\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He has done extensive research in andrology, sex education, and counseling.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. 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1. Introduction
1.1. Progress in semiconductor devices
The first solid-state amplifier was manufactured by using germanium (Ge) which was seen as the semiconductor material of the future. With time, silicon (Si) turned out to be more appropriate for a plethora of reasons [1–4]. Silica, the source of Si, is commonly available and is easier to get high-purity Si from it. Silicon can easily be doped to produce n-type, p-type and semi-insulating material [5]. In addition to all these, a native oxide SiO2 can be grown on Si using thermal oxidations at relatively low temperatures of around 900°C [6–8]. These properties make Si semiconductor industry favourite. At present, semiconductor industry worth is more than $300 billion [9]. Around 10% of this total is in smart integrated circuits and electronic power devices [10, 11]. In excess to more than 50% of our electricity is conditioned by electronic power devices [12, 13]. These devices are important because they determine the cost and efficiency of an electronic system. Hence, they have a greater influence on the economy of a country. The arrival of devices like the bipolar transistors in the 1950s led to the replacement of vacuum tubes [13, 14], and these improvements made possible the Second Electronic Revolution with Si as the material of choice. Power devices had a vital place in this revolution. In the 1970s, there were bipolar devices with a blocking voltage capacity of 500 V and high current capabilities. Also in 1970, International Rectifier Inc. launched the first metal-oxide-field-effect transistor (MOSFET) [15]. The idea was to switch bipolar devices with MOSFETs for high power use. The MOSFET is a unipolar device and thus can switch at a higher speed. Also, the MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device where the junction transistor is a current-controlled device. Higher switching speed means operation at higher frequencies where other system components such as inductors can be made smaller in size, and voltage control instead of current control means saving of internal energy in the device.
1.2. Need of a wide band-gap semiconductor device
To save energy on an electric power grid, the idea of redesigned ‘micro-grids’ has been proposed [16, 17]. Implementation of this concept needs power devices which can operate at higher switching speeds and block voltages of up to 20 kV [18]. A potential solution for this problem is to use wide band-gap semiconductor (e.g. SiC) power devices [19]. For a power device, the Baliga figure of merit (BFOM) [20] is given by
BFOM=µNεSEC3E1
µN = bulk mobility of SiC, εS = permittivity of SiC, EC = critical electric field of breakdown for SiC. Higher the BFOM, more suitable the semiconductor is for high power operation.
1.3. Unipolar devices
Power devices can be divided into two categories—bipolar and unipolar. Schottky diodes and MOSFETs are examples of unipolar devices. In a unipolar device, only one type of carrier (either a majority electron or a majority hole) is responsible for current flow. The device can operate at higher frequencies which results in lower switching losses [20]. There is a flow of both majority and minority carriers in bipolar devices. The slower minority carriers have to be injected and removed to get the device to turn on and off, so in bipolar devices there is power loss due to switching and leakage current. The n-channel Si-MOSFET is a better choice for low voltages (~100 V), and it can operate at high switching speed, 100 kHz. But as the blocking voltage increases, the on-state resistance increases drastically. The SiC-MOSFET enables us to go to higher operating voltages (order of kilo volts) with higher switching speed. This is possible because SiC has a high critical breakdown field, almost seven times that of Si. The specific on resistance (RON) of a MOSFET is given by [2]
RON=4VB2/µNεSEC3E2
VB is the desired blocking voltage, μN is the bulk electron mobility and εS is the semiconductor permittivity.
Bulk electron mobilities are similar for lightly doped Si and SiC (900–1200 cm2/V s). However, ECSiC ~ 7ECSi, so that for a given blocking voltage, RON can be a factor of 343 (73) times lower for SiC. Another way to think of this advantage is that lower critical field of Si means a much thicker drift layer is needed to support the source-drain voltage in blocking state. A thicker drift layer means higher drift resistance and thus higher RON for Si but lower RON for SiC. Furthermore, due to unipolar nature of the device we do not have to deal with stored charge and hence a FET will have higher switching speed.
1.4. Oxidation
Oxidation of 4H-SiC is a very important processing step during the manufacturing of a device. The performance of a metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) device is dependent on the quality of the gate oxide layer. Out of many oxidation processes, thermal oxidation is the process most commonly used to form the interface (4H-SiC/SiO2). Thermal oxidation is typically carried out in an oxygen (O2) atmosphere (500 sccm) at 1150°C. The thermal oxidation process has been investigated both experimentally and theoretically by researchers. First-principle calculations done by Di Ventra et al. have shown that during thermal oxidation, atomic oxygen diffused onto the surface of SiC and formed an advancing interface (4H-SiC/SiO2) [21]. Tan et al. confirmed experimentally that the excess carbon atoms diffused out as carbon monoxide (CO) [22]. For thicker oxide layers, their simulations showed that CO may break up either in SiO2 bulk or at the interface (4H-SiC/SiO2). The released oxygen participates in another round of oxidation, and the carbon atoms may lead to the formation of carbon clusters. Di Ventra et al. also proposed the formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) while CO was emitted out through a thick oxide layer. Kanup et al. developed theoretical predictions of the formation of stable carbon pairs and carbon interstitials [23]. These defects combined with silicon interstitials form near-interface traps (NIT). Near-interface traps are more critical compared to bulk traps for the mobility of SiC MOSFETs. The oxidation process can also cause the injection of carbon into SiC substrate. This injected carbon can exist in different forms such as carbon interstitials (Ci) and carbon di-interstitials (Ci)2 to further degrade the FET channel mobility [4–6, 24]. The oxidation rate of 4H-SiC depends upon the orientation of 4H-SiC wafers. This has been determined experimentally by Shenoy et al. [25]. The oxidation rate for C-face is three to five times faster than for the Si-face. Alumina-enhanced oxidation (AEO) is very fast due to the Na that is released from the alumina at the oxidation temperature. AEO on Si-face at 1050°C gives growth rate which is 10 times faster than normal thermal oxidation at 1150°C [26].
1.5. 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface passivation
Silicon carbide exists in different polytypes 6H-, 4H- and 3C-. A MOSFET fabricated using 6H- polytype has field-effect inversion channel mobility which is much higher than that of 4H- polytype MOSFET (due to higher band gap of 4H-, Eg ~ 3.26 eV, most of the interface traps for 4H-SiC falls in the forbidden band, Eg ~ 3.0 eV for 6H- polytype). 6H-SiC due to its lower band gap, 3.0 eV, has lower critical electric field of breakdown (Ec) and bulk mobility compared to 4H-SiC. Also, in 4H- the field-effect mobility is more isotropic [5, 27] as compared to 6H-SiC. All these benefits make 4H- polytype a preferred choice among other polytypes of SiC for power devices. Although 4H- polytype has all these advantages, its full potential has not yet been exploited. This is due to high interface trap densities (Dit) at the interface (4H-SiC/SiO2) 1013 eV−1cm−2. This value is much higher than the Dit of Si/SiO2 interface (1010 eV−1cm−2). The cause of higher Dit is the formation of Si-dangling bonds, C-dangling bonds, O vacancies and C clusters. All this occurs during the oxidation of 4H-SiC [6–8]. Different post-oxidation annealing (called as passivation) techniques had been tried in the past to reduce the interface traps, for example, post-oxidation annealing in nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O), ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen (H2) ambient [13, 29, 30]. NO/N2O led to the incorporation of nitrogen (N) at the interface and forms different chemical species C-N, Si-N, Si-N-O and reduces the near Dit [6, 7]. The combined NO + H2 passivation (NO passivation followed by H2 passivation) gives improved interface which results in slightly better mobility ~40 cm2/V s. Allerstan et al. have shown that the presence of sodium (Na+) ion at the interface increases inversion channel mobility drastically up to 150 cm2/V s, on the Si face of 4H-SiC MOSFET [11]. However, Na+ moves under applied bias and hence destabilizes the device due to changing threshold voltage (VT).The a-face (1120) of 4H- polytype with Al2O3/SiO2 composite gate oxides leads to devices with channel mobilities of 100 cm2/V s or more, but these MOSFETs showed higher leakage currents and lower breakdown voltages [13, 28]. Some groups have reported that the thermal oxidation at higher temperatures can lead to a better interface with a low-interface trap density value ~2 × 1011 eV−1cm−2 at 0.2 eV from the conduction band (CB) edge [15, 29]. In the following sections, different interface passivation processes will be discussed.
1.5.1. Phosphorous interface passivation
In phosphorous (P) passivation, the interface is treated with P source to get a gate oxide with P at the interface. This can be done by using either a gas mixture of POCl3, N2 and O2 or SiP2O7 as a planar solid source to form phosphosilicate glass (PSG), P2O5, under high-temperature (1000°C) annealing in nitrogen environment. With P passivation, we can have different process variations in order to obtain different results, which are discussed in the following sections.
1.5.1.1. Thick PSG process
In thick PSG device, a 70-nm thermal oxide is grown and then passivated by a 3-h P passivation process. During interface passivation, the following reaction takes place, which leads to the formation of phosphosilicate glass. The formation of this PSG layer leads to a high concentration of P at the interface. The P concentration near interface is ~2 × 1021 cm−3 using Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS), data are not shown.
SiP2O7→N2gas1L/min,1000°CSiO2+P2O5E3
The Dit is significantly lower as compared to NO-passivated device and is 2 × 10−11 eV−1cm−2 at 0.2 eV from the conduction band edge, Ec − E = 0.2 eV, Figure 1. In all the Dit measurements, high-low C-V technique is used to extract the values. MOS capacitor results show that P passivation is more effective than NO passivation. The field-effect mobility of an n-channel MOSFET after P passivation is two times higher compared to standard NO passivation (Figure 2).
Figure 1.
Dit after 3-h P passivation and comparison with NO passivation.
Figure 2.
Field-effect mobility of a MOSFET after P passivation and comparison with NO passivation.
Bias temperature stress (BTS) test was performed on metal-oxide semiconductor capacitors for a positive/negative bias and results are shown in Figure 3(a) [30]. For a positive BTS test, the electric field is ~+1.5 MV/cm. The value of 0 V for flatband voltage (VFB) before BTS in the case of phosphorous passivation confirms fewer interface traps after this process. The VFB is significantly higher (~2 V) after NO annealing. After the positive BTS test, VFB increases drastically from 0 to −18 V. The reason behind this shift in VFB is induced positive polarization charge at the interface due to the formation of PSG layer. Results of a negative BTS test are also shown in Figure 3(a). Due to induced negative polarize charge at the interface, the VFB shifts in positive direction. Thus, the PSG layer makes devices highly unreliable by shifting VFB in opposite directions. Results of a positive BTS test for a thick PSG MOSFETs are shown in Figure 3(b). A negative shift of −2 V in threshold voltage after a positive BTS test confirms that all these devices are highly unstable and of no practical use. Again, the near zero values for VT confirm the effectiveness of P passivation compared to NO passivation.
Figure 3.
(a) VFB after positive and negative BTS of a MOS capacitor. (b) Mobility data before and after positive BTS on a thick PSG MOSFET.
Phosphorous process leads to improved interface by making traps electrically inactive and hence leads to higher field-effect mobility in 4H-SiC MOSFETs [6, 30]. Although the values of diffusion coefficients of impurities in SiC are very low, the possibility of P diffusion into SiC cannot be neglected. Phosphorous in the SiC substrate could have two effects: (i) phosphorous in the SiC can passivate carbon di-interstitial clusters and the correlated dangling bonds and (ii) the presence of phosphorous in the substrate can increase the concentration of n-type dopants (P) in the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface region to produce a counter-doping effect. This phenomenon has been observed in nitrogen-implanted 4H-SiC MOSFET. Both these effects (reduction in interface trap and counter-doping) lead to a lower VT and a higher channel mobility [31, 32].
1.5.1.2. Etched PSG process
Annealing of an SiO2 layer in a P2O5 ambient converts it into a phosphosilicate glass layer. PSG is a polar material [33], and if a positive/negative bias is applied at the gate terminal of MOSFET a positive/negative polarization sheet charge is induced at the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface. The effect of this induced charge is similar to the effect of Na+ ions at the interface. The presence of either charge leads to an unsTable 4H-SiC MOSFET. For example, this polarize charge can change a “normally-off” device to a “normally-on” device. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results [34, 35] reveal that PSG layers cannot be removed completely by etching in BOE if is grown on 4H-SiC while opposite is true for the layer grown on Si. After BOE etching in the case of SiC, a 2–3-nm Si-C-O-P interfacial layer can still be seen which is equivalent to a phosphorous areal density of 2 × 1014 atoms/cm2 (approximately one-tenth of a monolayer). Before etching, the areal density of phosphorus is 1015 cm−2. We lose P after etching which is reflected in higher trap density for the etched PSG sample, Figure 4. In order to understand this phenomenon, we need to address the following two questions: (i) Is the un-etched PSG layer responsible for the better interface trap and hence high field-effect mobility? and (ii) Is there any difference between the bulk PSG layer and the un-etched layer in terms of induced polarization charge? These two questions are very important in order to understand the field-effect mobility and threshold voltage stability of the devices. An etching experiment on P-passivated MOS capacitors was performed to answer these questions. On etched devices, a thick layer of deposited oxide is used to fabricate MOS capacitors by using a low-pressure chemical vapour deposition (LPCVD) system at a temperature of 650°C. The Dit and VFB results of PSG-etched devices are shown in Figures 4 and 5 and are also compared with etched NO-passivated devices.
