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Many of the fastest-growing populations are in developing countries, several of which are already facing moderate or severe food insecurity and a shortfall in food supply. One in every six children suffer from hunger in developing countries [2] and the proportion of undernourishment has been steadily increasing since 2015 [3]. The increasing trend globally of food insecurity attests to the fact that severe food deprivation or hunger is a real threat, and this scenario nullifies the ambitious “zero hunger target” by 2030. The severity of “food insecurity” underscores the immense challenge in attaining safe, nutritious, and sufficient food for all people [3]. Tackling problems of food insecurity demand intensive food production. However, increasing food production alone will not be a viable solution to achieve the “zero hunger target” by 2030 or for meeting the growing demand for food.
The pre-harvest and post-harvest issues combined with insect infestation represent a very strong limitation in optimal food production, causing mass losses of grains. After harvest, food grains undergo a series of processes such as threshing, cleaning, drying, storage, processing, and transportation before it reaches the consumer. It has been identified that food losses in the post-harvesting chain start at the time of harvest and continue up to food marketing at the consumer’s end [4, 5, 6]. Grain losses may also take place due to technical limitations such as inadequate stock management facilities, improper packaging, and insufficient infrastructure.
In many countries, 15% of food grains are lost during or after harvest [7]. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) estimated post-harvest grain loss at 40% and cereal loss at 30% in India [8]. The post-harvest losses account for on-farm, processing, and storage loss. Studies attribute massive grain loss in developing countries to manual operations in different stages of harvesting, which causes 15% loss on the field, 13–20% loss at processing, and 15–25% storage loss [9]. Several studies show that insects are the main contributor to storage loss in the food supply chain [10, 11, 12], which accounts for 10–20% of storage loss [13].
A diverse community of stored product species are associated with different environments where farmers store grains and cereals; from farm bins to processing facilities, to feed mills, to flour mills, to retailer stores [14, 15, 16]. Among this complex pest system, 600 species from Coleoptera and 70 species from Lepidoptera can cause substantial losses by eroding the quality of grains [17]. Coleoptera is the largest order of insects with over 250,000 described species and contains in its fold some of the most notorious stored grain pests. In these,
The red flour beetle,
The adult females of
Thus, a wide variety of insecticides has been applied as a primary strategy for
In the Indian context, the first cases of insecticide resistance were reported in 1971 by Bhatia et al. [71] who found
Similarly, malathion resistance level in Indian populations of
The emergence and spread of insecticide resistance in an insect population is a slow and gradual evolutionary process. Following the initial exposure to the insecticide, there is a latent period in which resistance genes are segregated and linked with other genes that contribute favorable conditions for resistance development. During the evolution of resistance under insecticide selection pressure, the target species show a noticeable increase of tolerance to the pesticide. In the next stage, insecticide resistance slowly develops, followed by a period of rapid development, during which many factors influence the selection of resistance to insecticides. Rapidly developing resistance results in explosive population growth of the pests in stored products that become almost impossible to control. It is challenging to detect the resistance mechanism because they emerge over evolutionary time. Many key factors such as intensive application of insecticides, control operations, mode of inheritance of resistance genes, change in fitness of individuals, and genetic background of insects influence resistance [79]. Despite species diversity and chemical diversity of insecticides, only three mechanisms are known to cause insecticide resistance in
The advances in genomic research (e.g., transcriptomic sequencing and whole-genome sequencing) have made significant progress in understanding resistance mechanisms such as metabolic resistance, penetration resistance, and knockdown resistance in
Researchers around the world have begun to evaluate the symbiotic associations in different pest populations, how they interact with their hosts and whether they have the potential to detoxify insecticides. Interestingly, bacterial symbionts have been involved in insecticide degradation and resistance development in some insect pests, weeds, and nematodes. There are a growing number of reports where pest resistance to insecticides is not only due to the mechanisms within the pest genome but also due to the organisms in the microbiome community [84]. However, the microbial communities inhabiting
Insecticides such as organophosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids produce neurotoxicity by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholine esterase associated with the central nervous system [85, 86, 87, 88]. These insecticides also affect other target sites such as voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSC) and gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors in the insect nervous system [89]. The DDT and pyrethroid insecticides primarily target VGSC in the nervous system [90]. Several potential insecticides such as cyclodienes and fipronil bind to the GABA receptor and block the receptor function [91]. Most commonly used insecticides primarily target different receptors on the nervous system (Figure 1).
