Physicochemical characterization of electroplating wastewaters.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6050",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery",title:"Physico-Chemical Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book on Physico-Chemical Treatment of Wastewater and Resource Recovery provides an efficient and low-cost solution for remediation of wastewater. This book focuses on physico-chemical treatment via advanced oxidation process, adsorption, its management and recovery of valuable chemicals. It discusses treatment and recovery process for the range of pollutants including BTX, PCB, PCDDs, proteins, phenols, antibiotics, complex organic compounds and metals. The occurrence of persistent pollutants poses deleterious effects on human and environmental health. Simple solutions for recovery of valuable chemicals and water during physico-chemical treatment of wastewater are discussed extensively. This book provides necessary knowledge and experimental studies on emerging physico-chemical processes for reducing water pollution and resource recovery.",isbn:"978-953-51-3130-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3129-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4854-8",doi:"10.5772/67803",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"physico-chemical-wastewater-treatment-and-resource-recovery",numberOfPages:278,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1daf0114048a6f0982414ec4f14d7f5b",bookSignature:"Robina Farooq and Zaki Ahmad",publishedDate:"May 3rd 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6050.jpg",numberOfDownloads:30250,numberOfWosCitations:97,numberOfCrossrefCitations:90,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:201,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:388,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 31st 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 21st 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 18th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 16th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 15th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"173800",title:"Prof.",name:"Robina",middleName:null,surname:"Farooq",slug:"robina-farooq",fullName:"Robina Farooq",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173800/images/system/173800.jpg",biography:"Dr. Robina Farooq has been involved in teaching, research,\nmanagement, and academic work in numerous distinguished\nuniversities of Britain, China, and Pakistan for the last 28 years.\nCurrently, she is working at COMSATS Institute of Information\nTechnology, Lahore, Pakistan. She has discovered innovative\nand low-cost processes for the treatment of wastewater. She is\nthe author of scientific manuscripts, books, book chapters, and\ngranted patents by USPTO, USA. She is the recipient of Best Innovator, Best University Teacher, and Productive Scientist Awards. She has worked on projects including\nultrasonic decomposition of pollutants, phytoremediation of wastewater, bioelectrochemical synthesis of renewable fuel, bioelectrochemical decomposition of\nwastewater and energy recovery, recovery of heavy metals from effluents, microbial fuel cell technology for wastewater remediation, and retrieval of precious metals\nfrom printed circuit boards.",institutionString:"COMSATS University Islamabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"52898",title:"Prof.",name:"Zaki",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"zaki-ahmad",fullName:"Zaki Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/52898/images/1942_n.jpg",biography:"Professor Dr. Zaki Ahmad worked at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals for thirty years in rendered distinguished services in teaching and research. He obtained his PhD from LEEDS University, UK. He was a chartered metallurgical engineer (C.Eng) from engineering council UK. He was a fellow of the institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining(FIMMM). He was a member of the European federation of corrosion and a fellow of institute of Metal Finishing. He substantially contributed to the founding activities in material science, corrosion engineering and nanotechnology at KFUPM and in Iran. He worked on international projects on aluminum with Aluminum, Ranshofen, Austria and Forschungzentrum, Geethscht, Germany and with Metallgesselscheft, Germany. He worked on international projects with Ministry of Technology, Germany. He was a founder contributor of center of excellence in corrosion at KFUPM, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. He worked on the foundation and development of nanotechnology in Saudi Arabia in 2004. He was the author of “Principles of Corrosion Engineering and Corrosion Control” published by Elsevier in 2006. He has written over 95 research papers and international journals and over forty papers in international research conferences. His research activities included development of Al/SC alloys, Nanostructured superhydrophrobic surfaces, Nanocoatings and self-healing techniques. He was nominated for best researcher award in the Middle East by Energy Exchange in 2011. He was a consultant of several research organizations.