Figure 4.
Dit before and after etching for NO and PSG MOS capacitors trap density increases after etching.
Figure 5.
Positive BTS data of an etched PSG MOS capacitor device stability after etching.
The Dit for an etched NO device is like as-oxidized MOS capacitors. The values are significantly higher and similar to the Dit profile for an unpassivated MOS device. These results show that, after etching, there is a decrease in the areal densities of both P and N from the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface. As a result, we observed worst electrical properties of the interface caused by increased interface trap densities. The results of BTS tests for etched P-passivated samples are shown in Figure 5. The etched devices have flatband voltages, which remain constant at around 6 V and are caused by the electron injection phenomenon from the SiC into the polar (PSG) layer. For the etched PSG MOS capacitors, the values are reduced significantly showing the absence of high induced polarization charge at the interface. In the case of thick PSG samples, polarization charge induces a negative shift in VFB which keeps on increasing with increasing BTS test time. The results of BTS tests for the etched PSG MOS capacitors show that, after etching, stability improves at the cost of higher interface trap density.
1.5.1.3. Thin PSG devices BTS
P passivation of the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface reduces the Dit but increases the threshold voltage instability due to the formation of a PSG layer during the process (Figure 6) [18]. In order to make the devices more reliable after P passivation, a different approach is used which involves a thin PSG layer (~10 nm). The Dit of a thin MOS capacitor is shown in Figure 7. Dit value for thin PSG MOS device is 3 × 1011 eV−1cm−2 at Ec − E = 0.2 eV which is two times lower than NO-passivated device. The corresponding lateral 4H-SiC MOSFET has a peak channel mobility of ~75 cm2/V s, Figure 7. This number is approximately two times higher compared to an NO device. Although the mobility of a thick PSG is higher (Figure 2), the device is plagued with threshold voltage instability. The breakdown field for thin PSG device is NO-like, but its leakage current is significantly higher (not shown). Results for positive BTS tests for thin PSG MOS capacitors and MOSFETs are shown in Figure 8(a) and (b), respectively. An oxide field of ~+1.5 MV/cm was applied at 150°C during positive BTS tests for all the samples. The thin PSG MOS capacitors show an improved electrical interface which translates into stable flatband voltage values of the MOS capacitors. Figure 8(b) shows the electric field-effect mobilities of the MOSFETs before and after positive BTS tests performed for 8 h. We can observe that there is a small right shift caused by electron injection, in the field-effect mobility curve. This once again proves that using the thin PSG process, the device stability can be improved. The instability of thick PSG devices is due to polarization charge which is negligible in the case of thin PSG devices. There is one-to-one relationship between the thickness of the PSG layer and shift in flatband voltage (ΔVFB) for a given BTS voltage. As we increase the thickness of the gate oxide layer from 10 nm (thin PSG devices) to 70 nm, we get less stable device.
Figure 6.
Gate oxide before (a) and after (b) P passivation. The P which passivates the traps at the interface also leads to instability by transforming SiO2 into PSG.
Figure 7.
Dit for thin PSG MOS capacitor. Dit is lower than NO device, but higher than thick PSG device.
Figure 8.
(a) Positive BTS data of a thin PSG MOS capacitor. Data show improved device stability. ΔVFB=VFBfinal–VFBinitial (b) Mobility data of a MOSFET with (dashed curve) and without 8-h positive BTS.
1.5.2. Nitrogen plasma (N-plasma) passivation of the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface
NO passivation is the process that has been used in the production of commercial SiC MOSFET. This process reduces the Dit of the interface, it has some limitations. This process is performed at high temperature between 1150 and 1200°C. The mechanism is that at such a high temperature, NO dissociates into atomic N and O. The N produced during the reaction reduces the number of the traps by passivating them, while the O reacts with the SiC layer forming an additional SiO2 layer and hence a new set of interface traps [16]. Thus, there are two mechanisms going on simultaneously in competition. With N-plasma passivation where there is no atomic O, it is possible to eliminate additional oxidation and hence limiting the total number of traps caused during post-oxidation annealing. As a result during N-plasma passivation, the Dit decreases drastically. Also, we get some extra benefit from this process. It has been seen that after this process, the Dit continues to decrease with the increase of N plasma exposure time, which is not true in the case of NO passivation. In that process, the N concentration saturates at the interface after the annealing time of 2 h [17]. The Dit for 4-h N-plasma passivation is NO-like and results in NO-like mobility (~40 cm2/V s). Eight-hour N-plasma-passivated MOS devices give Dit ~3 × 1011 eV−1cm−2. If mobility scales with Dit, MOSFETs that have undergone an 8-h N-plasma passivation should have a peak field-effect mobility of ~100 cm2/V s.
For N-plasma passivation, ground-state atomic N is created in microwave plasma and a portion of these atoms recombine to emit at visible wavelengths. The set-up used to create N-plasma is shown in Figure 9. The snapshot of the spectrum formed during the N-plasma passivation is shown in Figure 10. In the spectrum, a peak is obtained at the wavelength of 589.19 nm. This peak is obtained due to the recombination of active ground-state (4S) N atoms. This recombination is followed by the decay of an excited state in the N2 molecule and gives rise to yellow afterglow [19]. The mechanism, which causes the afterglow, takes place due to the following reaction.
Figure 9.
High-temperature microwave plasma furnace used for nitrogen plasma passivation (N-plasma passivation).
Figure 10.
Typical spectrum of nitrogen during N-plasma passivation.
Also, the intensity of yellow afterglow of emission is proportional to the square of concentration of active ground-state atoms. The amount of radiation detected at 589.19 nm is therefore a measure of the atomic nitrogen concentration in the plasma [36, 37]. After N-plasma passivation for the desired time, the recovery step was performed at 1160°C in N2 flow. This step is used to heal the damage caused during the nitrogen plasma exposure of oxide and helps to improve the breakdown characteristics of the devices.
1.5.2.1. Four-hour N-plasma passivation on thermal oxide
Initially, the N-plasma process was used on the interface grown using a standard thermal oxidation. Nitrogen plasma also causes damage to the interface so N-plasma process is followed by a recovery process. Results obtained for a 4-h N-plasma process followed by a 2-h recovery process (from plasma damage) are shown in Figure 11(a) and (b) [38]. The Dit and electric field-effect mobility obtained under these conditions are both “NO-like.” The thickness of the oxide layer used is 70 nm. The peak value of field-effect mobility of MOSFET is ~45 cm2/V s (which is like NO-passivated MOSFET). The VT determined by using the linear portion of the drain current versus gate voltage curve is around 4 V (Figure 12). After N-plasma passivation, the oxide breakdown field of the MOS capacitor is ~4 MV/cm. This lower breakdown field is due to the damage caused during N-plasma passivation. This is the result of the gate leakage current and needs further optimization of the recovery process done after the passivation step. Also, we can conclude that the recovery anneal of 2 h is not enough.
Figure 11.
(a) Interface trap density (both NO and plasma) and (b) mobility for 4-h N-plasma passivation.
Figure 12.
Threshold voltage (VT) for a 4-h N-plasma passivation. The extrapolation in linear region method is used to extract the threshold voltage.
1.5.2.2. Four-hour N-plasma passivation on deposited oxide
To limit carbon liberation (by minimizing the number of processing steps which causes oxidation) of the SiC, thermal oxide layers can be replaced by deposited oxides. The peak value of field-effect mobility for a companion MOSFET is ~50 cm2/V s (Figure 12), which is significantly higher than “NO-like” device, with threshold voltage again ~4 V (Figure 13). Note that this value is 25% higher than the one obtained with thermally grown oxide [38, 39].
Figure 13.
Mobility for a deposited oxide + 4-h N-plasma-passivated MOSFET.
1.5.2.3. Eight-hour N-plasma passivation
The interface trap density after 8-h N-plasma passivation with 6-h recovery is shown in Figure 14(a) for 62-nm thermal oxides [3, 39, 40]. The Dit at 0.2 eV is 2 × 1011 cm−2eV−1, which is like the MOS capacitors having a thick PSG layer. But as we discussed, these types of devices are highly unstable and of no practical use. With N-plasma passivation, we do not have this problem because the oxide layer is still SiO2 and still non-polar in nature. The areal densities of N obtained after Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy measurements done on the MOS capacitors, which underwent 4-h and 8-h N-plasma passivation, are 6 × 1014 and 1.5 × 1015 cm−2, respectively. The areal density for standard NO-passivated MOS capacitor is also 6 × 10−14 cm−2 and has been used as a reference sample. Also, XPS data for N-plasma-passivated devices have shown (not presented here) that the Dit for devices that have undergone this process is almost 2.5 lower than that for NO-passivated devices. Figure 14(b) shows breakdown characteristics after an 8-h N-plasma passivation. The oxide is leaky compared to NO, and the breakdown field is lower (~2 MV/cm for some devices). If mobility scales with Dit, MOSFETs that have undergone an 8-h N-plasma passivation should have a peak field-effect mobility of ~100 cm2/V s. Further optimization of the process is desirable to achieve higher N concentration at the interface and to improve the yield of the process.
Figure 14.
(a) Interface trap density for 8-h N-plasma passivation, and compared with thick and NO-passivated devices. The Dit is at Ec − E = 0.2 eV is 2 × 1011 cm−2eV−1, which is like thick PSG MOS capacitors. (b) Breakdown characteristics of MOS capacitors after 8-h N-plasma passivation. The dashed curve is for a standard NO device.
1.5.3. High-temperature oxidation
Lately, there has been a growing interest in high-temperature oxidation of 4H-SiC. Studies have shown that if the oxidation conditions are optimized, then the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface grown after the process has much better electrical properties to the ones grown under standard conditions (1100−1200°C). In the following sections, we see the progress made in this area. Also, we discuss the effect of performing P and N2O post-oxidation annealing on the oxides grown at high temperatures. It has been observed that high-temperature oxidation performed at 1500°C can lead to a better interface with Dit. Figure 15(a) shows the effect of temperature on the Dit. We can see with the increase of temperature from 1200 to 1500°C that Dit reduces from 2 × 1012 to 5 × 1011 cm−2eV−1 at Ec − E = 0.2 eV. Figure 15(b) shows the linear transfer characteristics and field-effect mobilities of the devices measured at room temperature [36]. The VT values for the devices without any passivation are typically around 5 [3, 49] which is due to the large number of traps at the interface. The net charge of these traps is negative in nature. This high-temperature process is effective in reducing in number of trapped and resulted in low threshold voltages observed in the MOSFETs. The reduction in trapped charge is reflected by the field-effect mobility of ~40 cm2/V s. This value is much lower than the previously reported results, even the one obtained at 1400°C. All this is a direct reduction in Coulomb scattering. In this approach (high-temperature oxidation), there is no need of performing the post-oxidation annealing of the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interfaces.
Figure 15.
(a). Dit of thermal oxides grown at 1200 and 1500°C in a pure oxygen flow rate of 0.05 l/min. The increase in temperature resulted in approximately a twofold reduction in Dit from 5.3 × 1011 to 2.5 × 1011 cm−2eV−1, a Ec − E = 0.2 eV. (b). Linear transfer characteristic and field effect mobility of 3 lateral 4H-SiC MOSFETs. Whilst there is a variation in threshold voltage, the novel high temperature gate oxidation process yields a consistent maximum mobility of ~40 cm2V−1s−1.
1.5.3.1. Combined N2O and phosphorous passivations of the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface with oxide grown at 1400°C
Phosphorous (P) passivation is more effective than N2O passivation in improving the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface by reducing the number of traps at the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface. There are some studies performed by Rong Hua et al. [41] to see the combined effect of high-temperature oxidation with either P or N2O passivation. The MOS capacitor with 1400°C dry oxidation and without any post-oxidation passivation process has the highest Dit as shown in Figure 16(a). The Dit results from the MOS capacitors have one-to-one relation with the field-effect mobility of the MOSFETs shown in Figure 16(b), where the lowest Dit corresponds to the highest field-effect mobility. From Figure 16(b), it can be seen that the P passivation can increase the peak field-effect mobility of a 4H-SiC MOSFET to about 66 cm2/V s, which is five times higher than the value obtained after high-temperature N2O-annealing process. Compared to low field-effect mobility, ~2 cm2/V s, of the MOSFETs with gate oxide grown at 1400°C for 1 h without post-oxidation annealing process, the P-post-oxidation annealing (POA) process can dramatically increase the field-effect mobility.
Figure 16.
(a). Interface trap density extracted using high-low frequency capacitance method for MOS capacitors fabricated with different passivation conditions. (b). Field-effect mobility and the drain current against the gate bias for lateral MOSFETs with different passivation conditions.
However, the combined N2O- and P-passivation processes have shown a slight decrease in the peak field-effect mobility value (60 cm2/V s) compared to the P-only passivation. This value is still much higher than obtained using N2O passivation (12 cm2/V s). The only drawback for the combined N2O- and P-passivation processes is that the MOSFET still has a negative threshold voltage (VT) value (~−5 V) but better than the P-only passivation. The net positive charge at/or near the interface 4H-SiC/SiO2 resulted in a negative VT of the device. This value can be improved with further optimization of the process. The negative threshold voltage means that the device is normally on which is not an ideal choice from the application point of view. Potentially, this problem could be solved by using a thin layer (a few nm thick) of SiO2 which afterward undergoes the suggested combined N2O and P POA and then finally topped up by a thick(40-nm) deposited SiO2 layer. There is no extra benefit of performing P passivation on the devices which have already had N2O POA.