Diagrammatic representation of pre and post synaptic neurons, showing the different target sites of most commonly used insecticide classes. Source: Adapted and modified from [
Insecticide-resistant insects perform normal neurological functions despite the presence of insecticide because they have evolved insensitive acetylcholine receptors which provide resistance to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides. The reduced sensitivity of acetylcholinesterase to OP and carbamate insecticides has been studied in many resistant insect species of agricultural and veterinary importance [92, 93, 94, 95, 96]. The reduced target site sensitivity is a result of altered insecticide target molecules. There are mainly four types of target site insensitivity mechanisms observed in various insect species. These include a) Altered Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) resistance mechanism, which provides resistance to organophosphates and carbamates b) Knockdown resistance (
Acetylcholinesterase (AchE) is a vital enzyme required for regulating the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). It terminates the synaptic transmission by hydrolyzing acetylcholine into acetate and choline at cholinergic synapses in insects [99]. The inhibition of AchE increases the concentration of the acetylcholine at the synaptic cleft, which leads to a prolonged binding of ACh to its postsynaptic receptor. The high quantity of acetylcholine at the postsynaptic receptor causes neuroexcitation and produces intoxication symptoms such as tremors, convulsions, and eventually paralysis-related death. This enzyme is a target site of organophosphates and carbamates insecticides, which are bound to a serine residue on the active site of AchEs and convert the AchEs into their non-functional form. This causes the accumulation of acetylcholine at the nerve endings and disrupts nerve activity, resulting in paralysis and the death of insects [100].
Several Organophosphorous compounds have been used to protect agricultural commodities from insect infestation. But most of the insects have developed resistance against these insecticides due to insensitive AchE. Target insensitivity of AchE to insecticides occurs through the mutations in the active site of “
Recent evidence for resistance-conferring mutations in
Over the years, Pyrethroids have come to be the most sought-after class of insecticides for pest control in commercial and household environments because of their affordable and durable qualities [123]. However, their utility has been limited by the widespread development of insecticide resistance in many major pests. Pyrethroids are synthetic derivatives of pyrethrin, and the pyrethroids were classified into two groups namely class I and class II based on their physical characteristics and knockdown effect against insects. Class I pyrethroids contain a basic structure of cyclopropane carboxylic ester. These compounds include permethrin, resmethrin, phenothrin, bifenthrin, allethrin, tefluthrin, and tetramethrin. Class II pyrethroids contain a cyano group and these compounds include cypermethrin, deltamethrin, cyhalothrin, fenvalerate, cyfluthrin, fenpropathrin, flumethrin. The toxicity of pyrethroids was found to be 2250 times higher in insects than mammals due to their increased sodium channel sensitivity, lower body temperature, and smaller structure [124]. When an insect is intoxicated with non-cyano pyrethroids (class I), it produces strong excitatory action and tremors on the nervous system. The cyano pyrethroids trigger a quite different action, which includes salivation and choreoathetosis. It has been suggested that poisoning symptoms differ based on the cyano or non-cyano pyrethroids [125]. The pyrethrin and pyrethroid insecticides primarily target the VGSC in the nervous system. Pyrethroids and DDT produce their toxicity by binding onto the voltage-gated channels in axonal membranes, altering their gating properties, and the channels remain open for a long time. This causes a prolonged sodium influx, thereby depolarizing the axonal membrane and stimulating the neurons to produce repetitive discharges, finally resulting in paralysis [90, 126]. In insects, modification of voltage-gated sodium channel structure by point mutation or substitution causes insensitivity and reduces the binding affinity of the insecticides to protein.
Knockdown resistance (
The GABA ionotrophic receptor of the neuron membrane is formed by the oligomerization of five subunits around a central pore and each subunit possesses a large N terminal domain and four membrane-spanning domains (M1–M4). Several potential insecticides such as cyclodienes and fipronil stick to the M2 membrane-spanning a region of GABA receptor as competitive inhibitors, which prevent the chloride uptake of the GABA ion channel. The inhibition of GABA stimulated chloride uptake enhances the firing of nerve impulses in insects, which initiates lethal effects on insects [145]. However, the mutations or modifications in the molecular structure of the GABA ion channel influence the activity of insecticides. The mutated GABA receptor becomes insensitive to the insecticides at varying levels and this insensitivity has the potential to increase resistance in an insect species.