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"COMSATS University Islamabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"779",title:"Ecohydrology",slug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-ecohydrology"}],chapters:[{id:"52713",title:"Removal of BTX Contaminants with O3 and O3/UV Processes",doi:"10.5772/65889",slug:"removal-of-btx-contaminants-with-o3-and-o3-uv-processes",totalDownloads:1676,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The legal basis for the monitoring of priority and priority hazardous substances in water, sediment, and biota follows from Directive 2008/105/EC which defines the good chemical status to be achieved by all Member States together with the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC. The BTX compounds are considered to be the most toxic components of gasoline. Thus, organic petroleum components can induce a serious problem to public health and the aquatic environment. The effect of ozone and ozone/UV on degradation of the BTX in a model water was studied. The results indicate that the highest BTX removal rates were observed during the first 5 min of the process for all investigated pollutants. The treatment efficiencies above 90% were observed in all investigated pollutants after 40 min of ozonation. The results show a significant proportion of stripping in the removal of BTX components. Higher overall efficiency was observed by O3/UV process after abstracting share of stripping process. Application of investigated processes appears to be a promising procedure for removal of petrol aromatic hydrocarbons from aquatic environment. However, for practical application, an improvement of process removal efficiency and investigation of impact of ozonation intermediates and products on aquatic microorganisms are required.",signatures:"Ján Derco, Katarína Šimovičová, Jozef Dudáš and Mária Valičková",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52713",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52713",authors:[{id:"80852",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Derco",slug:"jan-derco",fullName:"Jan Derco"},{id:"189574",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarína",surname:"Šimovičová",slug:"katarina-simovicova",fullName:"Katarína Šimovičová"},{id:"189575",title:"Prof.",name:"Jozef",surname:"Dudáš",slug:"jozef-dudas",fullName:"Jozef Dudáš"},{id:"190276",title:"Dr.",name:"Mária",surname:"Valickova",slug:"maria-valickova",fullName:"Mária Valickova"}],corrections:null},{id:"52662",title:"Kinetic Modeling of the UV/H2O2 Process: Determining the Effective Hydroxyl Radical Concentration",doi:"10.5772/65096",slug:"kinetic-modeling-of-the-uv-h2o2-process-determining-the-effective-hydroxyl-radical-concentration",totalDownloads:1827,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A kinetic model for pollutant degradation by the UV/H2O2 system was developed. The model includes the background matrix effect, the reaction intermediate action, and the pH change during time. It was validated for water containing phenol and three different ways of calculating HO° level time-evolution were assumed (non-pseudo-steady, pseudo-steady and simplified pseudo-steady state; denoted as kinetic models A, B and C, respectively). It was found that the kind of assumption considered was not significant for phenol degradation. On the other hand, taking into account the high levels of HO2° formed in the reaction solution compared to HO° concentration (~10–7 M >>>> ~10–14 M), HO2° action in transforming phenol was considered. For this purpose, phenol-HO2° reaction rate constant was calculated and estimated to be 1.6x103 M-1 s-1, resulting in the range of data reported from literature. It was observed that, although including HO2° action allowed slightly improving the kinetic model degree of fit, HO° developed the major role in phenol conversion, due to their high oxidation potential. In this sense, an effective level of HO° can be determined in order to be maintained throughout the UV/H2O2 system reaction time for achieving an efficient pollutant degradation.",signatures:"Ainhoa Rubio-Clemente, E. Chica and Gustavo A. Peñuela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52662",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52662",authors:[{id:"189040",title:"Prof.",name:"Ainhoa",surname:"Rubio Clemente",slug:"ainhoa-rubio-clemente",fullName:"Ainhoa Rubio Clemente"},{id:"193744",title:"Prof.",name:"Edwin",surname:"Chica",slug:"edwin-chica",fullName:"Edwin Chica"},{id:"194647",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Peñuela",slug:"gustavo-penuela",fullName:"Gustavo Peñuela"}],corrections:null},{id:"53348",title:"Electrooxidation-Ozonation: A Synergistic Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Process",doi:"10.5772/65887",slug:"electrooxidation-ozonation-a-synergistic-sustainable-wastewater-treatment-process",totalDownloads:1787,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have shown to be very useful technologies for application in different wastewater treatment areas. These processes use the very strong oxidizing power of hydroxyl radicals to oxidize organic compounds to carbon dioxide and water. These procedures usually involve the use of O3, H2O2, Fenton’s reagent and electrolysis to generate the hydroxyl radicals. However, some recent investigations have found that the use of a coupled processes using O3/electrooxidation increases the effectiveness of the process and also could reduce the operating