1.5.3.2. Impact of N2O passivation on 4H-SiC/SiO2 interfaces grown at high temperature
The results on high-temperature oxidation (1500°C) have shown a reduction in the interface trap density (Dit) without performing any kind of interface passivation. It would be interesting to see the impact of N2O passivation on the oxides grown via high-temperature oxidation process. The interface is grown with high-temperature oxidation, and the results are shown in Figure 1. There is a decrease in the Dit for the high-temperature as-oxidized MOS capacitors as compared with the MOS capacitors grown using standard oxidation process. But there is no further improvement in the Dit with N2O passivation performed at 1350°C, Figure 17. The electric field of breakdown for MOS capacitors with high-temperature oxidation with and without N2O passivation is lower than 8 MV/cm. The reason for an early breakdown in the case of high-temperature as-oxidized MOS capacitors is not clear and further study is needed. In the case of passivated devices, this could be due to the incorporation of nitrogen throughout the bulk of the oxide, as previously reported on 4H-SiC MOS capacitors after ammonia passivation. We also performed N2O passivation on the MOS capacitors grown via the standard oxidation process, and the results are shown in Figure 18. Again, the electric field of breakdown is lower for these devices. Also, there is no improvement in the Dit with the increase of temperature for N2O passivation. The breakdown data for N2O passivation at 1450°C could not be obtained due to a high increase in the oxide thickness after the passivation.
Figure 17.
The electrical properties of the 4H-SiC MOS capacitors with a high-temperature (1500°C) thermal oxidation, interface trap density (a–b) and oxide breakdown (c–d).
Figure 18.
The electrical properties of the 4H-SiC MOS capacitors with a standard oxidation process (1200°C thermal oxidation) followed by N2O passivation at 1350 and 1450°C. From (a) – (c) Dit versus EC-E and (d) – (e) show breakdown characteristics of various MOS capacitors with different oxidation/passivation processes.
1.5.4. Other interface passivation processes
In addition to all these interface passivation processes, there are some studies done using boron (B) and Sb. Modic et al. have shown that Sb-doped surface channel in combination with nitric oxide post-oxidation annealing can increase the channel field-effect mobility to 100 cm2/V s [42]. Also, Okamoto et al. were able to increase the channel field-effect mobility to 102 cm2/V s by introducing boron atoms to the interface [43].
1.6. 3C-SiC/SiO2 interface
There is a reignited interest on cubic silicon carbide (3C-SiC), which can be potentially grown heteroepitaxially on 12″ Si substrates, as it would result in a drastic cost reduction of semiconductor devices compared to the successful but prohibitively expensive SiC hexagonal polytype technology (4H-SiC). It has been demonstrated that lateral power transistors in 3C-SiC outperform Si and 4H-SiC devices up to 1200 V, and represent an alternative to gallium nitride (GaN) technology. Also, GaN transistors are normally on, and as a result, it is challenging to control them eclectically. The voltage ratings for which these 3C-SiC devices are targeted for make them useful in automotive and other domestic appliances. Thus, this 3C-SiC technology has a huge potential for reducing the global carbon footprint.
1.6.1. High-temperature dry/thermal oxidation (1200–1400°C) and N2O passivation of the 3C-SiC/SiO2 interface
Due to the smaller band gap of 3C- (2.2 eV) compared to 4H- (3.2 eV), a fewer number of traps lie within the energy band gap of 3C-SiC in a metal-oxide-semiconductor structure resulting in better field-effect mobility [44]. It is found that 3C-SiC has different oxidation chemistry compared with 4H-SiC; 70–80-nm oxide can be grown at 1100°C in 1 h, which is 10 times faster than the oxidation rate of 4H-SiC on the Si face [45]. Also for the Si face in 4H-SiC, it has been observed that mobility increases with decreasing Dit. For example, as we go from thermally grown gate oxide to post-oxidation-annealed (passivated) oxide using hydrogen (H2) passivation, NO/N2O passivation, nitrogen plasma (N-plasma) passivation or phosphorous (P) passivation, Dit decreases significantly [37, 46–48]. Thomas et al. have shown that as-grown oxidized at 1500°C resulted in a 4H-SiC MOSFET with maximum field-effect mobility of 40 cm2/V s. Sharma et al. have studied high-temperature oxidation of 3C-SiC [49]. In that work, the highest temperature used for the oxidation of 3C-SiC is 1400°C, because of the limit dictated by the melting point of Si (1414°C). The oxidation is done in 100% oxygen ambient. In addition, a standard nitrous oxide post-oxidation annealing of the interface is performed to see its effect.
A 3C-SiC/Si wafer with heterostructure grown on on-axis p-type Si (001) substrate was used in the work. The 3C-SiC epilayer is n-type with a doping concentration of ND ~ 1 × 1016 cm−3. The thickness of epilayer was around 10 µm. Lateral MOS-C structure had been used to study the electrical properties of the interface (inset of Figure 19(a)). The oxidation was performed at high temperatures followed by 30-min argon (Ar) annealing at temperatures used for oxidation. Standard high-low C-V and conductance techniques were used to analyse the 3C-SiC/SiO2 interface. In addition, lateral n-channel MOSFETs were fabricated to extract the field-effect mobilities (µ). Planar MOSFETs were fabricated on the same substrate which was used to fabricate the MOS capacitors. Figure 19 shows the normalized C-V curves at 1 MHz for different MOS-Cs. There are three distinct features of these curves. The first is a large flatband voltage shift (ΔVFB = VFB,i − VFB,ideal) towards negative gate bias, the second is increased capacitance in depletion and the third is to observe the large stretch-out in C-V characteristics. The subscript ‘i’ stands for different processing conditions used to grow the gate oxide, i = 1 for 1200°C oxidation, i = 2 for 1300°C oxidation, i = 3 for 1300°C oxidation and i = 4 for 1300°C oxidation followed by N2O annealing. Figure 19(b) shows a comparison between the ideal and experimental C-V curves for each temperature. The ideal C-V curve is obtained (solving the electrostatic and Poisson equation) by assuming that the 3C-SiC/SiO2 interface is perfect, having no defects near the interface and also in the bulk of the oxide and 3C-SiC. The doping value used in the computations for the high-temperature-oxidized samples was ND = 0.63 × 1016 cm−3 for all the oxidation temperature range, that is, the 3C-SiC doping concentration seems to be stable even for 1400°C. Interestingly, a significant increase in the 3C-SiC doping was observed for the sample further annealed in N2O. In this case, a value of ND = 2.45 × 1016 cm−3 was used to fit the experimental capacitance. The flatband voltage shift shows the existence of net positive fixed charge at the interface and its origin is believed to be the presence of carbon clusters and dangling bonds formed after thermal oxidation [6] Carbon clusters and dangling bonds act as donor-like states and are positively charged when they are empty and as a result give rise to a negative shift in VFB. The calculations for effective oxide charge (QEFF) has been done (not shown) for all the MOS-Cs. It was found that QEFF increases with temperature, which is different from the results reported previously on 3C-SiC MOS-Cs and further research is required to explain this behaviour [50]. In addition to carbon clusters, the nitrogen-related complex in the case of 1300°C (oxidation + N2O annealing) MOS-C causes a large shift in VFB, likely due to its incorporation in the 3C-SiC surface and resulting in an increased doping concentration [51]. Also, as mentioned above, all the curves are significantly stretched out compared to the ideal curve, representing the presence of high interface traps. These traps could be near the conduction band edge and/or the presence of oxide near interface traps (also known as slow traps) [52]. Hysteresis (not shown) in the C-V curves indicates the slow nature of some of the traps [52]. In addition, less band banding is caused by increased net positive fixed charge at the interface resulting in increased capacitance in depletion region [53]. Figure 19(c) shows the density of interface traps (Dit) extracted from the Terman C-V method and compared with conductance methods (shown as inner graphic of Figure 1). Both these methods give consistent results with 1300°C (oxidation + N2O) leading to the lowest Dit = 1.8 × 1012 cm−2eV−1 at Ec − ET = 0.25 eV. This value is two times smaller than the one obtained with the 1300°C oxidation process (Dit = 3.7 × 1012 cm−2eV−1). It is believed that these Dit values are rather high, primarily because of the contribution of slow states. As it can be seen in Figure 19(b) for the 1300°C (oxidation + N2O) device, the plateau is quite ideal for voltages larger than the flatband (accumulation) but in depletion there is a relevant dispersion (ideal versus experimental), typical signature of the oxide near interface traps. The superiority of annealed device is also confirmed by the G-V plot as shown in Figure 20(a), performed at 100 kHz. The area under the conductance peak is a measure for Dit. The position of the peak corresponds to the energy position in the band gap and as all these peaks occur at gate bias close to VFB, it can be inferred that these peaks are a measure of Dit close to the CB edge of 3C-SiC [49]. Devices without the N2O post-oxidation annealing have larger area under G-V curves when compared with the annealed device, implying higher Dit for non-annealed devices. The peak value of 1300°C (oxidation + N2O) is much smaller than other devices and hence this device has the lowest Dit being consistent with Terman and conductance methods. Also, all of the admittance-voltage (G-V) curves have finite full width at half maximum (FWHM) signifying that these traps are dispersed over an energy range within the band gap and are not localized at a fixed energy value. Similar results have been reported on the MOS capacitors implanted with N [54]. As the 1300°C oxidation process with N2O post-oxidation annealing gives the lowest Dit, this process was used to fabricate a lateral 3C-SiC MOSFET. Also, a lateral MOSFET was fabricated with the 1300°C oxidation process, as for a reference sample. The results of mobility measurements for lateral MOSFETs are shown in Figure 20(b). The device with N2O annealing has a peak channel mobility of approximately 120 cm2/V s, and shows a ×2 improvement in peak mobility as compared with a 1300°C as-oxidized MOSFET which has a mobility of 60 cm2/V s. This is consistent with the fact that the N2O-annealed MOS-C has better Dit as compared with the as-oxidized 1300°C MOS-C. The MOSFET annealed in N2O has a relatively sharp turn-on and a peak channel mobility of 125 cm2/V s. At greater gate biases, the field-effect mobility decreases because of the increasing surface field, which may be an indication of the surface roughness to be a dominant scattering mechanism [40]. Figure 21 shows atomic force microscopy (AFM) analysis that has been performed on all of the devices in order to see the effect of temperature on the surface morphology. The root-mean-square (RMS) values of roughness for all these MOSCs lie in the range of 0.54–0.60 nm, showing that high temperatures (≥1300°C) do not have effect of temperature on the surface morphology. The RMS values of roughness for all these MOSCs lie in the range of 0.54–60 nm, showing that high temperatures (T ≥ 1200°C) do not have any significant detrimental effect on the oxide surface. The Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry profiles are shown in Figure 22. The N2O-annealed device shows the accumulation of nitrogen at the interface which is responsible for the improved Dit and field-effect mobility (µ) in this process. There is virtually no appreciable difference between the Si, O and C profiles for all the devices, and it could be due to no out-diffusion or diffusion of species from the interface. There is a possibility that the Si, O and C concentration decreases monotonically very slightly with temperature, which is not within the tolerances of SIMS measurement. The parallel equivalent conductance spectroscopy is used to further analyse the characteristics of the high-temperature oxidation. Figure 23 shows GP/ω versus probe frequency (f) curves for non-annealed and 1300°C (oxidation + N2O) devices. By fitting the curves to a Gaussian fit, the interface state density, trap time extracted. As shown in Figure 5, the 1300°C (oxidation + N2O) device could have no Gaussian dispersion or a very wide Gaussian dispersion, and as a result it, is not possible to fit the experimental data and it is not possible to extract Dit, trap time constant (tp) and surface-potential fluctuations (σs) for the Gaussian dispersion, for the annealed device. The Dit extracted using this technique for all the devices is shown as the inset of Figure 1. Naik and Chow have reported a wide Gaussian dispersion for conductance curves on NO-treated 4H-SiC MOS-C [54], which potentially explains the results presented here. Figure 24(a) plots the trap time constant as a function of energy. As we can see from the figure that across the different energy levels in the band gap, tp increases with increasing temperature. At a constant temperature, tp increases as we go deeper into the band gap. The surface-potential fluctuations can be extracted by performing the curve fitting to the G-V curves. In Figure 24(b), we can see the temperature variation of the standard deviation of the surface potential (σs) which is caused by fluctuations of interface states for different MOS capacitors. The values lie between 2 and 3, which indicates that the 3C-SiC/SiO2 interface is electrically better than 4H- polytype (σs = 4 for 4H- and around 2 for Si). This fairly low value of σs, coupled with the low value of Dit and the MOSFET field-decreasing large field-effect mobility, suggests that Coulombic interface-scattering-related effects should not limit transistor performance.
Figure 19.
(a) Typical 1-MHz C-V curves for 3C-SiC MOS structures with oxides grown at 1200, 1300, 1400 and 1300°C+N2O. (b) A comparison between the ideal and experimental C-V curves for each temperature. (c) Interface state densities (Dit) for 3C-SiC MOS structures with and without post-oxidation anneal (N2O) process, calculated using Terman C-V and conductance (inset) methods. Due to a very wide Gaussian dispersion, it is not possible to extract Dit for the N2O-annealed device using the conductance method.
