, 3].
5.4 Endoscopy
During anuscopy, the size of the hemorrhoidal nodule, position, level of inflammation, and the possibility of bleeding should be assessed. When a colonoscopy is performed, the retroflexed position of the scope can see hemorrhoids in the rectum. Likewise, a transparent anoscope can clearly see the anal canal and hemorrhoids. Photo documentation can be made during endoscopy [1, 2, 3].
As rectal bleeding is the main complaint of internal hemorrhoid, should a routine complete colon examination be done to rule out other causes of bleeding? American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons (ASRC) recommends patients with—a) rectal bleeding, b) positive fecal immunochemical testing (FTT), c) positive FTT-fecal DNA test, d) patients with high risk for colorectal malignancy such as d.1) age 50 years or more if no complete examination within 10 years, d.2) age 40 years or more or 10 years younger with history of first degree relative of colorectal cancer or advanced adenoma diagnosed at age less than 60 years, and d.3) age 40 years or more or 10 years younger with history positive for two first degree relatives with advance adenomas or colorectal carcinomas [8].
5.5 Complications
The most common complication for hemorrhoid patients is bleeding. Bleeding varies, from just spots that drip after defecation to heavy bleeding chronic. Slight bleeding may result in microcytic hypochromic anemia, while if the bleeding is profuse, patients may come down with hypovolemic shock. The profuse bleeding is an emergency, so it must be managed immediately [1, 2, 3]. Another complication is thrombosis of the veins, which can be located under the mucosa or the skin. Thrombosis of the skin or mucosa near the skin will be very painful, prompting the patient to seek treatment immediately. Prolapsed hemorrhoids accompanied by a strong anal sphincter can result in compression of the blood flow, resulting in strangulation and even necrosis [1].
5.6 Management
Management of hemorrhoids depends on the stage. Management includes dietetic management and lifestyle changes (controlling risk factors), administration of drugs, and nonsurgical and surgical interventions. In grade I, II, and small III hemorrhoids, management starts with dietetic management, changing lifestyle, and administration of drugs, if those fail then nonsurgical intervention is considered. In major stages III and IV, the main choice is surgery plus dietetic management and lifestyle changes. In cases of acute thrombosis or strangulation, emergency surgery is required [8].
5.7 Dietetic management and lifestyle modifications
Patients with hemorrhoids are very prone to bleeding, and the lumps may become more swollen when the stool is hard because the defecation must be strained hard. To avoid this, the stool must be soft so that it does not cause trauma. This could be achieved by increasing a high-fiber diet or adding a bulking laxative to the diet, such as bran or methylcellulose, to facilitate defecation. A meta-analysis study showed that a high-fiber diet reduced the risk of complaints and bleeding in up to 50% of cases, although it did not improve complaints of prolapse, pain, and itching [11]. A high-fiber diet is very effective for hemorrhoids that do not prolapse [1, 3].
Controlling the manageable risk factors by modification of lifestyle plays a role in the healing process of hemorrhoids [3]. Patients who initially do not like fiber foods should be advised to consume high fiber, drink enough water, and do regular physical activity to facilitate defecation. The recommended amount of fiber per day is 35 gr [1]. Foods that contain high fat should be avoided because they do not support the formation of large and loose stools, as well as drugs that cause constipation or even diarrhea, should also be avoided. The wrong way of defecating must be corrected. Avoid defecating by pushing too hard and sitting on the toilet for too long (smoking, reading newspapers, playing with cell phones, etc.) [2]. By squatting, it is easier to pass stool, because the puborectal muscle is more relaxed. One study shows that defecating in a squatting position only takes 1 minute, as opposed to a sitting position that needs 4–15 minutes [12]. When you are used to defecating by sitting on the toilet, by propping your feet higher, the position would be more like squatting. After defecation, the anoperineal must be clean. Remaining feces in the anal canal, for example in the anal crypts, can stimulate inflammation.
6. Medicamentous treatment
6.1 Flavonoids
Flavonoids are herbal medicines that are given orally. This drug was originally indicated as a blood vessel strengthening agent (venotonic) and an anti-edema agent in the treatment of varicose veins in the legs. These flavonoids have been studied in varicose veins. They have the ability to increase vascular tone, decrease venous capacity, decrease capillary permeability, increase lymphatic drainage, and have anti-inflammatory effects. Although the mechanism of healing in hemorrhoids is not clear, this drug has been widely used in Europe and Asia. The micronized purified flavonoid fraction (MPFF) consisting of 90% diosmin and 10% hesperidin is the most commonly used flavonoid in clinical practice. This fine shape (less than 2 microns in size), allows absorption to be easier so that it works faster [13].
A recent meta-analysis showed that MPFF treatment provided significant benefits for bleeding (odds ratio [OR] 0.082, p < 0.001), discharge/leakage (OR 0.12, p < 0.001), and overall improvement according to patients (OR 5.25, p < 0.001) and investigators (OR 5.51, p < 0.001). MPFF also reduces pain (OR 0.11, P = 0.06) [14]. The recommended dose in the acute phase is 3x1 gr in the first 3–4 days and then decreases to 2x1 gr. The medication can be stopped gradually, according to the patient\'s response. Long-term use of this medication is reported to be safe. The medication is also reported to be safe to be used in pregnant women [13].