costs associated to the application of AOPs. In this chapter, there is a description of our work in the treatment of wastewater using an ozonation-electrooxidation combined process. The main parameters to control for having a successful application of such method are discussed. Several examples for different kinds of polluted water are addressed.",signatures:"Carlos E. Barrera-Diaz and Nelly González-Rivas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53348",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53348",authors:[{id:"177869",title:"Dr.",name:"Nelly",surname:"González-Rivas",slug:"nelly-gonzalez-rivas",fullName:"Nelly González-Rivas"},{id:"189782",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Barrera-Diaz",slug:"carlos-barrera-diaz",fullName:"Carlos Barrera-Diaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"52305",title:"Removal of Phenol from Wastewater Using Fenton-Like Reaction over Iron Oxide–Modified Silicates",doi:"10.5772/65097",slug:"removal-of-phenol-from-wastewater-using-fenton-like-reaction-over-iron-oxide-modified-silicates",totalDownloads:1618,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Iron-containing active phase was deposited on natural layered silicate (vermiculite) using several techniques such as ion exchange, precipitation, and forced hydrolysis during hydrothermal digestion. Tuning of the synthesis conditions resulted in preparation of the catalysts with different loading of active phase and physicochemical properties. The composite materials were characterized with respect to their structure (X-ray diffraction), agglomeration state of Fe (diffuse reflectance UV-vis spectroscopy), and chemical composition. Catalytic tests were performed in semi-batch reactor under atmospheric pressure. Aqueous solution of phenol was used as a model industrial effluent, and hydrogen peroxide was added as an oxidant. Spectral techniques were used for identification of intermediate oxidation products. Spent catalysts were also characterized, and structural and chemical changes were determined, e.g., leaching degree of active phase.",signatures:"Agnieszka Węgrzyn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52305",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52305",authors:[{id:"187925",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",surname:"Węgrzyn",slug:"agnieszka-wegrzyn",fullName:"Agnieszka Węgrzyn"}],corrections:null},{id:"52640",title:"Micropollutants in Wastewater: Fate and Removal Processes",doi:"10.5772/65644",slug:"micropollutants-in-wastewater-fate-and-removal-processes",totalDownloads:3247,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:47,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The occurrence of micropollutants (MPs) in various streams of municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), and their fate and removal processes are discussed. The fate of MPs in WWTPs largely depends on adsorption on suspended particulates, primary and secondary sludge and dissolved organic carbon, and removal occurs due to coagulation-flocculation, and biodegradation. The log Kow (>2.5) and pKa are the dominant properties of the MPs, and the concentration, organic fraction, and surface charge of suspended particulates dictate the extent of adsorption of MPs. Most of the conventional WWTPs do not remove complex MPs by biodegradation or biotransformation effectively (kbio ≤0.0042 L/gss/h), and the removal varies widely for different compounds, as well as for the same substance, due to operational conditions such as aerobic, anaerobic, anoxic, sludge retention time (SRT), pH, redox potential, and temperature. Membrane bioreactor performs better for moderately biodegradable compounds due to the diverse nature of microorganisms as well as greater adaptability due to longer SRT. Ozone and UV-based advanced oxidation processes, membrane filtration can be used for tertiary treatment due to their high rate as well as easy implementation. Various partition coefficients and rate constants values for different MPs are also provided for design and application.",signatures:"Sreejon Das, Nillohit Mitra Ray, Jing Wan, Adnan Khan, Tulip\nChakraborty and Madhumita B. Ray",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52640",authors:[{id:"53555",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhumita",surname:"Ray",slug:"madhumita-ray",fullName:"Madhumita Ray"},{id:"195050",title:"Mr.",name:"Sreejon",surname:"Das",slug:"sreejon-das",fullName:"Sreejon Das"},{id:"195051",title:"Dr.",name:"Nillohit Mitra",surname:"Ray",slug:"nillohit-mitra-ray",fullName:"Nillohit Mitra Ray"},{id:"195052",title:"MSc.",name:"Tulip",surname:"Chakraborty",slug:"tulip-chakraborty",fullName:"Tulip Chakraborty"},{id:"195053",title:"MSc.",name:"Adnan",surname:"Khan",slug:"adnan-khan",fullName:"Adnan Khan"},{id:"195054",title:"BSc.",name:"Jing",surname:"Wan",slug:"jing-wan",fullName:"Jing Wan"}],corrections:null},{id:"52984",title:"PCDDs/PCDFs and PCBs in Wastewater and Sewage Sludge",doi:"10.5772/66204",slug:"pcdds-pcdfs-and-pcbs-in-wastewater-and-sewage-sludge",totalDownloads:1639,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter includes the information concerning the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) functioning in respect to polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins (PCDDs)/polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In particular, the chapter describes the occurrence and fate of PCDDs/PCDFs and PCBs in WWTPs, at different treatment stages, including the tertiary wastewater treatment (e.g. constructed, wetlands biofilters) and factors affecting the removal of these micropollutants during treatment process. Considering the production of growing amounts of sewage sludge as an end product of the wastewater treatment process, the chapter describes also the occurrence and fate of above‐mentioned compounds in sewage sludge and the ways of their utilization with the special emphasis on agricultural uses, bioremediation and phytoremediation processes. With regard to the agricultural use of sewage sludge, the impact of sludge‐born PCDDs/PCDFs and PCBs on plant growth and plant metabolism is described, together with the current state of knowledge on the accumulation and translocation of the studied compounds in plant tissues.",signatures:"Magdalena Urbaniak and Anna Wyrwicka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52984",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52984",authors:[{id:"163564",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Urbaniak",slug:"magdalena-urbaniak",fullName:"Magdalena Urbaniak"},{id:"188484",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Wyrwicka",slug:"anna-wyrwicka",fullName:"Anna Wyrwicka"}],corrections:null},{id:"54320",title:"Phosphorus Recovery by Struvite Crystallization from Livestock Wastewater and Reuse as Fertilizer: A Review",doi:"10.5772/65692",slug:"phosphorus-recovery-by-struvite-crystallization-from-livestock-wastewater-and-reuse-as-fertilizer-a-",totalDownloads:2549,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In China, the intensive livestock farming produces massive livestock wastewater with high concentration of phosphorus. Discharge of these compounds to surface water not only causes water eutrophication but also wastes phosphorus resources for plant growth. Therefore, it’s necessary combining the removal of phosphorus from livestock wastewater with its recovery and reuse as fertilizer. As a valuable slow-release mineral fertilizer, struvite crystallization has become a focus in phosphorus recovery. In this chapter, struvite crystallization mechanism, reaction factors, crystallizers, and the applications of struvite as fertilizer are discussed. Two steps of nucleation and crystal growth for struvite crystallization from generation to growth are introduced. The reaction factors, including molar ratio of magnesium and phosphate, solution pH, coexisting substances, and seeding assist, of struvite crystallization are summarized. Several innovate types of crystallizer, which relate to the shape and size of harvest struvite to realize the phosphorus recycling, are demonstrated. Due to the influence of toxic or harmful impurities in struvite on its reuse as fertilizer, the environmental risk evaluation of struvite application is introduced. In conclusion, struvite crystallization is a promising tool for recovering phosphorus from livestock wastewater.",signatures:"Tao Zhang, Rongfeng Jiang and Yaxin Deng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54320",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54320",authors:[{id:"185487",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tao",surname:"Zhang",slug:"tao-zhang",fullName:"Tao Zhang"},{id:"195403",title:"Dr.",name:"Rongfeng",surname:"Jiang",slug:"rongfeng-jiang",fullName:"Rongfeng Jiang"},{id:"195404",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaxin",surname:"Deng",slug:"yaxin-deng",fullName:"Yaxin Deng"}],corrections:null},{id:"52474",title:"Slaughterhouse Wastewater: Treatment, Management and Resource Recovery",doi:"10.5772/65499",slug:"slaughterhouse-wastewater-treatment-management-and-resource-recovery",totalDownloads:6768,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:52,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The meat processing industry is one of the largest consumers of total freshwater used in the agricultural and livestock industry worldwide. Meat processing plants (MPPs) produce large amounts of slaughterhouse wastewater (SWW) because of the slaughtering process and cleaning of facilities. SWWs need significant treatment for a sustainable and safe discharge to the environment due to the high content of organics and nutrients. Therefore, the treatment and final disposal of SWW are a public health necessity. In this chapter, the regulatory frameworks relevant to the SWW management, environmental impacts, health effects, and treatment methods are discussed. Although physical, chemical, and biological treatment can be used for SWW degradation, each treatment process has different advantages and drawbacks depending on the SWW characteristics, best available technology, jurisdictions, and regulations. SWWs are typically assessed using bulk parameters because of the various pollutant loads derived from the type and the number of animals slaughtered that fluctuate amid the meat industry. Thus, an on-site treatment using combined processes would be the best option to treat and disinfect the slaughterhouse effluents to be safely discharged into receiving waters.",signatures:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte and Mehrab