Figure 20.
(a) Normalized conductance curves of 3C-SiC MOS structures taken for different gate voltages at probe frequency (ω) = 100 kHz. (b) Field-effect channel mobilities (µ) for N2O-annealed and non-annealed 3C-SiC MOSFETs. Both the N2O post-oxidation annealing and thermal oxidation were done at 1300°C.
Figure 21.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) for results different processed MOS capacitors with as-grown thermal oxide (a) at T = 1200°C (b) T = 1300°C, (c) T = 1400°C and (d) T = 1300°C with N2O post-oxidation annealing. The RMS values of roughness within a range of 0.54–0.60 nm, implying that high temperature does not have deteriorating effect on the surface morphology of devices.
Figure 22.
SIMS profiles for 3C-SiC MOS capacitors fabricated under different conditions with (a)–(c) for as-oxidized MOS capacitors. From plot (d), it is evident that most of the nitrogen has accumulated at the 3C-SiO2/SiC interface in the case of 1300°C N2O-annealed device. It is obvious that most of the nitrogen has accumulated at the SiO2/SiC interface after an NO anneal.
Figure 23.
Gp/ω versus probe frequency (ω) at different biases in depletion region for MOS capacitors with as-grown thermal oxide (a) at T = 1200°C, (b) T = 1300°C, (c) T = 1400°C and (d) T = 1300°C with N2O post-oxidation annealing.
Figure 24.
(a) The trap time constant as a function of energy and (b) the temperature dependence of standard deviation of the surface potential (σs).
In conclusion, high-temperature oxidation (1200–1400°C) has been used to grow the 3C-SiC/SiO2. Out of all the oxidation temperatures investigated, 1300°C was found to be the optimum temperature for oxidation. The interface can be improved further by performing the N2O post-oxidation annealing again at 1300°C for 2 h, though this leads to high accumulation of N at the interface. The lateral MOSFET with N2O-annealed oxide yielded a field-effect mobility of 125 cm2/V s, which is twice the value of non-annealed MOSFET, with the gate oxide grown at 1300°C (60 cm2/V s). The low values of σs and larger µ for as-oxidized MOS-Cs show that the 3C-SiC/SiO2 interface is better than its 4H-SiC counterpart (at least in terms of interfacial fast traps). These findings have important implications for SiC-MOS technology as 3C-SiC/Si can provide a low-cost alternative even in the case of high temperature of processing.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank all my old colleagues from Auburn University and University of Warwick where all the work had been done. This work was supported by the US Army Research Laboratory, the US National Science Foundation, the II–VI Foundation, and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council. Finally, special thanks to Prof. John R. Williams and Prof. Minseo Park who introduced me to the world of wide band gap semiconductors (SiC and GaN).
\n',keywords:"silicon carbide, MOSFET, interface trap density, mobility, PSG, nitrogen plasma, NO passivation, BTS",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/54934.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/54934.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54934",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54934",totalDownloads:1887,totalViews:630,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:50,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 13th 2016",dateReviewed:"February 14th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"May 31st 2017",dateFinished:"April 21st 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"To save energy on an electric power grid, the idea of redesigned ‘micro-grids’ has been proposed. Implementation of this concept needs power devices that can operate at higher switching speeds and block voltages of up to 20 kV. Out of SiC and GaN wide band gap semiconductors, the former is more suitable for low- as well as high-voltage ranges. SiC exists in different polytypes 3C-, 4H- and 6H-. 4H-SiC due to its wider band gap, 3.26 eV has higher critical electric field of breakdown (Ec) and electron bulk mobility compared to 6H-SiC. Even with all these benefits 4H-SiC full potential has not yet been realized. This is due to high trap densities (Dit) at the interface. In addition to 4H-polytype, in recent years, there is a reignited interest on cubic silicon carbide (3C-SiC), which can be potentially grown heteroepitaxially on 12″ Si substrates, as it would result in a drastic cost reduction of semiconductor devices compared to the successful but exorbitantly expensive SiC hexagonal polytype technology (4H-SiC). In this chapter, we discuss and summarize all different interface passivation techniques or processes that have led to a vast improvement of these (4H- or 3C-SiC/SiO2) interfaces electrically.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/54934",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/54934",book:{id:"5850",slug:"new-research-on-silicon-structure-properties-technology"},signatures:"Yogesh Kumar Sharma",authors:[{id:"198130",title:"Dr.",name:"Yogesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",fullName:"Yogesh Kumar Sharma",slug:"yogesh-kumar-sharma",email:"aceyogesh83@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198130/images/6159_n.png",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Progress in semiconductor devices",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Need of a wide band-gap semiconductor device",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Unipolar devices",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"1.4. Oxidation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"1.5. 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface passivation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"1.5.1. Phosphorous interface passivation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_4",title:"1.5.1.1. Thick PSG process",level:"4"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"1.5.1.2. Etched PSG process",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"1.5.1.3. Thin PSG devices BTS",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"1.5.2. Nitrogen plasma (N-plasma) passivation of the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"1.5.2.1. Four-hour N-plasma passivation on thermal oxide",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"1.5.2.2. Four-hour N-plasma passivation on deposited oxide",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"1.5.2.3. Eight-hour N-plasma passivation",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"1.5.3. High-temperature oxidation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"1.5.3.1. Combined N2O and phosphorous passivations of the 4H-SiC/SiO2 interface with oxide grown at 1400°C",level:"4"},{id:"sec_14_4",title:"1.5.3.2. Impact of N2O passivation on 4H-SiC/SiO2 interfaces grown at high temperature",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"1.5.4. Other interface passivation processes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"1.6. 3C-SiC/SiO2 interface",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"1.6.1. High-temperature dry/thermal oxidation (1200–1400°C) and N2O passivation of the 3C-SiC/SiO2 interface",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Pfann WG, Scaff JH. The p-germanium transistor. Proceedings of the IRE. 1950 Oct;38(10):1151–1154.'},{id:"B2",body:'Valdes LB. Transistor forming effects in n-type germanium. Proceedings of the IRE. 1952 Apr;40(4):445–448.'},{id:"B3",body:'Brittain JE. The evolution of electrical and electronics engineering and the Proceedings of the IRE: 1938-62. Proceedings of the IEEE. 1990;78(1):5–30.'},{id:"B4",body:'Lécuyer C. Making Silicon Valley: Innovation and the Growth of High Tech, 1930-1970. 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Improved stability of 4H SiC-MOS devices after phosphorous passivation with etching process. International Journal of Fundamental Physical Sciences. 2014 Jun;4(2):37–42.'},{id:"B36",body:'McCullough RW, Geddes J, Croucher JA, Woolsey JM, Higgins DP, Schlapp M, Gilbody HB. Atomic nitrogen production in a high efficiency microwave plasma source. Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films. 1996 Jan;14(1):152–155.'},{id:"B37",body:'Williams JR, Isaacs-Smith T, Wang S, Ahyi C, Lawless RM, Tin CC, Dhar S, Franceschetti A, Pantelides ST, Feldman LC, Chung G. Passivation of oxide layers on 4H-SiC using sequential anneals in nitric oxide and hydrogen. In: MRS Proceedings. Vol. 786. Cambridge University Press; 2003. pp. E8–1.'},{id:"B38",body:'Sharma YK, Ahyi AC, Issacs-Smith T, Modic A, Xu Y, Garfunkel E, Jennings MR, Fisher C, Thomas SM, Fan L, Mawby P. Advancements in SiC power devices using novel interface passivation processes. In: Physics of Semiconductor Devices. Springer International Publishing; 2014. pp. 47–52.'},{id:"B39",body:'Sharma YK. Advanced SiO2/SiC interface passivation [Doctoral dissertation]. Auburn University'},{id:"B40",body:'Pérez-Tomás A, Brosselard P, Godignon P, Millán J, Mestres N, Jennings MR, Covington JA, Mawby PA. Field-effect mobility temperature modeling of 4H-SiC metal-oxide-semiconductor transistors. Journal of Applied Physics. 2006 Dec 1;100(11):114508.'},{id:"B41",body:'Rong H, Sharma YK, Dai TX, Li F, Jennings MR, Russell S, Martin D, Mawby PA. High temperature nitridation of 4H-SiC MOSFETs. In: Materials Science Forum. Vol. 858. Trans Tech Publications Ltd.; 2016 Feb 29. pp. 623–626.'},{id:"B42",body:'Modic A, Liu G, Ahyi AC, Zhou Y, Xu P, Hamilton MC, Williams JR, Feldman LC, Dhar S. High channel mobility 4H-SiC MOSFETs by antimony counter-doping. 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MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) Physics and Technology. New York et al.: Wiley; 1982 Mar.'},{id:"B53",body:'Krieger M, Beljakowa S, Trapaidze L, Frank T, Weber HB, Pensl G, Hatta N, Abe M, Nagasawa H, Schöner A. Analysis of interface trap parameters from double‐peak conductance spectra taken on N‐implanted 3C‐SiC MOS capacitors. Physica Status Solidi (B). 2008 Jul 1;245(7):1390–1395.'},{id:"B54",body:'Naik H, Chow TP. Comparison of inversion electron transport properties of (0001) 4H and 6H-SiC MOSFETs. In: Materials Science Forum. Vol. 679. Trans Tech Publications; 2011. pp. 678–681.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Yogesh Kumar Sharma",address:"aceyogesh83@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
The cereals are monocotyledons while the legumes are dicots. The cereal belongs to the grass family with more than 300,000 species. Furthermore, more than 190,000 species are angiosperms that are economically viable horticultural plants; and there are approximately 50 different types cultivated throughout the world in which about 51 species are grown. However, cereal’s contribution to human nutrition cannot be overemphasized as it had been estimated that nearly 18 species of cereals cultivated provide more than 91% of the food supply to the world population. The cereals cover about 74% of the total tilled land surface. It had been estimated that more than 50% of the protein needs of the world population are provided by cereals [1, 2]. Currently, France ranks first in the Export of cereals such as wheat, rice, maize, and barley in Europe but 5th in the production of wheat in the world [1, 2]. Other cereals include millet, sorghum, rye, oats, etc. The major grains such as wheat, rice, and corn add up to make three-quarters of the worldwide production of grain [1, 2]. Therefore, cereal grains remain the main source of dietary carbohydrates for the supply of vital food energy to the diet [1, 2]. Although cereal grains, such as maize, rice, millet, and wheat are mostly in higher demand for energy provision, other cereals also provide very important food uses while there are more researches to explore the underutilized ones [3]. When cereal crops are grown for the edibility of their fruits, they are referred to as grains (botanically called caryopsis).
Structurally, the cereal seed is composed mainly of two components; the endosperm and the embryo (germ). The endosperm (more than 90% 0f the bulk seed) provides the energy. The pericarp (outer wall) develops from the ovary wall and encloses the endosperm. Beneath the pericarp is the testa (a selectively permeable layer) that borders the embryo which is a product of the inner reproductive gland (ovary wall). The permeability of testa to water is high and aids in seed germination but in the presence of salt, the testa may lose its vigor which would consequently lead to nongermination of seeds planted in soils with dissolved salts. The aleurone layer (with thick-walled cells) is free of starch and is the third important layer of cereal grain. Both testa and pericarp are called the bran. Conversely, legumes are flowering plants (dicotyledons) in the Leguminosae family and were derived from the latin word legere (to gather) and legumen (seeds harvested in pods) during the mid-17th Century. It includes chickpea, black gram, mung bean, and pigeon pea which have an estimated 16,000–19,000 species in 750 genera. Asia ranks first both in area harvested and in production capacity. India, on the other hand, accounts for 75 and 96% of the total global production of chickpea and pigeon pea, respectively [4]. The expression food legumes usually mean the immature pods and seeds as well as mature dry seeds used as food by humans. Based on Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) practice, the term legume is used for all leguminous plants. Legumes such as French bean, lima bean, alfafa, or others that contain a small amount of fat are termed pulses, and legumes that contain a higher amount of fat, such as soybean and peanuts, are termed leguminous oilseeds. Legumes represent an important source of food in developing countries. Soybean, groundnut, dry bean, pea, broad bean, chickpea, and lentil are the common legumes in most countries. In some countries, depending on the climatic condition and food habits, other legumes are grown. Legumes are next to cereals in terms of their economic and nutritional importance as human food sources [3]. They are cultivated not only for their protein and carbohydrate content but also because of the oil content of oilseed legumes such as soybeans.
Legumes are sources of protein and are relatively costlier economically compared to cereals with great food value; and are reasonable nutrients for the maintenance of the body, e.g., vitamins and minerals. The legume has almost the same energy value per unit weight compared to the cereal grains (4.2 kcal), albeit, they provide more calcium, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, among others than cereals. The utilization of legumes is highest in India and Latin America owing to religious restrictions and food attitudes. Legumes also contain some anti-nutritional factors, such as trypsin and chymotrypsin, phytate, lectins, polyphenols, flatulence-provoking and cyanogenic compounds, lathyrogens, estrogens, goitrogens, saponins, anti-vitamins, and allergens. However, heat treatment is known to destroy the anti-nutrients, such as protease inhibitors and lectins, although it also destroys vitamins and amino acids. Legumes are a good source of dietary fiber; the crude fiber, protein, and lipid components have a hypocholesterolemic effect.