Purple leaf (Grapthopylum pictum extract/GPE), which also contains flavonoids, has been shown to be useful in improving the complaints of hemorrhoids in developing countries. In a study for patients with hemorrhoids, with a pre and post-test-only group design, it was reported that GPE reduces the signs and symptoms [15]. In animal studies, inducing anal Wistar rats with croton oil, showed that GPE, reduces inflammatory markers [16], accelerates ulcer healing [17], and reduces edema [18]. Currently, in Indonesia, GPE can be considered a standardized herb. To be recognized as a phytopharmaca, it needs to be continued with better clinical trials.
6.2 Calcium dobesilate
It is an oral drug that has a venotonic effect (strengthens veins), reduces capillary permeability, inhibits thrombotic aggregation, and increases blood viscosity, which results in reducing edema. Calcium dobesilates are often used for leg varicose veins and diabetic retinopathy. Research on hemorrhoids using calcium dobesilate combined with fiber supplementation has also shown good clinical effects, namely reducing bleeding and inflammation [2].
6.3 Topical treatment
Forms of topical treatment of hemorrhoids are zalf, cream, or rectal suppositories. The purpose of topical treatment is to reduce the symptoms, so most of the ingredients are local anesthetics, corticosteroids, antibiotics, and anti-inflammatory drugs. There is not yet sufficient scientific evidence to support the use of topical treatment [8]. This drug can be purchased without a prescription. It is important to remember that topical treatments are only used in the acute stage. Long-term use of topical treatment can result in thinning the mucosa so that it bleeds easily or the possibility of fungal growth. It is highly recommended that after the acute stage has passed, the drug should be stopped and other drugs given orally, such as the flavonoids described above, should be continued zalf containing 0.2% glyceryl trinitrate or nifedipine, a calcium channel blocker, has been reported to reduce pain due to relaxation of the internal anal sphincter. There is also a topical vasoconstrictor, namely zalf, which contains 0.25% phenylephrine and is reported to reduce the complaints of hemorrhoid patients [19].
6.4 Instrumentation
In the early stages of hemorrhoids, instrumentation can be performed in the private practice room, so it is called an “office-based procedure.” External hemorrhoids with thrombus—the thrombus can be removed under local anesthesia, while internal hemorrhoids can be performed with instrumentation. There are various types of instrumentation therapy, but the principle of action is the same. By performing fibrotization at the base of hemorrhoid, it is expected that the blood flow to the anal cushion will decrease and the prolapsed anal cushion will be shrunk and attracted cranially [2, 3].
6.5 Thrombectomy
Thrombectomy is the procedure of removing a thrombus (blood clot) from external hemorrhoid with a thrombus, performed under local anesthesia (Figure 6a). The pain of external hemorrhoids with thrombus occurs on the first day, and after the third day, the pain will decrease. Removing the thrombus will quickly relieve the pain. After the 3rd day, because the pain has subsided, there is no indication of thrombectomy. External hemorrhoid will heal through fibrotization of the thrombus into a skin tag [20].
Figure 6.
Office-based procedure a. External hemorrhoid with thrombus, before and after excision b. Sclerotherapy c. Rubber Band Ligation. (illustrated by Kanaya).
6.6 Sclerotherapy
Submucosal injection at the base of hemorrhoid (Figure 6b) with sclerosing agents, such as 5% phenol in oil, vegetable oil, quinine, urea hydrochloride, and hypertonic saline, will result in fibrotization at the base of hemorrhoid so that the anal cushion will be retracted cranially. Injections are often needed several times until the anal cushion is in a normal position. Sclerotherapy is indicated in grade I, and II hemorrhoids [3]. The correct injection should be perivasal. Injection errors may cause problems. Too superficially, they may cause ulceration. Too deep into the muscle causes pain and possibly strictures. Injections into the plexus venosus can cause upper abdominal or precordial pain. Too deep into the prostate can result in an abscess and damage the periprostatic nerves, which can cause erectile dysfunction. Or it can be as serious as retroperitoneal sepsis, as reported by Barwell et al. (1999) [21]. Prophylactic antibiotics are not needed for sclerotherapy, except for cases with immunodeficiency [1, 2, 3].
6.7 Rubber band ligation (RBL)
Binding of hemorrhoids with rubber rings (Figure 6c) will result in ischemia, necrosis, and healing by the formation of scar tissue that will fix the remaining connective tissue to the rectal wall. RBL is indicated for grade I, II, or small grade III hemorrhoids that do not improve with non-interventional treatment. It is important to keep in mind not to do the ligation too close to the dentate line because it will cause severe pain. Research shows ligation at 2 or 3 places at once or sequentially gives the same results, but post-procedural pain is higher in multiple banding [3]. Discomfort or pain in the rectum can be reduced by taking warm baths and avoiding hard stools by consuming high-fiber foods and drinking enough water, or, if necessary, laxatives. Other than pain, complications after RBL include the possibility of bleeding, mucosal ulceration, thrombosis of external hemorrhoids, and, very rarely, pelvic abscess [1, 2].