Mehrvar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52474",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52474",authors:[{id:"66753",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehrab",surname:"Mehrvar",slug:"mehrab-mehrvar",fullName:"Mehrab Mehrvar"},{id:"189304",title:"Dr.",name:"Ciro",surname:"Bustillo-Lecompte",slug:"ciro-bustillo-lecompte",fullName:"Ciro Bustillo-Lecompte"}],corrections:null},{id:"54767",title:"Treatment of Antibiotics in Wastewater Using Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)",doi:"10.5772/67538",slug:"treatment-of-antibiotics-in-wastewater-using-advanced-oxidation-processes-aops-",totalDownloads:3182,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:44,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Antibiotics are nonbiodegradable, can survive at aquatic environments for long periods and they have a big potential bio-accumulation in the environment. They are extensively metabolized by humans, animals and plants. After metabolization, antibiotics or their metabolites are excreted into the aquatic environment. Removal of these compounds from the aquatic environment is feasible by different processes. But antibiotics are not treated in conventional wastewater treatment plants efficiently. During the last years studies with advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for removal of these pharmaceuticals from waters has shown that they can be useful for removing them fully. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) can work as alternatives or complementary method in traditional wastewater treatment, and highly reactive free radicals, especially hydroxyl radicals (OH) generated via chemical (O3/H2O2, O3/OH-), photochemical (UV/O3, O3/H2O2) reactions, serve as the main oxidant. This study presents an overview of the literature on antibiotics and their removal from water by advanced oxidation processes. It includes almost all types of antibiotics which are consumed by human and veterinary processes. It was found that most of the investigated advanced oxidation treatment processes for the oxidation of antibiotics in water are direct and indirect photolysis with the combinations of H2O2, TiO2, ozone and Fenton?s reagent.",signatures:"Ayse Kurt, Berna Kiril Mert, Nihan Özengin, Özge Sivrioğlu and\nTaner Yonar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54767",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54767",authors:[{id:"190012",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Taner",surname:"Yonar",slug:"taner-yonar",fullName:"Taner Yonar"},{id:"204848",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayse",surname:"Kurt",slug:"ayse-kurt",fullName:"Ayse Kurt"},{id:"204849",title:"Dr.",name:"Nihan",surname:"Goral",slug:"nihan-goral",fullName:"Nihan Goral"},{id:"204850",title:"Dr.",name:"Berna",surname:"Kiril",slug:"berna-kiril",fullName:"Berna Kiril"},{id:"204851",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozge",surname:"Sivrioglu",slug:"ozge-sivrioglu",fullName:"Ozge Sivrioglu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53976",title:"Wastewater Treatment through Low Cost Adsorption Technologies",doi:"10.5772/67097",slug:"wastewater-treatment-through-low-cost-adsorption-technologies",totalDownloads:1929,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter addresses the wastewater treatment of mining residues through adsorption methodologies. It preferentially focuses its attention on (but not limited to) the removal of heavy metals. It begins with a brief description of the most used wastewater treatment pathways highlighting both their advantages and disadvantages and focusing on adsorption industrial practice. Classic models of adsorption thermodynamics and kinetics are presented. It finalises with a more detailed description of two methodologies of low cost sorbents: (i) inorganic nanostructured silicates and (ii) organic-based sorbents—pine bark.",signatures:"Gonzalo Montes-Atenas and Fernando Valenzuela",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53976",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53976",authors:[{id:"188389",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonzalo",surname:"Montes-Atenas",slug:"gonzalo-montes-atenas",fullName:"Gonzalo Montes-Atenas"},{id:"200447",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Valenzuela",slug:"fernando-valenzuela",fullName:"Fernando Valenzuela"}],corrections:null},{id:"53088",title:"Integral use of Nejayote: Characterization, New Strategies for Physicochemical Treatment and Recovery of Valuable By-Products",doi:"10.5772/66223",slug:"integral-use-of-nejayote-characterization-new-strategies-for-physicochemical-treatment-and-recovery-",totalDownloads:1597,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this research, an innovative physicochemical strategy is presented to address the problem of nejayote, from two perspectives: the first focusing on sanitation and reuse of nejayote using waste from shrimp shells, thereby adding value to the recovered solids of nejayote. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67837",title:"Bi-Functionalized Hybrid Materials as Novel Adsorbents for Heavy Metal Removal from Aqueous Solution: Batch and Fixed-Bed Techniques",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86802",slug:"bi-functionalized-hybrid-materials-as-novel-adsorbents-for-heavy-metal-removal-from-aqueous-solution",body:'\nThe prompt industrial development and ongoing urbanization have induced growing problems relevant to waste output. Wastes are the generator of hazardous substances which migrate unimpeded through the ecosystem posing severe jeopardy to living organisms. Heavy metals are deemed as a standout among the most toxic groups of inorganic pollutants. The principal origin sources of these heavy metals are usually from electroplating, plastic manufacturing, mining, fertilizers, etc. [1]. The excessive magnitude of these contaminants in industrial wastewaters will severely devastate the ecosystem and human health via accumulation and spreading in the environment and food chain [2]. Faced with the strict environmental enactment, the treatment of wastewater before being discharged into the environment becomes paramount topics worldwide. Diverse treatment processes, for instance, coagulation, precipitation, ion-exchange, reverse osmosis, and electrolysis, are applied for the remediation of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions [3, 4, 5]. Notwithstanding, by far, the majority of these procedures are restrained by both ecological and economic constraints. In contrast, adsorption has been qualified to be the most relevant and promising method, on account of its low cost, flexible operation, and reversibility. A wide variety of low-cost adsorbents, for example, agricultural by-products, industrial wastes, and natural mineral materials, were found to have good adsorption capacity [6]. However, these materials possess weak resistance to abrasive forces in column apply and leaching of few organics throughout retention process.
\nIt is well known that the substantial factors affecting the adsorption process are pore size distribution, specific surface areas, and pore surface chemistry. In this endeavor, it is imperative to search materials with enormous porous structures, high specific surface areas, and low density. In the last few decades, ordered mesoporous silica has triggered a growing interest in the field of water treatment, owing to its diverse outstanding properties. These enclose tunable pore-size, high specific surface area, large pore volume, chemical inertness, thermal stability, and the ability to attach a plethora of different functional groups [7, 8, 9].
\nOne of the basic techniques applied for fabricating organic-inorganic hybrid materials is the sol-gel method. Tetraalkoxysilanes (Si(OR)4) like tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) or tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS) are widely employed as a precursor for preparing monolithic silica, owing to their hydrophobicity and strong covalent Si-O bonding [10]. It is worthy to state that the as-prepared hybrid materials by the sol-gel route are divided into two classes on account of the interaction type between organic and inorganic components. In class I, organic and inorganic components are strongly attached by covalent or dative covalent bonds, while in the second, these two components are weakly bonded through hydrogen or Van der Waals bonds. Indeed, these materials have generated considerable interest for their potential application in multiple fields such as: adsorption [11], drug delivery systems [12, 13], biosensors [14], nanotechnology, and nanomedicine applications [15, 16] and catalysis [17]. Organic-inorganic hybrid materials displayed high efficiency and outstanding selectivity towards target pollutant than the other silica gels. Nitrogen/thiol and magnetic functionalized mesoporous silica have been at the foreground of these composites. In the same vein, Benhamou et al. have shown that amine functionalized MCM-41 and MCM-48 exhibited a higher adsorption capacity than pristine. They also evinced that both hybrid materials have a higher affinity for Cu(II) and Pb(II) than for Cd(II) and Co(II) in single and mixed cation solutions [18]. Shahbazi and co-workers grafted aminopropyl (NH2) and melamine-based dendrimer amines (MDA) to SBA-15 mesoporous silica. They observed that NH2–SBA-15 and MDA–SBA-15 were over ten-fold better than the pristine SBA-15 in the adsorption of Pb(II), Cu(II), and Cd(II) [19]. Interestingly, they also showed that in column studies, the adsorption yield was swayed by the flow rate. Apart from the fact that magnetic silica-based materials exhibited excellent adsorption affinity towards heavy metal ions, such adsorbents compared to the nitrogen and thiol designer silicates can be easily removed from aqueous solution after adsorption. In the same context, Wang et al. [20] synthesized an amino-functionalized core-shell magnetic mesoporous SBA-15 silica composite which displayed a high adsorption capacity for Pb(II) ions. This adsorbent can be readily removed and regenerated. Despite the high adsorption capacity and the extra-ordinary selectivity towards target metal, as well as the capacity for simultaneous removal of aqueous pollutants, organic-inorganic hybrid materials are still not applied for a continuous process in a fixed-bed column. Another challenge to overcome is the difficulty in their large-scale production because of the complexity of synthesis methods and the control of the stability of the developed adsorbents. Therefore, great endeavors are required for the synthesis of hybrid silicate adsorbents which meet the listed challenges.