Healthy cereal grains and legumes are the demanding enterprises of the recent era for the production of high yield in the next season. The cereal grains and legumes must be properly stored for the maintenance of a high-yielding crop. Losses of high magnitude are encountered during storage that is due to biological and non-biological agents. The incidence of high losses of cereals and legumes after harvest in many countries of the world could account for the food security issues such as malnutrition, diabetes, and hunger which are counterproductive to mitigating efforts towards the improvement of food security. The effect of low yield, poor quality of produce, and the prevalence of chemical toxicants and mycotoxin contamination are significant problems that militate against the genuine and concerted efforts to improve postharvest losses (PHLs), provide appropriate handling and processing technologies for improved postharvest opportunities. In an attempt to maintain high-quality crops during postharvest operations (PHOs), care must be taken during harvesting to minimize damage and ensure appropriate postharvest handling techniques. Reliable methods for the assessment of postharvest losses should be developed while the use of the appropriate techniques to minimize loss and ensure the quality and safety of crops that meet quality standards are desired. In developing countries, Nigeria inclusive, cereals and legumes produced mainly by small-scale farmers are produced and stored on farms [4]. Biological and non-biological agents have been implicated in the postharvest losses of cereals and legumes (Figure 1) [5, 6].
Figure 1.
Considerations for postharvest preservation technologies.
There is a direct correlation between plentiful harvest and postharvest spoilage. In countries with huge harvests, postharvest losses are higher than in countries with less bumper harvests which may be a consequence of a lack of care arising from a short supply of laborers to preserve the excess grains. Consequently, farmers may be forced to sell their grains at a less reasonable price during the harvesting season to prevent possible postharvest losses. The glut in the price of cereals and legumes could lead to short supply leading to increased losses arising from insect pest attacks (Prostephanus truncates). However, the effect of bumper harvests on losses had not been measured, and overall; the effect would be minimal compared with the losses resulting from an unfavorable climate at harvest. Certainly, farmers are often supplied with sufficient storage capacity in developed countries so that at least good harvests can be accommodated in fixed stores; unlike in developing countries where less attention is paid to farming and facilities for storage are lacking. In such instances, farmers are content to store surplus cereals and legumes in sacks in their houses. In most cases, especially, in locations where subsistence farming is common, the use of bag storage rather than traditional structures is practiced.
It was strongly believed by the 1970s that postharvest losses (PHLs) at the farm level were high due to traditional practices. However, traditional practices are unlikely culprits as farmers have survived more difficult conditions over long periods by adapting their practices to the situational challenges [7]. Nonetheless, compelling losses do sometimes occur that could be due to agricultural developments for which the farmer is not versed due to nonavailability of extension agents. Among these agricultural developments is the introduction of high yielding varieties that are more susceptible to pest damage, additional cropping seasons that result in the need for harvesting and drying when weather is damp or cloudy or farmers producing significant surplus grains, and because it is to be marketed rather than consumed by the household, the farmer failed to provide the necessary storage facilities for the preservation of the surplus grains.
2. Preservation
Theoretically, any method of food preservation should prevent all the above three (microbial, enzymatic, and proteolytic) types of spoilage. However, current industrial innovation methods have failed to meet these expectations as a whole. Most importantly, microbial spoilage must be prevented at all costs in whichever preservation method was employed, but the effectiveness of thermo-bacteriological treatment for microbial destruction varies to different degrees in the prevention of enzyme activities, proteolytic reactions, and the destruction of different microorganisms. Recent innovative preservation technologies such as ohmic heating, irradiation, infrared, pulse electric field, edible coating, radio frequency, and encapsulation lack the ability to forestall all the concerns posed by spoilage effects completely. These industrial methods employ distinct preservation principles aimed at arresting and or preventing food spoilage. In a nutshell, the industrial method of food preservation makes use of the following principles;
The ability to remove moisture through the use of drying/dehydration, evaporation/concentration, etc.
The ability to remove heat from food products by lyophilization/freeze concentration, refrigeration/cold storage, freezing, etc.
Heat addition - heat could be added to food products to destroy microorganisms or inactivate their activities by canning, sterilization, pasteurization, thermization, etc.
Addition of chemicals/preservatives – some chemicals called preservatives may be added to processed food to prevent contamination by the microorganism or forestall enzymatic/browning reactions. Examples of such chemical additives are sorbates, benzoates, etc.
Fermentation - during fermentation, secondary metabolites are produced by microorganism which preserves the food product.
Controlled atmosphere storage – in controlled atmosphere storage, the food products’ environment is modified to prevent spoilage.
Other methods are the application of high-frequency currents, irradiation, etc. Additionally, other technologies such as pyrolysis, gasification, combustion, and chemical and biochemical processing are used for the conversion of cereals and legumes by-products to chemicals, energy, and other value-added products in the food value chain.
3. Postharvest pest management
Pests pose a very big challenge during the postharvest storage of grain legumes, transportation as well as during distribution. The quality and quantity of grains are reduced by pests if not properly controlled. Pest infestation is a big source of worry for both farmers and food processors because of the losses in investment and profit depletion that come with it. Some of the grain pest control techniques conventionally adopted are fumigation and controlled atmosphere of CO2 and N2. Novel techniques have also been developed to take care of some of the shortcomings of conventional pest management practices like fumigation that make use of chemicals. Examples of some of the emerging technologies which have found use in pest management include irradiation, radio frequency, infrared, and microwaves [7]. Methyl bromide application and treatment with hot air on grain legumes storage facilities or systems is also a common practice for disinfection in the grain storage industry [4].
3.1 Irradiation (IR)
Food irradiation is a food preservation technique during which ionizing radiation (0.1–50 KGy) is used to destroy target microorganisms in order to extend the shelf life of foods. During irradiation, microbial inactivation is achieved through free radical development which disrupts DNA and cell membrane integrity [7]. It has shown to be effective in sprout inhibition, elimination of parasites and insects, destruction of spoilage, and pathogenic microorganisms [8].
Radiation treatment at low and moderate doses has been recommended for the disinfestation of legumes [8]. The treatment has also been found to be effective for the reduction of flatulence-causing oligosaccharides as well as trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors. With these effects of irradiation on anti-nutritional factors in legumes, the nutritive quality of irradiated beans is thereby improved. Stored produces, especially grains have been successfully decontaminated with ionizing radiation as it affects the internal structure [8, 9]. Irradiation technology has been very effective in controlling the Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Fusarium fungi infection in many grains and prolonging the shelf life over 6 months [10]. The source of radiation that is usually utilized is Co-60 and selenium.
3.2 Radio frequency (RF) heating
Radio frequencies (RF) are electromagnetic waves that are able to penetrate dielectric materials. They usually are characterized by a wavelength of about 11 m and with a frequency range of 1 to 300 MHz [11]. With this ability to penetrate dielectric materials like food grains, they are able to produce heat volumetrically. They are able to do this through ionic polarization or dipole rotation. With the higher moisture content in food grains, their ability to act as dielectric materials is increased, allowing them to act as electric capacitors and resistors and useful in the storage and conversion and electrical to thermal energy. This can be possible within an electromagnetic field [11].
In comparison, the higher moisture content in insects and the consequent higher electrical conductivity would make them require higher lethal temperatures and higher lethal time. At a lethal temperature and time of 50°C for 29 minutes or 54°C for 5 minutes, it would be possible to completely destroy a wide range of insects. This process of higher heating rates and its application finds use in the disinfection of grains on an industrial scale [9, 11].
When insects feed directly on grains, they produce webs and feces on stored pulses thereby reducing grain quality and this represents a huge challenge during the storage, transportation, and distribution of grains. To mitigate this huge challenge, RF heating has been used in the disinfection of dried cereals and legumes. This was demonstrated using a 27 MHz and 6 kW RF unit where the RF proved superior to forced hot air with respect to heating time required (5–7 minutes as against 275 minutes) to heat 3 kg of legumes to 60°C. Good quality product and uniformity in temperature distribution across the surface and interior of the legumes was achieved in the legume samples by a combination of RF heating followed by a movement of forced hot air as grains move through conveyors at 0.56metres per minute. The final interior temperatures of the containments used were above 55.8°C while 57.3°C was recorded for the surfaces of all legumes tested with resultant low index values for uniformity of 0.014–0.016 (ratio of standard deviation to the average temperature rise) for the distribution of interior temperature and 0.061–0.078 for the distribution of surface temperatures. Legumes treatment with RF in combination with forced hot air (60°C) to retain the needed treatment temperature for 10 min followed by the rapid cooling of the air through a 1 cm product layer yielded products with high quality. There were no significant differences in weight, moisture, color, and germination when samples used for control were compared to treated ones [12].
3.3 Infrared
Infrared is a segment in the electromagnetic spectrum found in between the microwave region and the visible spectrum area characterized by a wavelength of about 0.5 to 100 μm [9]. The absorption of infrared rays produces vibrations in the molecules of water, with consequent heat generation. Infrared-based technologies have been found to be energy-efficient and eco-friendly when compared with other conventional methods. Infrared technology also has many other merits like short process duration, uniform effect on food material, low energy requirement, high rate of heat transfer, and enhanced quality of products [9]. As a result of some of the above-listed characteristics, infrared-based technologies have been used in very many food operations like boiling, heating, drying, peeling, recovery of polyphenols and antioxidants, freeze-drying, roasting, microbiological inactivation, grains sterilization, juice and bread production, and cooking. The idea of the usage of infrared rays to disinfect/sanitize grains was established in the early 1960s and 1970s. Based on its exceptionally effective microbial inactivation characteristics, grain industries usually adopt it as a preferred operation for grain disinfection against various chemical methods. Infrared operations involve three different mechanisms in destroying micro-organisms namely thermal inactivation, induction heating, and the distortion of DNA integrity. As documented by [9], the Infrared treatment of mung bean for 5 minutes at an intensity and temperature of 0.29 kWm and 70°C respectively resulted in the total inactivation of fungal growth. Since the penetration rate of infrared is low, its effectiveness gets reduced with an increase in the depth of food. It is therefore recommended more for food surfaces sterilization than other processes. Catalytic-infrared emitters have also been developed and used for the control of weevils in rice, merchant grain beetle, and saw-toothed grain beetle. Generally, a little exposure of about 60 seconds is adequate to destroy insects that strive externally or internally in the grains kept in storage facilities [9].
3.4 Microwaves
Microwaves are electromagnetic radiations with short-wavelength; which has an excellent microbial destruction potential when compared to other conventional chemical methods. Microwave technology is now a highly adopted process by most grain industries for disinfection [8, 13]. They provide protection on grains from insects [10], storage fungi, and field fungi [12]. However, treatment with the use of microwave can induce several adverse effects on seed germination and can affect grain quality. These adverse effects of microwaves are due to variations in heating caused by the difference in cold and hot spot temperature [9].
3.5 Fumigation
Fumigation is a very active pest control technique. Phosphine gas for example is used to kill grain pests at every growth level of their life cycle; this is inclusive of pests with high resistance ability. Nonetheless, the phosphine gas application level needs to be up to 300 parts per million (ppm) and sustained at this level for a minimum of one week at 25°C or more. Alternatively, at a temperature of 25°C or less, a 200 ppm concentration of phosphine gas should be maintained for 10 days for effective and efficient destruction of pests that destroy legumes. Phosphine application exists in two forms; they include bag chains and tablets. There are also a number of ways with which each choice can be adopted effectively in a gas-proof secured silo. Bag chains are also considered a very safe system that assures one of not having any fumigant residue on the grain nor having the operator harmed in whatever way. The next form that phosphine exists in tablet form and is the most widely used and accepted. There exists a third approach in phosphine application which involves the use of a phosphine blanket and is mostly used for very large storages of above 600 tones. The application of phosphine and the concentrations to be used depend on the silo (which should be gas-tight and sealable) volume used for the fumigation. The phosphine concentration to be used is strictly determined based on the volume of the silo rather than the quantity of grain in the silo [13].
An airtight-covered silo especially one that passes the half-life pressure test must have to remain sealed through the entire fumigation period in other to attain a perfect fumigation result with the use of phosphine tablets and/or bag chains. In an airtight-sealed silo, fumigation is expected to last for 7 days with a temperature of above 25°C, and 10 days if the temperature falls between 15 and 25°C. Nonetheless, if the temperature in the silo is less than 15°C, pests particularly insects will be inactive and phosphine is not usually effective at such low temperatures. Based on the ineffectiveness of phosphine at temperatures lower than 15°C, phosphine application is not advisable at temperatures lower than 15°C. The silo must remain closed when fumigation is on and should only be accessed by personnel with suitable personal protective equipment (PPE) as it is dangerous for the operator. Constant opening of the silo is also detrimental to the effectiveness of the fumigation process considering the fact that the phosphine gas concentration and absorption rate would have been reduced below the lethal level recommended for pests’ destruction. Recommendations for the phosphine label came to be as a result of detailed testing by the industry, in other words, making use of phosphine as indicated on the label will ensure perfect results [13]. Phosphine is rated high as a very reliable fumigant for the control of pests in grain storage facilities and other production enterprises [13]. Nevertheless, there has been a continuous misuse of fumigants with a resultant effect of poor pest control and the development of resistance in certain species of pests. More so, just as the continuous use of herbicides that has the same principle of action advances weeds being resistant, continuous use of phosphine could lead to grain pest resistance. Nonetheless, in the case of herbicides, the development of resistance by pests can yearly be circumvented by alternating the chemicals used. The same cannot be said for stored grain fumigation as options are limited and where available, they are not cost-effective [13]. In other words, it is best to avoid the resistance of phosphine by using it as instructed.