Such a resistant modification was first characterized in the GABA receptor subunit gene
In addition, genome sequencing advancements have facilitated the detection of multiple
The most common resistance mechanism in insects is the metabolic detoxification mechanism, enabling the insect to degrade or sequester the insecticides faster before releasing their toxic effect. This resistance mechanism allows insects to overproduce the enzymes mainly cytochrome
Several studies showed that resistant insects possess generally higher levels of
Recent years have witnessed the rapid evolution of insecticide resistance due to their continuous exposure. However, the resistance mechanism in insects is not fully understood, and the evolution of resistance to insecticides in
Increased detoxification by cytochrome
The glutathione S tranferase (
To gain insights on the regulatory, functional, and biological significance of
Carboxylesterases are ubiquitous enzymes involved in the detoxification of ester-containing xenobiotics. They are members of the esterase family of enzymes and have been isolated from all living organisms. As their name suggests, they are involved in hydrolysis reactions and convert the carboxyl esters into carboxylic acid and alcohol. Hydrolysis of the ester bond includes hydrolysis of a diverse range of phospho, thio, carboxylic, and other ester substrates. For carboxylesterases, the hydrolysis reaction is accomplished by 2 steps- first, the nucleophilic attack of oxygen of a serine residue on the carbonyl group of the substrate, removing the alcohol product, and generating relatively stable acyl enzymes. Second, a water molecule acts as an intermediary and makes a nucleophilic attack to remove the acid product of the reaction and produce the free enzyme. This reaction mechanism causes insecticide resistance in many insect species. As a key component of the detoxification mechanism, esterases have focused on the research of xenobiotic metabolism and resistance. The expression of carboxylesterases was significantly upregulated in the organophosphorous resistant
The occurrence of multiple mechanisms in an insect develops a very high level of resistance and in the case of
Reduced penetration resistance is uncommon and little is known about its workings in insects. Reduced penetration is also called cuticle resistance that reduces the dose of the insecticide reaching into the insect’s body and in all probability strongly associated with insecticide resistance. Normally contact insecticide penetrates through the insect cuticle and reaches the target site for action [172]. The cuticle is composed mainly of two different components, chitin, and cuticular protein, and the three functional layers of the cuticle consist of the outermost envelope, protein-rich epicuticle, and chitin-rich procuticle [211, 212]. Cuticular barriers develop resistance in insects by altering the cuticular thickness or by changing the cuticular composition [213, 214] or remodeling the cuticle by the high occurrence of cuticular proteins. The overexpression of laccases and ABC transporters has been reported to be involved in the compositional change of cuticle, which increases insects’ tolerance to insecticides in the environment. Arkane et al. [215] revealed the association between the cuticle tanning and the expression profile of
Researchers have been previously using bioassays, genetic and biochemical techniques to study the resistance mechanisms in
Overview of types of resistance mechanisms in
Sl. No. | Insecticide | Type of Resistance | Mechanism | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Cyclodiene | Point mutations in the gene Resistance to dieldrin ( | Target site insensitivity | [138, 151] |
2 | Pirimiphos-methyl and bifenthrin | Elevated activity of lipases, esterases, and laccase2 | Combination of reduced cuticular penetrance and metabolic detoxification | [208] |
3 | Dichlorvos, malathion, carbaryl, and carbofuran | Mutations in | Reduced insensitivity of AChE | [108] |
4 | Malathion | Elevated activity of carboxylesterase | Metabolic detoxification | [217, 218, 219, 220] |
5 | Malathion | Elevated activity of glutathione transferase | Metabolic detoxification | [221] |
6 | Deltamethrin | Elevated activity of | Metabolic detoxification | [144] |
7 | Phosphine | Elevated activity of | Metabolic detoxification | [222, 223] |
8 | Phosphine | Elevated activity of | Metabolic detoxification | [187] |
9 | Permethrin | Elevated activity of | Metabolic detoxification | [187] |
10 | Cypermethrin, Permethrin and Cyhalothrin | Elevated activity of | Metabolic detoxification | [163] |
11 | Phosphine | Elevated activity of | Metabolic detoxification | [164] |
12 | Dichlorvos and carbofuran | Elevated activity of | Metabolic detoxification | [186] |
13 | Carbofuran or dichlorvos | Induction of carboxylesterase | Metabolic detoxification | [165] |
14 | Pirimiphos-methyl | Reduced cuticular penetration | Cuticular penetration resistance mechanism | [224] |
15 | Phoxim | Elevated activity of | Metabolic detoxification | [201] |
Studies performed in
Recent years have seen a sharp increase in the study of insect microbiome, its crucial role in metabolic detoxification, and modulation of host immune responses. In some insect hosts, the symbiotic association appears to be causal for insecticide degradation, whereas, in others, studies suggest that it is mediated by physiological trade-offs [225]. In addition, the relationship between microbial community and insecticide resistance differs greatly and is context-dependent [225]. Several studies have established a causal connection between the fitness-enhancing symbionts and insecticide resistance in the bean bug,
Increased access to a rapidly advancing metagenomic approach facilitated the understanding of the role of microbial communities in insecticide resistance, and several studies hint at this association. The initial research that isolated the bacteria and fungi from different life stages of
Multiple reports indicate that
Different toxicity bioassays were used to measure resistance in the early stage in a cost-efficient manner. The conventional bioassay that is used to diagnose resistance involves collecting
The fully sequenced and annotated genome of
Resistance research on this beetle further improved by the most advanced approach Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) system [237]. Recently, CRISPR is the best available method on vogue in order to explore the functional genes relevant to resistance in
Further, on the basis of gene expression, knockdown and genome editing studies, we could generate information on insecticide resistance levels of pest populations in our country. This information would offer a unique opportunity for overcoming or delaying resistance in
Insecticide resistance poses a major threat to global pest control efforts and elucidating the underlying mechanisms is critical for effective pest management. Most of the important pests of stored products have evolved resistance to commonly used insecticides the world over.
This review attempts to address critical questions around how insecticide resistance emerges in
The availability of whole-genome sequence and applications of RNAi have made significant progress in understanding resistance mechanisms in
The comprehensive genomic and transcriptomic analysis have improved the identification of the key genes encoding detoxifying enzymes such as CY
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",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
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\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
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\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
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LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
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\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
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\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
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\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
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\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
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\n\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 March 2022 | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
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\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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