6.8 Infrared coagulation
An infrared light probe affixed to the base of hemorrhoid through the anoscope for 1.0–1.5 seconds will have an impact on tissue coagulation and evaporation of fluid in the cells so that hemorrhoid will shrink. The necrotic tissue will appear as white spots, which will heal as fibrotic tissue. This technique is safer than sclerotherapy [1].
6.9 Radiofrequency ablation (RFA)
This technique is relatively new, with an RFA spherical electrode anoscope connected to a radiofrequency generator, attached to the hemorrhoid tissue, which causes evaporation and coagulation of the tissue. In this way, the vascular component will be reduced and fixed to the underlying tissue through fibrotic tissue. Complications that have been reported are thrombosis, wound infection, and urinary retention. From the evaluation of this method, the risk of rebleeding and prolapse is still quite high [2].
6.10 Cryotherapy
Freezing hemorrhoid tissue with a cryotherapy probe is claimed to provide low pain because it is carried out at a low temperature, but in fact, several clinical trials have shown prolonged pain, prolapse, and foul-smelling discharge, so this method is now rarely used [2].
6.11 Laser hemorrhoidoplasty
Laser energy can coagulate the venous plexus tissue. The patient is set in the lithotomy position. Local anesthetic infiltration is performed with xylocaine 20 mL 1% around the anal and perianal skin. A C-shape anoscope is used. A small cut is made in the skin of the anal canal close to hemorrhoid to be targeted for the laser shot. Then a small tube is inserted through which the laser probe will pass, followed by laser shots in several places, generally 5-6 shots, but it can be more, depending on the size of hemorrhoid. The direction of the probe and laser beam can be seen in Figure 7. After finishing one point, you can move to another point. The results and the complications were not significantly different from Milligan-Morgan hemorrhoidectomy, or stapler, but less painful [22].
Figure 7.
Laser hemorrhoidoplasty. a. Dentate line, b. Schematic direction of laser shot. (Illustrated by Kanaya).
Are there any different indications between sclerotherapy and RBL? There is no difference in terms of indication, but RBL can be done for small IIIrd-degree internal hemorrhoids. If there are no different indications, which one is the best? Research comparing sclerotherapy and RBL concluded that RBL is superior in the resolution of anal protrusion but with higher pain [23]. A survey in the Netherlands reported that most surgeons who treat hemorrhoids choose RBL for the first treatment of Grade II or III internal hemorrhoids [24]. A combination of sclerotherapy and RBL can be done and may improve the result. Research by Kanellos et al. (2003) reported that for the treatment of IInd degree hemorrhoids, the combination of sclerotherapy and RBL is significantly more efficient than sclerotherapy or RBL alone, and RBL is better than sclerotherapy [25]. The results of laser hemorrhoidoplasty are promising [22]. But we are still waiting for long-term results in many cases, and the other problem is that the cost is very expensive.
6.12 Surgical management
Surgical treatment is indicated when nonsurgical treatment is unsuccessful or in hemorrhoids with complications. The presence of strangulation, bleeding that does not stop nonsurgically, and thrombosis indicates emergency surgery. If the presence of other anal canal diseases associated with hemorrhoids, such as fissures and fistulas that require surgery, can be considered for hemorrhoid surgery at once if hemorrhoids are also a complaint [3]. However, surgery is indicated for hemorrhoids in grades III and IV. In general, there are two kinds of surgery—the first is excision of the enlarged and prolapsed anal cushion, and the second is surgery to spare and fix the anal cushion (“anal cushion preserving surgery”).
Based on the understanding of the pathogenesis of hemorrhoids as varicose veins, an excision is an option, but based on the theory of sliding or prolapsing of the anal cushion, surgery by fixing the anal cushion toward the cranially is the superior choice. The discovery of increasing caliber and flow of the rectal artery in hemorrhoids and the presence of a sphincter-like structure, in the form of thickening of the tunica media, at the arteriovenous connection, that is thinning or missing in hemorrhoids, [5, 6] superior rectal artery ligation is more rational.
6.13 Excisional hemorrhoidectomy (EH)
EH is a hemorrhoid surgery by removing the hemorrhoids, where nowadays the gold standard is radially removing the three largest lumps (11, 3, and 7 o’clock). Tissues are removed, including the mucosa and the venous plexus below it, without damaging the internal anal sphincter, and maintaining a normal mucosal bridge in between them. After excision, the lump can be left unstitched (Morgan Milligan technique Figure 8a) or sutured (Fergusson technique, Figure 8b) [1].
Figure 8.
a. After removing three piles and leaving no suture (Milligan-Morgan) (Personal collection). b. After removing 3 piles and suturing is performed (Ferguson technique) (Illustrated by Kanaya).
It is still debatable which one is better, left open or sewn, because, from various studies, the results are inconsistent. Rationally, in sutured cases, it is very often that the wound will also open in the next couple of days, either because the thread is broken or the tissue is cut. For those reasons, many surgeons choose the open technique. However, a meta-analysis done by Batti et al. (2016) showed the superiority of closed hemorrhoidectomy (Ferguson) over open hemorrhoidectomy (Morgan Milligan) in reducing postoperative pain, risk of postoperative bleeding, and faster wound healing. The only advantage of Morgan Milligan is shorter operative time, while the other aspects, such as length of hospital stay, postoperative complications, recurrence, and risk of surgical site infection, were similar in both groups [26].