Other fumigants and a controlled atmosphere may be used for stored grain pests but they are often high in price. However, to prevent resistance of stored grain pests, phosphine sealed in a silo that is impermeable to gas should be used.
3.6 Controlled atmosphere
In spite of the fact that phosphine is the common most used gas fumigant, there exist other gas fumigants for controlling pests in stored grain. These alternatives are however more expensive than phosphine and still require a gas-tight, sealable silo but they offer other options for resistant pest species. Nitrogen (N2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) have the advantage of being nonchemical control alternatives. Because nitrogen and CO2 methods of control change the balance of natural atmospheric gases to produce a toxic atmosphere, they are hence referred to as controlled atmosphere (CA) [13].
3.6.1 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Treatment with CO2 involves displacing the air inside a gas-tight silo with CO2 at concentrations high enough to be toxic to grain pests. This requires a seal impermeable to gases, measured by a half-life pressure test of no less than five minutes. In order to eliminate all life stages of the main grain pests, CO2 must be retained at a minimum concentration of 35% for 15 days [14]. To achieve a 35% concentration level of CO2 for 15 days, 30 kg (size G) cylinder per 15 tones of storage capacity is required. CO2 is an odorless, colorless, non-flammable gas that is approximately one and a half times heavier than air. Food grade CO2 comes in form of a liquid in pressurized cylinders and when released from the cylinder, changes to a gas. Carbon dioxide is less effective at temperatures below 20°C. This is because insects are less active at this temperature, so the CO2 concentration must be maintained for an extended period.
3.6.2 Nitrogen
Grains stored in a nitrogen saturated environment ensure the control of insects and preserve product quality without the use of chemicals [13]. Nitrogen-based storage systems maintain the quality of canola and pulses through the inhibition of the respiration process that causes oxidation, which may result in the increase in free fatty acids, loss of color, and seed deterioration [13]. Grain treatment with nitrogen (for the purpose of pest control) is safe, environmentally friendly, and involves the usage of electricity for its major operations. Nitrogen produces no residues when used, so grains can be sold instantaneously whenever decided as against what is practiced for chemical fumigants which have recommendation period for withholding after fumigation [13]. The use of nitrogen as an insect control technique involves the use of Pressure Swinging Adsorption (PSA) technology in adjusting the atmospheric composition of the grain storage system to expel other gases other than nitrogen, thus depriving the pests of the needed oxygen. The method of application entails purging the silo to its base with gas majorly composed of nitrogen. This is done in order to force out from the silo the oxygen-rich air through the top of the silo. Several hours of operation are required for PSA to build up about 99.5% pure nitrogen and before the air composition reduces to 2% oxygen. It is difficult for adult insects to thrive in 2% concentration of oxygen, provided this concentration is maintained for 21 days at 25°C or above for the temperature of the grain [14]. The inhibition of the different stages of the life cycle of insects (eggs, larvae, and pupae) will be difficult below these recommended temperatures and the number of days for grain storage. For grain temperatures below 25°C, this treatment duration should further be extended to a 28-day period. Additional purging of the silo may be needed to get rid of oxygen that has diffused from the grains and it must be re-evaluated 24 hours after fumigation in order to achieve effective and efficient pest control.
4. Drying technologies
Scientists from all over the world continuously search for new and effective means and use of renewable sources of energy as a result of the continuous increase in the price of fossil fuels and increased levels of greenhouse gas emissions. The world’s energy intake is doubled every 20 years and this increase in energy consumption, has resulted in fossil fuels causing many environmental problems and pollution [15]. Drying is a processing technique used for food product preservation and reducing food spoilage. About 3.62% of the world’s energy is used for the drying of agricultural products [16].
Presently, the requirement for new drying technology that promotes the higher quality product and efficient drying in shorter periods is the current need. And as a result, hybrid drying systems have emerged as an excellent technique for their versatile drying outcomes, with lower energy requirements and minimum environmental impact. Lately, various hybrid solar dryers which are more efficient in conjunction with other sources for heating the air, hence reducing drying cost and energy consumption have been developed [17, 18].
Grain legumes are usually dried after harvesting before storage in storage facilities [17]. Drying grain legumes to a recommended safe moisture level is fundamental in achieving safe storage of grain legumes. However, too rapid drying of nuts can lead to hardening of the grain core with poor interior while very slow drying may result in microbial growth which will lead to quality deterioration. Recirculation of the solar drying air is thus employed to make efficient use of the heated air by giving a drying rate that provides acceptable product quality.
Drying of pulses is essential because they contain high moisture content of about 18–25% at the time of harvest and, for safe storage, the optimum moisture content need to be in the range of 9–12% to avoid mycotoxin production. It is essential that the grain is dried to a safe moisture level as quickly as possible to avoid deterioration regardless of the drying system employed. There are several techniques of non-natural open-sun drying of grains with hot air. Some of these forms of drying include spouted-bed drying, fixed bed drying, moving bed drying, fluidized-bed drying, and thin-layer drying [19]. Apart from some of these specialized dryers used for grain drying, all-purpose grain drying systems can as well be used in the drying of grain legumes. Generally, as documented by [20], dryers or drying systems are categorized depending on the following:
The flow of grain wherein the dryers are denoted as - batch, recirculating and continuous dryers,
The relative motion of the grains and the circulating air used for drying. Concurrent, counter-current, cross/mixed flow dryers are found in this category.
The source of heat: solar, propane, and electrical dryers are examples of dryers in this category.
Regardless of the type of dryer used in drying grains, the concurrent heat energy transfer and moisture loss principle/process is the same for the drying of grain legumes and equally for other grains [19]. The process of drying grains involves the loss of free moisture which involves the drying of the grain until its equilibrium moisture content is attained. The equilibrium moisture content of the grain implies the final moisture content attained by the grain at a pre-determined relative humidity and temperature. The cardinal factors that influence the drying rate of grain legumes are temperature, grain moisture content, relative humidity, and air velocity [19].
The use of solar dryers is also another medium for drying legumes. A lot of solar drying systems exist for grain drying such as direct, non-direct, and solar. Solar dryers have the problem of the dehydration process being stopped as a result of an absence of solar radiation and absence of radiation at night or low insulation, which decreases the quality of the grains. So far, there have been efforts to proffer solutions to the problems of solar systems, some of which include – the addition of thermal storage materials, phase change materials, and adding a variety of heating modes either direct or indirect [21]. This has led to the evolution of several types of solar dryers. Thermal storage materials have the ability to store thermal energy when there is solar radiation and then make use of this thermal energy when the sun is not available. Three main forms of solar dryers exist with varying sizes, designs, and magnitude [22].
4.1 Classification of solar dryer
The three major types of solar dryers with various sizes, capacities, and designs are:
Direct solar dryers
Indirect solar dryers
Mixed-mode solar dryers
4.1.1 Direct type solar dryer
This is a form of the solar dryer where the radiation from the sun is used directly incident on the grains to be drained. The dryers are quite simple in structure, less expensive, little or no maintenance needed, and also simple to use. It can be fabricated with a wooden box with a glass cover and some holes for air entrance and exit also. After the usage of the direct type of solar dryers, the food products are usually not very nice in appearance, color, texture, and with a reduced nutritional quality. In direct-type solar drying, produces to be dried are spread on the ground or mats exposed directly to the sun to absorb solar radiation. As noted by [23], sun-dried grains are prone to high crop losses due to:
Non-uniform moisture loss
Attack by insects and rodents
Inability to attain moisture levels that are safe for the safe storage of grains
Proliferation of micro-organisms and possible toxin production.
These challenges have led to the development of other drying techniques like solar drying to overcome the aforementioned challenges. Solar dryers have faster rates, better efficiency, more hygienic with less crop losses when compared to sun drying [23].
4.1.1.1 Open sun drying
Here, food products are placed right under the sun, below solar radiation to get rid of their moisture properties. The difference in density in the air from the atmosphere allows for air movement. In other words, to get a product dried, they are usually spread in a large area under solar radiation. It is usually time-consuming till it is dry to a required level. All that is needed is a large surface ground done with concrete or a suitable soil area with products laid on them between ten to thirty days depending on a favorable weather situation. This form of drying technique consumes a lengthy time of sun subjection which can sometimes bring down the nutrition level of the products, like sapping off their vitamins.
Open solar drying is a good choice for food drying but comes with a lot of problems such as reduced product quality, adverse effects of rain, moist, wind, animal consumption, and dust [24]. The use of industrial drying comes in as another option which is very expensive. It would need a lot of fossil fuel which will result in air pollution. Nonetheless, the spread and adoption of solar energy is likely to take prominence in the coming years and is without negative environmental effective factors [24].
4.1.1.2 Cabinet type solar dryer
The cabinet form of the dryer is advantageous for preserving smaller food products such as vegetables, pepper, and fruits. It has a roof that is transparent with covers that could be either single or two, made using a black-colored plate cover that serves as an absorbing entity for the storage of energy from the sun. Suitable perforated holes allow for the free flow of air and the removal of moisture.
4.1.2 Indirect mode solar dryer
When it comes to moisture removal and heat transfer, indirect sun dryers differ from direct solar dryers. This style of drier is utilized for quick drying. The atmospheric air is heated in a solar air collector in this dryer, and then this hot air moves towards the drying cabin, where products are kept to dry, and the hot air absorbs some moisture from the drying products before exiting through the chimney.
4.1.3 Mixed mode solar dryer
The term “mixed mode solar dryer” refers to a solar dryer that uses both direct and indirect heating methods. The inlet air is heated at the solar air collector before entering the drying chamber in a mixed mode solar dryer. Some of the drying chamber’s sides are composed of glass, which adds to the drying chamber’s overall warmth. The product is dried using a combination of hot air and direct sunlight in this procedure. In comparison to direct and indirect solar dryers, mixed mode solar dryers require less drying time. Biomass has been used in hybrid sun dryers as an auxiliary heat source to keep drying going all night. Cashews, for example, have been dried in these dryers [23].
4.1.3.1 Greenhouse solar dryer
Tent dryers are similar to greenhouse sun dryers. They have vent sizes that control airflow. Board glazing is used on all sides of this type of drying system. The greenhouse drying system provides a higher degree of control when used in conjunction with the appropriate settings. The main benefit of a greenhouse solar dryer is that it can provide alternate heating with charcoal or briquette burners during inclement weather and can also be used at night.
Greenhouse solar dryers are a type of solar dryer that was developed to address some of the issues that open solar dryers face. The greenhouse solar dryer might be created out of polycarbonate sheets in parabolic shapes, with direct current blowers to help with airflow in the dryer, which has a floor area made out of concrete [24]. Solar radiation intensity was observed between 390 to 820 W/m2.
Greenhouse drying is one of the world’s oldest methods of crop preservation. It entails the phenomena of heat and mass transmission. The product’s thermal energy is used in two stages. The temperature of the product rises in the first step due to sensible heat, and the moisture in the product vaporizes in the second step due to the provision of latent heat of vaporization [25]. The greenhouse dryer provides a regulated environment in terms of relative humidity and temperature, which is better for crop drying and hence reduces drying time. The essential processes in the construction of a greenhouse system include vaporization. The greenhouse drier provides a regulated environment in terms of relative humidity and temperature, making crop drying more efficient [25].
Natural convection greenhouse dryer
Forced convection greenhouse dryer
4.1.3.1.1 Natural convection greenhouse dryer
Incident sun energy is passed through the canopy and used to heat the crops in a natural convection greenhouse dryer. The temperature of the crop rises as a result of solar radiation absorption. The thermosyphic effect is used to operate the natural convection greenhouse drier. Humid air is vented through the dryer’s chimney or evacuated through an outlet on the top, while warm air is pumped through the crop by buoyancy forces. Natural convection mode refers to this type of airflow within the drying chamber, and a natural convection greenhouse drier is one that works in this manner [25].
4.1.3.1.2 Forced convection greenhouse dryer
The forced convection greenhouse dryer was born out of a desire for increased air circulation and drying rates. To adjust temperature and moisture evaporation according to the weather conditions, an optimal airflow should be given in the greenhouse drier during the drying process. An exhaust fan on the upper half of the west wall is used to evacuate humid air. Forced convection greenhouse dryers employ a fan or blower to control airflow [25].
The mixed mode solar dryer outperforms other types of solar dryers in terms of drying efficiency, drying time, and thermal efficiency. It has been discovered that a mixed mode solar dryer with a Phase-Change-Material is the best for drying grains with higher efficiency and shorter drying times, as well as being smaller, having fewer moving parts, and requiring less maintenance [19]. In a mixed mode solar dryers with 1.5 m/s air velocity, beans with up to 60% moisture content can be reduced down to 6% within six hours of drying [19]. The time required for drying depends on factors like solar radiation, ambient condition, and relative humidity while the solar collector efficiencies can be as high as 61.82% [21].