There is a circular hemorrhoid excision technique that involves removing the entire lump, including the skin, mucosa, and the underlying venous plexus while maintaining the internal anal sphincter, followed by circular suturing of the skin with the mucosa as well. This technique, known as the Whitehead technique, has been abandoned because of the severe postoperative pain and complications that often arise, namely the risk of injury to the internal anal sphincter, which will cause incontinence, strictures that will cause difficulty passing stools, and exposing the mucosa, which will cause frequent anal canals to be wet (wet anal syndrome/whipping anus) [27]. Because the anal mucosa is rich in nerves and is able to feel and distinguish the desire to defecate solid, liquid, or fart, there are two cases, which I noticed from my personal cases, of patients complaining of the urge to fart but passing stool after Whitehead hemorrhoid surgery. The other method of hemorrhoidectomy technique is submucosal hemorrhoidectomy, which involves removing the venous plexus only (Park’s technique). It is currently being discontinued because the technique is more difficult and the risk of bleeding is high [2].
As excisional hemorrhoidectomy is done by removing the anal cushion, the possibility of reducing anal resting pressure after surgery is possible. According to the findings of a study conducted by Li et al. (2012), patients with preoperative compromised continence may have further deterioration of their continence, and thus Milligan-Morgan hemorrhoidectomy should be avoided in such patients [28].
Although the long-term recurrence rate is significantly lower than other methods, the main problem with excisional hemorrhoidectomy is the excruciating postoperative pain. The pain is thought to be caused by a side-burning wound caused by the use of electrocautery. Research shows that the use of lower-temperature cutting energies, such as ligasures or ultrasonic blades (Harmonic scalpel) provides significantly less pain than electrocautery [29].
6.14 Repositioning the anal cushions
The pathology of grade III and IV internal hemorrhoids shows damage to the structure of the supporting tissue of the anal cushions, namely the Treitz muscle and the muscularis mucosae so that if it prolapses, it cannot be repositioned spontaneously but must be repositioned with fingers or cannot be reposed manually. In the beginning, the first effort to treat prolapse is made by performing sutures to fix anal cushions to the base of the hemorrhoids. However, this method still causes problems, namely bleeding and annoying pain, so this method is less attractive [2].
6.14.1 The stapled hemorrhoidopexy (SH)
SH, which was introduced in 1988, is the most widely used method of repositioning the anal cushion [1]. A circular stapler is used to perform a circular excision of the mucosa of the distal rectum and reattach the cut with the stapler, repositioning the prolapsed anal cushions (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Stapler hemorrhoidopexy. a. purse-string suture on Morgani column in upper margin of internal hemorrhoids, b. thread knotted between anvil and stapler head, approximate both until save the position and then fire. c.After removing the stapler, the rest of the anal cushion retracted upside, (Illustrated by Kanaya) d. Accurate stapling if we have complete circular rectal tissue like donuts. (personal collection).
With circular rectal excision, it is expected that the branch of the superior rectal artery could be cut, and this would result in decreased anal cushion bleeding and the lump would shrink. However, the cutting of the rectal artery cannot be fully realized, because it will depend on the depth of the suture and the location of the artery at the suture level. The research showed that the superior rectal artery was located in the submucosa at 100% at 1 cm above the anorectal ring and 96.6% at 2 cm and 67.1% at 3 cm above the anorectal ring [30]. A study is needed to confirm rectal branch artery cutting in the rectal specimen of stapler hemorrhoidopexy.
A meta-analysis of a randomized controlled trial showed that compared to excisional hemorrhoidectomy, SH provides less pain, a shorter length of stay, and a quicker return to work, but higher long-term recurrence [31, 32]. If the purse-string suture is too deep, it can get into the rectal muscle, which can lead to serious complications. There have been reports of rectovaginal fistulas, pelvic abscesses, and even peritonitis and strictures [2].
DG-HAL, developed by Morinaga (Japan) in 1995, is to perform ligation of the distal branch of the superior rectal artery with the help of Doppler to detect the location of the artery so that the ligation will be accurate. From empirical experience, the hemorrhoids will shrink at 6 weeks’ follow-up.
Initial experience showed that for grade III and IV hemorrhoids, this procedure did not give satisfactory results, the recurrent rate was still high, so in 2005, the DG-HAL procedure was added with rectoanal repair (RAR), (Figure 10), namely, performing continuous sutures to fix the anal cushion proximally. To make sure that the anal cushion can move and be fixed proximally, the first stitch in the proximal part should include the rectal muscle and then submucosally. To avoid severe pain, the last suture to fix the anal cushions should be placed above 1 cm from the dentate line [33]. Figure 11a and b show hemorrhoids before and after DG-HAL-RAR.
Figure 10.
DG-HAL-RAR a. Position of the probe to detect a branch of the superior rectal artery b. The number of arterial sutures varies from 5 to 8 and is not at the same level. c-d. Continues suturing for rectoanal repair. e. After the suture has been knotted, the final position. (Illustrated) by Kanaya).
Figure 11.
a. Prior to surgery, Grade III Internal Hemorrhoid, and b. After DG-HAL-RAR. (personal collection).
The small meta-analysis of 3 RCT, by comparing 70 SH with 80 DG-HAL-RAR, the baseline homogenous (P = 0.40), showed no difference regarding success rate (p = 0.19), operation time (P = 0.55), postoperative complications (p = 0.11), and recurrence rate (P = 0.46), and the only difference is postoperative pain. DG-HAL causes less postoperative pain (P < 0.00001) [34]. A 705-patient multicenter study in Brazil found that a one-year follow-up after DG-HAL-RAR was significantly better in grades II and III compared to grade IV. Recurrence of prolapse, recurrence of bleeding, and thrombosis of grade II-III versus grade IV were 2.36% vs 26.54%, 1.01% vs 7.96%, and 1.35% vs 10.61%, respectively [35].
It should be noted that several conditions can contribute to increased pain after DG-HAL-RAR, namely the additional excision of thrombus of internal and external hemorrhoids, the presence of anal fissures, or laceration of the anal canal of the skin. This encourages caution during probe insertion. Additional local anesthetic infiltration will help to reduce postoperative pain [36]. In the case of large grade III and IV internal hemorrhoids, additional minimucosal excision is advised if any nodule remains after DG-HAL-RAR [37].
In developing countries, cases of large circular Grade IV internal hemorrhoids occur very often (Figure 12a). Since the Whitehead procedure has already been abandoned due to its complications, the Morgan Milligan procedure is the only choice. However, after removing 3 main piles, the normal mucosal bridges are still prominent (Figure 12b). The addition of DG-HAL-RAR to prominent mucosal bridges gives a good result (Figure 12c). Followed up for 17 months, with a good appearance and no complaints (Figure 12d) [38].
Figure 12.
a. large circular Grade IV internal hemorrhoid, b. normal mucosal bridges are still visible after removal of three main piles (Milligan-Morgan Procedure). c. After DG-HAL-RAR of prominent visible mucosal bridges. d. 17 months postoperatively. (Personal collection).
6.15 Post-surgical care
For patients with instrumentation or surgery that only repositions the anal cushion, no special treatment is needed. Consuming high fiber and drinking lots of water will facilitate defecation, which is the standard for managing hemorrhoids, either conservatively or operatively, and also must be carried out postoperatively. The administration of analgesia is more tailored to the patient\'s needs because excision hemorrhoidectomy causes greater pain, so the need for analgesics is extra [2, 3]. Flavonoids, in this case, MPFF given post-surgery, have been proven by a meta-analysis of RCTs to reduce the risk of bleeding and post-surgical pain [14].
For excision hemorrhoidectomy, because the wound in the anal area, it requires special care. The anal area is a dirty area due to contamination with feces. Because of the pain, the patient will prefer not to wipe cleanly after defecation. Soaking in warm water with disinfectant will greatly help to clean the wound from contaminants, thereby helping reduce infection and speed healing. Soaking in warm water is also beneficial for reducing pain [8].
Changes in diet, method of defecation, and control of identified risk factors for the patients (chronic cough, shortness of breath, constipation, urinary difficulties, weight lifting, etc.) are important factors in preventing recurrence [8].
7. Summary
Hemorrhoids are frequently encountered in clinical practice, and physicians must be well-versed in the pathogenesis, risk factors, correct diagnosis, and correct management for patients to receive the best care and recover. The anal cushion sliding theory is now well accepted in the pathogenesis of hemorrhoids and is mostly related to constipation. Therefore, in the management of hemorrhoids, prevention or treatment of constipation has an important place. The first choice for preventing or treating constipation is to eat a high-fiber diet and drink plenty of water. Flavanoids, as oral medication, can be added since they have already been demonstrated to reduce hemorrhoid signs and symptoms. In the case of grades I, II, or small grades III, which fail in medicamentous treatment, instrumentation can be offered, and rubber band ligation is the best choice due to its effectiveness and low price. Surgery is the treatment of choice in emergency cases (thrombosis, strangulation, or bleeding that fails with other treatments) and in cases of grade III and IV that fail nonsurgical management. The gold standard of hemorrhoid surgery is excisional surgery, namely Morgan Milligan and Ferguson. Ferguson is slightly superior to Morgan Milligan regarding postoperative pain, bleeding, and speed of healing. Since excisional surgery is painful, nowadays it offers anal cushion preserving surgery. They are stapler hemorrhoidopexy (SH), hemorrhoidal artery ligation, and rectoanal repair under the guidance of Doppler (DG HAL-RAR). Both methods were comparable regarding the length of operative time, bleeding complications, and recurrence. But only regarding postoperative pain, DG HAL-RAR was superior to SH. DG HAL-RAR and SH also had less postoperative pain but higher recurrence compared to excisional surgery. Based on its advantages and disadvantages, let the patient choose the method of surgery.