5. Storage of grain legumes
Cleaning of grains to remove extraneous materials and contaminants is very fundamental in achieving good and safe storage. It established that cleaning before storage of grains influences the quality of the grain [26]. Cleaning involves the removal of unwanted extraneous material (straws, sand, stone, etc.) from the grain. The storage of grain legumes is a very cardinal stage in the postharvest handling of legumes. Its importance is based on the fact that if the optimal conditions for their safe storage are not maintained a high level of postharvest losses could be incurred. Different microorganisms and pests have the ability to destroy grain legumes after their harvest, during storage, or transportation to various locations of interest. Depending on the prevailing intrinsic and external factors, postharvest losses of grain legumes are estimated to be about 9% for USA and 40–50% for many developing countries [27].
The rapid decline in color, oil quality and ability to germinate, and many other changes in the quality characteristics of grain legumes can be caused by increase in temperature and moisture. High moisture content and elevated temperature of grains can lead to the development of molds in the category of Aspergillus species, Fusarium species, and Penicillium species, and the production of some mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ocharatoxin A, and patulin produced by molds. High moisture content and temperature above optimal levels also aid the infestation of different varieties of insects (granari weevil, grain borer, grain moth, grain beetle, etc.) which feed directly on the grains with a resultant effect of the decline in grain quality and quantity. Infestation of grains by fungi results in reduced nutritional quality, reduction in the quality of proteins that synthesize gluten, and the ability of grains to germinate. Other effects include free fatty acid elevation, lowered starch content, increase in total soluble solids, the decline of non-reducing disaccharides and oligosaccharides. The grains can also be charred due to hot spot development and the formation of mycotoxins may occur as a result of fungal contamination creating very big public health issues [7, 17]. Globally produced grains of about 25% are contaminated by toxins from molds – mycotoxins [28]. The aflatoxins with the greatest intoxicating effect, genotoxic and carcinogenic characteristics of greatest concern are B1, B2, G1, G2, and M1 aflatoxins (Table 1) [31].
Chemical fumigants (phosphine tablets and methyl bromide)
During storage, grain legume pests are capable of destroying up to 33–50% of global produces [27]. This gives an insight on the seriousness of pest infestation and attack on grains if proper control measures are not put in place. The quality degradation which results in loss of the quantity of leguminous grains globally during storage can get up to 60% in some instances [27]. These losses are primarily as a result of insect infestation, rodents attack, micro-organisms like mold as well as the breakdown in the normal physiology of grains. It’s a well-known fact that pathogenic micro-organisms, insects, rodents, and unwanted contaminants are capable of posing health hazards in grains when consumed. In storing grains from leguminous crops, the usage of suitable packaging and packaging materials is very crucial in achieving good results in postharvest management of leguminous grains. Packaging also serves a very key role during distribution and marketing (to maintain quality) [27].
In village areas of developing and even developed nations, grains including pulses are still kept in traditional storage facilities which are fabricated with natural materials or woven threads. Typical examples of some of the traditional storage structures used include underground pits, thatched roof storage, plastic containers, and basket silos. Though these local structures have a low construction and maintenance cost, they are not very durable, easily invaded by insects and pests resulting in grain legume quality deterioration. Developing nations are currently adopting warehouse storage structures for storing their grains in very large quantities [17].
The materials used for the construction of storage facilities and structures have a direct influence on the moisture content and temperatures in the storage structures [17]. Wooden sticks, concrete blocks, cement, bamboo, and metals (aluminum or steel) are some of the very common materials used for the fabrication of storage structures for grains.
5.1 Silo
Silos are currently very common storage facilities for storing grain in many countries and constitute about 79% of all on-farm grain storage facilities in Australia. Silos are very ideal storage alternative for grain legumes (pulses) especially the cone-based variant which makes for very easy grain unloading/discharge with very low seed damage possibilities [15]. For long-term storage of above three months duration, there is a need for the incorporation of aeration cooling systems and the use of gas-tight sealable storage which are recommended for efficient and effective fumigation regimes in managing and achieving best quality control. Metal silos are fabricated by incorporating augers and ventilators for grain aeration in order to reduce the formation of hot spots. Metal silos with ventilators and augers are considered advanced grain storage systems as they have the ability to extend the shelf-life of grain legumes through controlled respiration and the development of unfavorable conditions for all sorts of grain legume pests [7, 17].
It is advisable to always fill and empty silos from apertures provided at the center of the silos. This is especially important with grains as most grains have a high bulk density and loading or unloading outside the central opening at the center will put an uneven load on the structure which may cause the silo to collapse [14].
Metal silos of different sorts, fabricated with galvanized iron or recycled oil drums have been developed as an economic, effective, and efficient containers-storage option. These silos are suitable for a long duration of storage of cereals and grain legumes in a water-resistant and hermetically controlled environment. Grains stored in metal silos provide protection from rodents, insects, and water, and are thus very good storage systems for pulses [32]. However, there is a need to protect or shield silos from direct sun rays and other heating sources capable of increasing the temperature of the grains contained therein to avoid condensation. As an alternative, silos can be situated in well-ventilated areas with shade to avoid elevating the temperature of the silos [32]. It is worthy of note that metal silos are very efficient and effective for grain storage but they are also expensive [33].
If there is direct exposure of silos to sunlight or the external air is lower than that in the silos which contain the grains, there may be a formation of currents of convectional flow. As a result of the convectional air currents generated, the moist air is being blown pass through the grains. As the moist air travels and meets cooler surfaces like the silo walls, condensation of the moisture will take place and the grain within that area will get dampened. This dampening occurrence is a cardinal problem associated with grains stored in silos made of steel and particularly utilized for storage in hot areas with daily clear sky [28]. High day temperatures and cool night temperatures are a result of a clear sky. The problem of elevated temperatures can be mitigated in small silos by providing a shield in form of a roof or a hat, to prevent direct contact of sun rays with the surface of the silos. Solutions for larger silos may involve grain silo ventilation or transferring of the grains from the silo with a high temperature to another one that has a cool condition. Grain movement during the transfer of grains to another cool silo has the tendency to provide grains with more homogenous moisture content. In a case where the moisture content is too high, then there will be a need to dry the grains again [28].
5.2 Hermetic bags/cocoon
It’s still possible for foreign pests like Callosobruchus maculatus and Callosobruchus chinensis to be located in grain legumes storage systems during storage if appropriate pest management regimes are not strictly adhered to. Grain legumes storage in hermetic bags/Cocoons has to a large extent aided farmers in many countries in storing and extending the shelf life of their produces as they await periods with better produce value and pricing. This has resulted in better financial gains for farmers that make use of Hermetic bags/cocoons storage in extending the shelf life of their produces with the target of a better sales period [33]. The technique of using hermetically sealed polyethylene silo bags is an effective alternative for the protection of stored grain legumes in commercial storage systems and is presently gaining more prominence for both on-farm sites and off-farm sites [34].
6. Conclusion
Legumes are very important food crops that supply good amounts of plant source protein to our meals. Postharvest losses are incurred if grain legumes are not properly handled, prepared, and stored. Some of the notable postharvest handling practices adopted to preserve and extend the shelf life of legumes include drying, pest control, and storage.
Pest control in harvested grains can be achieved through emerging technologies like irradiation, radio frequency ionization, infra-red, and microwave technology. Pest management can also be done through the age-long chemical means of fumigation as well as controlled atmosphere technology as an alternative.
The drying of grain legumes through the traditional means openly spreading in the sun yields poor drying results. Drying of grain legumes is better done through artificial means with hot air dryers or solar dryers of different sorts. Solar dryers have evolved greatly as a result of the need to reduce the level of greenhouse gases emitted by non-solar dryers, high fuel prices to run non-solar dryers, and the need for a renewable type of energy, unlike the non-solar dryers.
Storage of grain legumes for bulk commercial purposes is done in silos while hermetic bag storages are utilized for small-scale storage in other to achieve a fairly optimal storage condition for grain legumes.
\n',keywords:"postharvest, physiology, deterioration, losses, postharvest technology",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80462.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/80462.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80462",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80462",totalDownloads:94,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 12th 2021",dateReviewed:"January 18th 2022",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2022",datePublished:"April 28th 2022",dateFinished:"February 14th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cereals and legumes are prone to perishability and have very short shelf-life if not given proper treatment. During different handling and marketing operations, there is a huge postharvest loss of agricultural produce. The qualitative and quantitative losses incurred in cereals and legumes commodities between harvest and consumption are huge. Qualitative losses such as loss inedibility, nutritional quality, calorific value, and consumer acceptability of fresh produce are much more difficult to assess than are quantitative losses. The major cause of postharvest loss (PHL) is the availability of poor infrastructure for postharvest technology (PHT) and processing of commodities. These losses can only be minimized by proper handling, marketing, and processing of the agricultural commodities; as well as the use of modern preservation technologies such as irradiation, radio frequency heating, etc. The sufficient knowledge of pre-and post-harvest preservation technologies and the provision of adequate and sufficient storage facilities for cereals and legumes handling and distribution would help to mitigate the incidence of postharvest deterioration and therefore improve the availability of cereals and legumes in the market and subsequent reduction in malnutrition for increased food security. Postharvest preservation technology of cereals and legumes is very fundamental in reducing postharvest losses and increasing food security.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80462",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80462",signatures:"Theophilus M. Ikegwu, Clement C. Ezegbe, Chioke A. Okolo and Chigozie E. Ofoedu",book:{id:"10899",type:"book",title:"Postharvest Technology",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",fullTitle:"Postharvest Technology - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",slug:"postharvest-technology-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",bookSignature:"Md Ahiduzzaman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10899.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-924-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-923-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-925-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"321606",title:"Dr.",name:"Md",middleName:null,surname:"Ahiduzzaman",slug:"md-ahiduzzaman",fullName:"Md Ahiduzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"419858",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophilus M.",middleName:"Maduabuchukwu",surname:"Ikegwu",fullName:"Theophilus M. Ikegwu",slug:"theophilus-m.-ikegwu",email:"tm.ikegwu@unizik.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"420119",title:"Mr.",name:"Clement C.",middleName:null,surname:"Ezegbe",fullName:"Clement C. Ezegbe",slug:"clement-c.-ezegbe",email:"cc.ezegbe@unizik.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"420120",title:"Mr.",name:"Chioke A.",middleName:null,surname:"Okolo",fullName:"Chioke A. Okolo",slug:"chioke-a.-okolo",email:"ca.okolo@unizik.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"447080",title:"Mr.",name:"Chigozie E.",middleName:"E.",surname:"Ofoedu",fullName:"Chigozie E. Ofoedu",slug:"chigozie-e.-ofoedu",email:"chigozie.ofoedu@futo.edu.ng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology Owerri",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Preservation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Postharvest pest management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Irradiation (IR)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Radio frequency (RF) heating",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Infrared",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Microwaves",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Fumigation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Controlled atmosphere",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.6.1 Carbon dioxide (CO2)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.6.2 Nitrogen",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Drying technologies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1 Classification of solar dryer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.1 Direct type solar dryer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"4.1.1.1 Open sun drying",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"4.1.1.2 Cabinet type solar dryer",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.1.2 Indirect mode solar dryer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"4.1.3 Mixed mode solar dryer",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"4.1.3.1 Greenhouse solar dryer",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_5",title:"4.1.3.1.1 Natural convection greenhouse dryer",level:"5"},{id:"sec_17_5",title:"4.1.3.1.2 Forced convection greenhouse dryer",level:"5"},{id:"sec_22",title:"5. Storage of grain legumes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.1 Silo",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.2 Hermetic bags/cocoon",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'FAO. World Food Situation. Netherlands: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2021. Available from: https://www.fao.org/worldfoodsituation/csdb/en/'},{id:"B2",body:'Beverly RL. Safety of food and beverages: Cereals and derive products. Encyclopedia of Food Safety. 2014;3:309-314'},{id:"B3",body:'Stoskopf NC. Cereal grain crops. Reston: Reston Publishing Company, Inc.; 1985'},{id:"B4",body:'Yousaf Z, Saleh N, Ramazan A, Aftab A. Postharvesting techniques and maintenance of seed quality. In: Araujo S, Balestrazzi A, editors. New Challenges in Seed Biology - Basic and Translational Research Driving Seed Technology. London: IntechOpen (Internet); 2016. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/5218'},{id:"B5",body:'Delouche JC, Caldwell WP. Seed vigor and vigor tests. Proceeding of Association of Official Seed Analyst. 1960;50:124-129'},{id:"B6",body:'Gregg BR, Billups GL. Seed Conditioning Technology Part A. In: Seed Quality. Vol. 2. USA: Science Publishers; 2010. pp. 1-2'},{id:"B7",body:'Greeley M. Pin-pointing postharvest losses. Cereals. 1982;15(1):30-37'},{id:"B8",body:'Mohapatra D, Kumar S, Kotwaliwale N, Singh KK. Critical factors responsible for fungi growth in stored food grains and non-chemical approaches for their control. Industrial Crops and Products. 