\n',keywords:"hemorrhoids prolapse, hemorrhoidectomy, hemorrhoidopexy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81688.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81688.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81688",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81688",totalDownloads:33,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 18th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 18th 2022",datePrePublished:"May 7th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"May 7th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Hemorrhoids are a common anorectal disease and are often found in clinical practice. Patients mostly come with a complaint of anal bleeding or prolapsing mass. Grade III and IV prolapsing hemorrhoids are distinguished from grade II by the fact that grade II prolapse only during defecation and returns simultaneously after defecation and usually does not cause complaint. Prolapsing hemorrhoids should be differentiated from prolapsing rectal polyps, small rectal prolapse, anorectal tumors, hypertrophy of the anal papilla, and condylomas. Nowadays, the management of prolapsing hemorrhoids varies. Medical therapy is rarely used alone, it is used to improve the effect of surgical therapy. The surgical gold standard for prolapsing hemorrhoids is excision surgery (hemorrhoidectomy) with or without suturing. However, since it comes with pain complaints, non-excision surgery is now offered. Non-excision surgery is divided into two types—stapled hemorrhoidopexy and hemorrhoidal artery ligation and rectoanal repair. Each method of surgery has its own advantages and disadvantages. This chapter review discusses the anatomy, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of prolapsing hemorrhoids.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81688",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81688",signatures:"Sigit Adi Prasetyo, Parish Budiono and Ignatius Riwanto",book:{id:"11272",type:"book",title:"Benign Anorectal Disorders - An Update",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Benign Anorectal Disorders - An Update",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alberto Vannelli and Dr. Daniela Cornelia Lazar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11272.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80355-706-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-705-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-707-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"34524",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Vannelli",slug:"alberto-vannelli",fullName:"Alberto Vannelli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Anatomy and physiology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Pathogenesis and risk factors",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Pathology and grading",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Diagnosis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Differential diagnosis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Signs and symptoms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Physical examination",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.4 Endoscopy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.5 Complications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.6 Management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.7 Dietetic management and lifestyle modifications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"6. Medicamentous treatment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.1 Flavonoids",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.2 Calcium dobesilate",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.3 Topical treatment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"6.4 Instrumentation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"6.5 Thrombectomy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"6.6 Sclerotherapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"6.7 Rubber band ligation (RBL)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.8 Infrared coagulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"6.9 Radiofrequency ablation (RFA)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"6.10 Cryotherapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"6.11 Laser hemorrhoidoplasty",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"6.12 Surgical management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"6.13 Excisional hemorrhoidectomy (EH)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"6.14 Repositioning the anal cushions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_3",title:"6.14.1 The stapled hemorrhoidopexy (SH)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_27_3",title:"6.14.2 Doppler-Guided Hemorrhoid Artery Ligation (DG-HAL)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"6.15 Post-surgical care",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31",title:"7. 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Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials comparing stapled haemorrhoidopexy with conventional haemorrhoidectomy. British Journal of Surgery. 2008;95:147-160'},{id:"B32",body:'Laughlan K, Jayne DG, Jackson D, Rupprecht F, Ribaric G. Stapled haemorrhoidopexy compared to Milligan–Morgan and Ferguson haemorrhoidectomy: A systematic review. International Journal of Colorectal Disease. 2009, 2009;24:335-344'},{id:"B33",body:'Ratto C. THD Doppler procedure for hemorrhoids: The surgical technique. Techniques in Coloproctology. 2014;18:291-298'},{id:"B34",body:'Sajid MS, Parampalli U, Whitehouse P, Sains P, McFall MR, Baig MKA. Systematic review comparing transanal haemorrhoidal de- arterialisation to stapled haemorrhoidopexy in the management of haemorrhoidal disease. Tech Coloproctology. 2012;16(1):1-8'},{id:"B35",body:'Sobrado CW, Klajner S, Hora JAB, Mello A, da Silva FML, Frugis MO, et al. Transanal haemorrhoidal dearterialization with mucopexy (Thd-M) for treatment of hemorrhoids: Is it applicable in all grades? Brazilian Multicenter Study. ABCD Arquivos Brasileros de Cirurgia Digestiva. 2020;33(2):e1504'},{id:"B36",body:'Prasetyo SA, Riwanto I. Factors affecting post-operative pain after doppler guided hemorrhoid artery ligation and recto-anal repair (DGHAL-RAR) of internal hemorrhoid. Media Medika Muda. 2016;1(3):145-150'},{id:"B37",body:'Theodoropoulos GE, Sevrisarianos N, Papaconstantinou J, Panoussopoulos SG, Dardamanis D, Stamapoulos P, et al. Doppler-guided haemorrhoidal artery ligation, rectoanal repair, sutured haemorrhoidopexy and minimal mucocutaneous excision for grades III-IV haemorrhoids: A multicenter prospective study of safety and efficacy. Colorectal Diseases. 2010;12(2):125-134'},{id:"B38",body:'Riwanto I, Prasetyo SA. Challenge in management prominent Grade IV hemorrhoid. In: Presented at 2nd MASTERCLASS in venous Disease for Asian Countries. The Athenee Hotel Bangkok, 27-28 January. 2018'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sigit Adi Prasetyo",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Medicine, Division of Digestive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Diponegoro University, Dr Kariadi General Hospital, Semarang, Indonesia
Faculty of Medicine, Division of Digestive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Diponegoro University, Dr Kariadi General Hospital, Semarang, Indonesia
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This chapter approach completely the hardware and software implementation topics of the on-board GPR system given first a comprehensive background of the software-defined radar technology and second presenting the main features of the Tx and Rx modules. Additional details are presented related with the mechanical and functional integration of the GPR into the UAV system.",book:{id:"5905",slug:"robots-operating-in-hazardous-environments",title:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments",fullTitle:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments"},signatures:"Manuel Ricardo Pérez Cerquera, Julian David Colorado Montaño\nand Iván Mondragón",authors:[{id:"177422",title:"Dr.",name:"Julian",middleName:null,surname:"Colorado",slug:"julian-colorado",fullName:"Julian Colorado"},{id:"197884",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Mondragon",slug:"ivan-mondragon",fullName:"Ivan Mondragon"},{id:"199958",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez",slug:"manuel-perez",fullName:"Manuel Perez"}]},{id:"15855",title:"Kinematics of AdeptThree Robot Arm",slug:"kinematics-of-adeptthree-robot-arm",totalDownloads:14668,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"152",slug:"robot-arms",title:"Robot Arms",fullTitle:"Robot Arms"},signatures:"Adelhard Beni Rehiara",authors:[{id:"29287",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelhard",middleName:"Beni",surname:"Rehiara",slug:"adelhard-rehiara",fullName:"Adelhard Rehiara"}]},{id:"62978",title:"Intelligent Robotic Perception Systems",slug:"intelligent-robotic-perception-systems",totalDownloads:2443,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Robotic perception is related to many applications in robotics where sensory data and artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) techniques are involved. Examples of such applications are object detection, environment representation, scene understanding, human/pedestrian detection, activity recognition, semantic place classification, object modeling, among others. Robotic perception, in the scope of this chapter, encompasses the ML algorithms and techniques that empower robots to learn from sensory data and, based on learned models, to react and take decisions accordingly. The recent developments in machine learning, namely deep-learning approaches, are evident and, consequently, robotic perception systems are evolving in a way that new applications and tasks are becoming a reality. Recent advances in human-robot interaction, complex robotic tasks, intelligent reasoning, and decision-making are, at some extent, the results of the notorious evolution and success of ML algorithms. This chapter will cover recent and emerging topics and use-cases related to intelligent perception systems in robotics.",book:{id:"7227",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Cristiano Premebida, Rares Ambrus and Zoltan-Csaba Marton",authors:[{id:"203409",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Premebida",slug:"cristiano-premebida",fullName:"Cristiano Premebida"},{id:"254880",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrus",slug:"rares-ambrus",fullName:"Rares Ambrus"},{id:"254881",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan-Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Marton",slug:"zoltan-csaba-marton",fullName:"Zoltan-Csaba Marton"}]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:1971,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent development of different control systems for UAVs has caught the attention of academic and industry, due to the wide range of their applications such as in surveillance, delivery, work assistant, and photography. In addition, arms, grippers, or tethers could be installed to UAVs so that they can assist in constructing, transporting, and carrying payloads. In this book chapter, the control laws of the attitude and position of a quadcopter UAV have been derived basically utilizing three methods including backstepping, sliding mode control, and feedback linearization incorporated with LQI optimal controller. The main contribution of this book chapter would be concluded in the strategy of deriving the control laws of the translational positions of a quadcopter UAV. The control laws for trajectory tracking using the proposed strategies have been validated by simulation using MATLAB®/Simulink and experimental results obtained from a quadcopter test bench. Simulation results show a comparison between the performances of each of the proposed techniques depending on the nonlinear model of the quadcopter system under investigation; the trajectory tracking has been achieved properly for different types of trajectories, i.e., spiral trajectory, in the presence of unknown disturbances. Moreover, the practical results coincided with the results of the simulation results.",book:{id:"7792",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Abdulkader Joukhadar, Mohammad Alchehabi and Adnan Jejeh",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"22",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82223",title:"Biomechanical Design Principles Underpinning Anthropomorphic Manipulators",slug:"biomechanical-design-principles-underpinning-anthropomorphic-manipulators",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105434",abstract:"The biomechanical design of an artificial anthropomorphic manipulator is the focus of many researchers in diverse fields. Current electromechanical artificial hands are either in the research stage, expensive, have patents, lack severely in function, and/or are driven by robotic/mechanical principles, which tend to ignore the biological requirements of such designs. In response to the challenges addressed above this chapter discusses the potential of current technology and methods used in design to bridge the chasm that exists between robot manipulators and the human hand. This chapter elucidates artificial anthropomorphic manipulator design by outlining biomechanical concepts that contribute to the function, esthetics and performance of artificial manipulators. This chapter addresses joint stabilization, tendon structures and tendon excursion in artificial anthropomorphic manipulators.",book:{id:"11455",title:"Recent Advances in Robot Manipulators",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11455.jpg"},signatures:"Mahonri William Owen and Chikit Au"},{id:"82056",title:"Learning Robotic Ultrasound Skills from Human Demonstrations",slug:"learning-robotic-ultrasound-skills-from-human-demonstrations",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105069",abstract:"Robotic ultrasound system plays a vital role in assisting or even replacing sonographers in some cases. However, modeling and learning ultrasound skills from professional sonographers are still challenging tasks that hinder the development of ultrasound systems’ autonomy. To solve these problems, we propose a learning-based framework to acquire ultrasound scanning skills from human demonstrations1. First, ultrasound scanning skills are encapsulated into a high-dimensional multi-modal model, which takes ultrasound images, probe pose, and contact force into account. The model’s parameters can be learned from clinical ultrasound data demonstrated by professional sonographers. Second, the target function of autonomous ultrasound examinations is proposed, which can be solved roughly by the sampling-based strategy. The sonographers’ ultrasound skills can be represented by approximating the limit of the target function. Finally, the robustness of the proposed framework is validated with the experiments on ground-true data from sonographers.