2017;108:162-182. DOI: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.06.039'},{id:"B9",body:'Ling B, Cheng T, Wang S. Recent developments in applications of radio frequency heating for improving safety and quality of food grains and their products: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2020;60(15):2622-2642. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1651690'},{id:"B10",body:'Hallman GJ. Control of stored product pests by ionizing radiation. Journal of Stored Products Research. 2013;52:36-41'},{id:"B11",body:'Vadivambal R, Jayas DS, White NDG. Wheat disinfestation using microwave energy. Journal of Stored Products Research. 2007;43(4):508-514. DOI: 10.1016/j.jspr.2007.01.007'},{id:"B12",body:'Knox OGG, McHugh MJ, Fountaine JM, Havis ND. Effects of microwaves on fungal pathogens of wheat seed. Crop Protection. 2013;50:12-16. DOI: 10.1016/j.cropro.2013.03.009'},{id:"B13",body:'Ramaswamy R, Krishnamurthy K, Jun S. Microbial decontamination of food by infrared (IR) heating. In: Demirci A, Ngadi A, editors. Decontamination in the Food Industry. 1st ed. USA: Woodhead Publishing; 2012. pp. 450-471. DOI: 10.1533/9780857095756.2.450'},{id:"B14",body:'Australian Government Grains Research and Development Corporation - GRDC. Vetch Section 13 Storage: How to Store Vetch on-Farm, Aeration during Storage and Stored Grain Pests. Australia: Grain Research and Development Corporation (GRDC). 2018. pp. 1-25. Available from: https://grdc.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0024/370707/GrowNote-Vetch-North-13-Storage.pdf [Accessed: September 13, 2021]'},{id:"B15",body:'Trostle R. Global Agricultural Supply and Demand: Factor Contributing to the Recent Increase in Food Commodity Price. Outlook Report No. WRS-0801. 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DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.08.354'},{id:"B25",body:'Chauhan PS, Kumar A, Gupta B. A review on thermal models for greenhouse dryers. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2017;75:548-558. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.023'},{id:"B26",body:'Bucklin R, Thompson S, Montross M, Abdel-Hadi A. Grain storage systems design. In: Handbook of Farm, Dairy and Food Machinery Engineering. New York, USA: Elsevier Incorporated; 2013. pp. 123-175. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-385881-8.00007-0'},{id:"B27",body:'Uebersax MA, Siddiq M. Postharvest storage quality, packaging and distribution of dry beans. In: Siddiq M, Uebersax MA, editors. Dry Beans and Pulses Production, Processing and Nutrition. 1st ed. New Jersey, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated; 2013. pp. 75-100'},{id:"B28",body:'FAO. Grain crop drying, handling and storage. In: Rural Structures in the Tropics: Design and Development. USA: IOWA State University Extension and Outreach; 2018. pp. 363-386'},{id:"B29",body:'Kumar S, Mohapatra D, Kotwaliwale N, Singh KK. Efficacy of sensor assisted vacuum hermetic storage against chemical fumigated wheat. Journal of Stored Product Research. 2020;88:101640'},{id:"B30",body:'Paul A, Radhakrishnan M, Anandakumar S, Shanmugasubdaram S, Anandharamakrishnan A. Disinfection techniques for major cereals: A status report. 2020;19:1125-1155'},{id:"B31",body:'Eskola M, Kos G, Elliott CT, Hajšlová J, Mayar S, Krska R. Worldwide contamination of food-crops with mycotoxins: Validity of the widely cited “FAO estimate” of 25%. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2020;60(16):1-17. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1658570'},{id:"B32",body:'Mobolade AJ, Bunindro N, Sahoo D, Rajashekar Y. Traditional methods of food grains preservation and storage in Nigeria and India. Annals of Agricultural Sciences. 2019;64(2):196-205. 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IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration are extremely expensive when treating large amounts of water, inefficient at low concentrations of metal (incomplete metal removal) and generate large quantities of sludge and other toxic products that require careful disposal. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are ecofriendly alternatives. These alternative methods have advantages over conventional methods. Abundant natural materials like microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial byproducts have been suggested as potential biosorbents for heavy metal removal due to the presence of metal-binding functional groups. Biosorption is influenced by various process parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of the metal ions, biosorbent dose, and speed of agitation. Also, the biomass can be modified by physical and chemical treatment before use. The process can be made economical by regenerating and reusing the biosorbent after removing the heavy metals. Various bioreactors can be used in biosorption for the removal of metal ions from large volumes of water or effluents. The recent developments and the future scope for biosorption as a wastewater treatment option are discussed.",book:{id:"6137",slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Sri Lakshmi Ramya Krishna Kanamarlapudi, Vinay Kumar\nChintalpudi and Sudhamani Muddada",authors:[{id:"238433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudhamani",middleName:null,surname:"Muddada",slug:"sudhamani-muddada",fullName:"Sudhamani Muddada"},{id:"244937",title:"Mrs.",name:"S L Ramyakrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Kanamarlapudi",slug:"s-l-ramyakrishna-kanamarlapudi",fullName:"S L Ramyakrishna Kanamarlapudi"},{id:"244938",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chintalpudi",slug:"vinay-kumar-chintalpudi",fullName:"Vinay Kumar Chintalpudi"}]},{id:"53211",doi:"10.5772/66416",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:16966,totalCrossrefCites:65,totalDimensionsCites:148,abstract:"Biofloc technology (BFT) is considered the new “blue revolution” in aquaculture. Such technique is based on in situ microorganism production which plays three major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating in situ microbial protein; (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing feed conversion ratio (FCR) and a decrease of feed costs; and (iii) competition with pathogens. The aggregates (bioflocs) are a rich protein-lipid natural source of food available in situ 24 hours per day due to a complex interaction between organic matter, physical substrate, and large range of microorganisms. This natural productivity plays an important role recycling nutrients and maintaining the water quality. 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So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21554,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14203,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7575,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2953,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"12",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82465",title:"Agroforestry: An Approach for Sustainability and Climate Mitigation",slug:"agroforestry-an-approach-for-sustainability-and-climate-mitigation",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105406",abstract:"Agroforestry Systems (AFS), or the association of trees with crops (or animals), is a strategy for land management and use that allows production within the sustainable development: (a) environmentally (production environmentally harmonic); (b) technically (integrating existing resources on the farm); (c) economically (increase in production), and (d) socially (equality of duties and opportunities, quality of life of the family group). As an intentional integration of trees or shrubs with crop and animal production, this practice makes environmental, economic, and social benefits to farmers. Given that there is a set of definitions, rather than a single definition of Agroforestry (AF) and AFS, it is justified to explore the historical evolution and the minimum coincidences of criteria to define them and apply them in the recovery of degraded areas. Knowing how to classify AFS allows us to indicate which type or group of AFS is suitable for a particular area with its characteristics. The greatest benefit that AFS can bring to degraded or sloping areas lies in their ability to combine soil conservation with productive functions. In other words, AF is arborizing agriculture and animal production to obtain more benefits including climate change adaptation and mitigation by ecosystem services.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ricardo O. Russo"},{id:"82754",title:"Impact of Revegetation on Ecological Restoration of a Constructed Soil in a Coal Mining in Southern Brazil",slug:"impact-of-revegetation-on-ecological-restoration-of-a-constructed-soil-in-a-coal-mining-in-southern-",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105895",abstract:"The main problems in the constructed soils are the generation of acid mine drainage promoted by the presence of coal debris in the overburden layer and the compaction of the topsoil promoted by the machine traffic when the material used in the overburden cover is more clayey. This book chapter aimed to show an overview of the impact of more than a decade of revegetation with different perennial grasses on the chemical, physical, and biological quality of constructed soil after coal mining. The study was carried out in a coal mining area, located in southern Brazil. The soil was constructed in early 2003 and the perennial grasses, Hemarthria altissima; Paspalum notatum cv. Pensacola; Cynodon dactylon cv Tifton; and Urochloa brizantha; were implanted in November/December 2003. In 11.5, 17.6 and 18 years of revegetation soil samples were collected and the chemical, physical, and biological attributes were determined. Our results show that liming is an important practice in the restoration of these strongly anthropized soils because this positively impacts the plants’ development, facilitating the roots system expansion. Biological attributes such as soil fauna and the microorganism’s population are the attributes that possibly takes longer to establish itself in these areas.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Lizete Stumpf, Maria Bertaso De Garcia Fernandez, Pablo Miguel, Luiz Fernando Spinelli Pinto, Ryan Noremberg Schubert, Luís Carlos Iuñes de Oliveira Filho, Tania Hipolito Montiel, Lucas Da Silva Barbosa, Jeferson Diego Leidemer and Thábata Barbosa Duarte"},{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",abstract:"Forest degradation impairs ability of the whole landscape adaptation to environmental change. The impacts of forest degradation on landscape are caused by a self-organization decline. At the present time, the self-organization decline was largely due to nitrogen deposition and deforestation which exacerbated impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, forest degradation processes are either reversible or irreversible. Irreversible forest degradation begins with soil damage. In this paper, we present processes of forest soil degradation in relation to vulnerability of regulation adaptability on global environmental change. The regulatory forest capabilities were indicated through soil organic matter sequestration dynamics. We devided the degradation processes into quantitative and qualitative damages of physical or chemical soil properties. Quantitative soil degradation includes irreversible loss of an earth’s body after claim, erosion or desertification, while qualitative degradation consists of predominantly reversible consequences after soil disintegration, leaching, acidification, salinization and intoxication. As a result of deforestation, the forest soil vulnerability is spreading through quantitative degradation replacing hitherto predominantly qualitative changes under continuous vegetation cover. Increasing needs to natural resources using and accompanying waste pollution destroy soil self-organization through biodiversity loss, simplification in functional links among living forms and substance losses from ecosystem. We concluded that subsequent irreversible changes in ecosystem self-organization cause a change of biome potential natural vegetation and the land usability decrease.",book:{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg"},signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová"},{id:"82828",title:"Vegetation and Avifauna Distribution in the Serengeti National Park",slug:"vegetation-and-avifauna-distribution-in-the-serengeti-national-park",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106165",abstract:"In order to examine the bird species changes within different vegetation structures, the variations were compared between Commiphora-dominated vegetations with those of Vachellia tortilis and Vachellia robusta-dominated vegetations, and also compared the birds of grassland with those of Vachellia drepanolobium and Vachellia seyal-dominated vegetations. This study was conducted between February 2010 and April 2012. A total of 40 plots of 100 m × 100 m were established. Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test was used to examine differences in bird species between vegetations. Species richness estimates were obtained using the Species Diversity and Richness. A total of 171 bird species representing 103 genera, 12 orders, and 54 families were recorded. We found differences in bird species distribution whereby V. tortilis has higher bird species richness (102 species), abundance, and diversity when compared with Commiphora with 66 species and V. robusta with 59 species. These results suggest that variations in bird species abundance, diversity, and distribution could be attributed to differences in the structural diversity of vegetation. Therefore it is important to maintain different types of vegetation by keeping the frequency of fire to a minimum and prescribed fire should be employed and encouraged to control wildfire and so maintain a diversity of vegetation and birds community.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ally K. Nkwabi and Pius Y. Kavana"},{id:"82808",title:"Climate Change and Anthropogenic Impacts on the Ecosystem of the Transgressive Mud Coastal Region of Bight of Benin, Nigeria",slug:"climate-change-and-anthropogenic-impacts-on-the-ecosystem-of-the-transgressive-mud-coastal-region-of",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105760",abstract:"The transgressive mud coastal area of Bight of Benin is a muddy coastal complex that lies east of the Barrier/lagoon coast and stretches to the Benin River in the northwestern flank of the Niger Delta Nigeria. It constitutes a fragile buffer zone between the tranquil waters of the swamps and the menacing waves of the Atlantic Ocean. Extensive breaching of this narrow coastal plain results in massive incursion of the sea into the inland swamps with serious implications for national security and the economy. Climate change impacts from the results of meteorological information of the regions shows a gradual degradation in the past 30 years. Temperature, rainfall and humidity increase annually depict climate change, resulting from uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources is rapidly pushing the region towards ecological disasters. The ecosystem is very unique being the only transgressive mud coastal area of the Gulf of Guinea. The chapter describes the geomorphology, tidal hydrology, relief/drainage, topography, climate/meteorology, vegetation, economic characteristics, anthropogenic activities and their impacts on the ecosystem.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Patrick O. Ayeku"},{id:"82697",title:"Analyzing the Evolution of Land-Use Changes Related to Vegetation, in the Galicia Region, Spain: From 1990 to 2018",slug:"analyzing-the-evolution-of-land-use-changes-related-to-vegetation-in-the-galicia-region-spain-from-1",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106015",abstract:"Considering the complex dynamics, patterns, and particularities that the Galicia region present—e.g., the fragility, shown to achieve sustainable development and growth—a study that analyzes the Land-Use related to the vegetation of this region is seen as pivotal to identifying barriers and opportunities for long-term sustainable development. Using GIS (Geographic Information Systems), the present chapter enables us to identify the dynamics and patterns of the evolution of the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region from 1990 to 2018 (years 1990, 2000, 2012, and 2018 using CORINE (Coordination of Information on the Environment) data). This study permits us to reinforce that the Land-Use Changes related to vegetation in the Galicia Region have undergone multiple changes—marked by increasing and decreasing periods. Also, can be considered a surveying baseline for the comparative analysis of similar works for different Land-Use Changes related to vegetation trends in Europe or worldwide. Land-Use Changes related to vegetation studies are reliable tools to evaluate the human activities and footprint of proposed strategies and policies in a territory. This chapter also enables us to understand that the main actors should design development policies to protect, preserve and conserve these incomparable landscapes, environments, ecosystems, and the region as a whole.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Sérgio Lousada and José Manuel Naranjo Gómez"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:77},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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