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Miao Li and Xutian Deng"},{id:"82057",title:"An Episodic-Procedural Semantic Memory Model for Continuous Topological Sensorimotor Map Building",slug:"an-episodic-procedural-semantic-memory-model-for-continuous-topological-sensorimotor-map-building",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104818",abstract:"For humans to understand the world around them, learning and memory are two cognitive processes of the human brain that are deeply connected. Memory allows information to retain and forms an experiences reservoir. Computational models replicating those memory attributes can lead to the practical use of robots in everyday human living environments. However, constantly acquiring environmental information in real-world, dynamic environments has remained a challenge for many years. This article proposes an episodic-procedure semantic memory model to continuously generate topological sensorimotor maps for robot navigation. The proposed model consists of two memory networks: i) episodic-procedural memory network (EPMN) and ii) semantic memory network (SMN). The EPMN comprises an Incremental Recurrent Kernel Machines (I-RKM) that clusters incoming input vectors as nodes and learns the activation patterns of the nodes for spatiotemporal encoding. The SMN then takes neuronal activity trajectories from the EPMN and task-relevant signals to update the SMN and produce more compact representations of episodic experience. Thus, both memory networks prevent catastrophic forgetting by constantly generating nodes when the network meets new inputs or updating node weights when the incoming input is similar to previously learned knowledge. In addition, idle or outlier nodes will be removed to preserve memory space.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Wei Hong Chin, Naoyuki Kubota and Chu Kiong Loo"},{id:"81922",title:"Skill Acquisition for Resource-Constrained Mobile Robots through Continuous Exploration",slug:"skill-acquisition-for-resource-constrained-mobile-robots-through-continuous-exploration",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104996",abstract:"We present a cognitive mobile robot that acquires knowledge, and autonomously learns higher-level abstract capabilities based on play instincts, inspired by human behavior. To this end, we (i) model skills, (ii) model the robot’s sensor and actuator space based on elementary physical properties, and (iii) propose algorithms inspired by humans’ play instincts that allow the robot to autonomously learn the skills based on its sensor and actuator capabilities. We model general knowledge in the form of competencies (skills) of the mobile robot based on kinematic properties using physical quantities. Thus, by design, our approach has the potential to cover very generic application domains. To connect desired skills to the primitive capabilities of the robot’s sensors and actuators, it playfully explores the effects of its actions on its sensory input, thus autonomously learning relations and dependencies and eventually the desired skill. KnowRob is used for knowledge representation and reasoning, and the robot’s operation is based on ROS. In the experiments, we use a millirobot, sized 2 cm2, equipped with two wheels, motion, and distance sensors. We show that our cognitive mobile robot can successfully and autonomously learn elementary motion skills based on a playful exploration of its wheels and sensors.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Markus D. Kobelrausch and Axel Jantsch"},{id:"81693",title:"The Neo-Mechanistic Model of Human Cognitive Computation and Its Major Challenges",slug:"the-neo-mechanistic-model-of-human-cognitive-computation-and-its-major-challenges",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104995",abstract:"The neo-mechanistic theory of human cognition is currently one of the most accepted major theories in fields, such as cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience. This proposal offers an account of human cognitive computation, and it has been considered by its proponents as revolutionary and capable of integrating research concerning human cognition with new evidence provided by fields of biology and neuroscience. However, some complex cognitive capacities still present a challenge for explanations constructed by using this theoretical structure. In this chapter, I make a presentation of some of the central tenets of this framework and show in what dimensions it helps our understanding of human cognition concerning aspects of capacities, such as visual perception and memory consolidation. My central goal, however, is to show that to understand and explain some particular human cognitive capacities, such as self-consciousness and some conscious informal reasoning and decision making, the framework shows substantial limitations. I conclude the chapter by suggesting that to fully understand human cognition we will need much more than what the neo-mechanistic framework is actually able to provide.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Diego Azevedo Leite"},{id:"81719",title:"Service Robots in Healthcare Settings",slug:"service-robots-in-healthcare-settings",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104640",abstract:"Robots will play a part in all aspects of healthcare. The presence of service robots in healthcare demands special attention, whether it is in the automation of menial labour, prescription distribution, or offering comfort. In this chapter, we examine the several applications of healthcare-oriented robots in the acute, ambulatory and at-home settings. We discuss the role of robotics in reducing environmental dangers, as well as at the patient’s bedside and in the operating room, in the acute setting. We examine how robotics can protect and scale up healthcare services in the ambulatory setting. Finally, in the at-home scenario, we look at how robots can be employed for both rural/remote healthcare delivery and home-based care. In addition to assessing the current state of robotics at the interface of healthcare delivery, we describe critical problems for the future where such technology will be ubiquitous. Patients, health care workers, institutions, insurance companies, and governments will realize that service robots will deliver significant benefits in the future in terms of leverage and cost savings, while maintaining or improving access, equity, and high-quality health care.",book:{id:"10657",title:"Advances in Service Robots",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg"},signatures:"Rohit Singla and Christopher Nguan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. 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She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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