\nThe main aims of the present study were the following:
\nFirstly, to synthesize and characterize new functionalized hybrid materials and secondly, to assess their ability to remove Zn (II), Cd(II), and Cu(II) ions from aqueous solution. To achieve these goals, experimental parameters affecting the adsorption such as pH solution and contact time were determined. Kinetic data were expressed by pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intra-particle diffusion models. Adsorption equilibrium isotherms were evaluated according to Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) models. In addition, the thermodynamic parameters, selectivity, and the reusability have been determined and extensively discussed. To the best of our knowledge, there are scant studies dealing with the applicability of silica hybrid materials for a continuous process in a fixed-bed column. Herein, we have successfully proven the feasibility of the synthesized adsorbents for large volumes of discharges.
\nAll reagents were of analytical grade and used as received without further purification. Hydrophobic tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS, 99%) was utilized as a silica precursor, while ethanol was a bridging medium. Cd(NO3)2.4H2O, Cu(NO3)2.3H2O, and Zn(NO3)2.6H2O were employed as metal sources for batch and column adsorption experiments. These reagents were supplied by Sigma-Aldrich, USA. The organic precursors 1,3,4-thiadiazole-2,5-diamine and 1,3,4-thiadiazole-2,5-dithiol were prepared according to the literature [21, 22].
\nPursuant to our foregoing studies, xerogels were synthesized using the following process [Helali 15 et 16]: 10 ml of deionized water, 20ml of ethanol, and 22.8 mL of TEOS were mixed under vigorous magnetic stirring. To the as-prepared mixture was added a necessary amount of organic precursor (10−1 M, 11.6 g of 1,3,4-thiadiazole-2,5-diamineor or 15 g of 1,3,4-thiadiazole-2,5-dithiol). Thereafter, the reactant mixture was stirred for 6 h at 78°C and at the last ripened for 48 h at 100°C; the resulting xerogels were labeled
Synthesis mechanism of hybrid materials
Xerogel morphology was carried out using a scanning electronic microscope (Cambridge Instruments Stereoscan 120) operating at 15 kV. The textural properties of hybrid materials were determined from the N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms recorded at 77 K with a Micrometrics ASAP-2000 volumetric apparatus. The specific surface areas were computed by the multi-point analysis (BET) (Brunauer et al., 1938) in the relative pressure interval of 0.03˂P/P°˂0.3. Howbeit pore size distribution was acquired from the adsorption-desorption branches of the isotherm through the BJH pattern. The total pore volume was evaluated at a relative pressure of P/P° = 0.99.
\nThe experimental parameters for the 13C CP MAS NMR were 9 KHz SPIN rate, 5 s pulse delay. NMR spectroscopy was carried out on an MSL 500 Bruker Spectrometer. FT-IR spectra were collected on 550 Nicolet Magana Spectrometer in KBr pellets in the range of 4000–400 cm−1. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurement was conducted on a VG ESCALAB MK II spectrometer in the pulse-count mode at a pass energy of 50 eV employing a Mg Kα (1253.6 eV) achromatic X-ray source. In order to evaluate the surface charges, the electro-kinetic potential was performed by Malvern instrument Zeta Nano ZS.
\nStock solutions were set up by dissolving the required metal mass in 1 L of double-distilled water. Aliquots were prepared by diluting standard stock solution to the desired concentrations (5–400 mg.L−1). All experiments were done at room temperature in triplicate, and the average values were utilized for further estimation. For every essay, 0.01 g of xerogel was thoroughly blended in conical flasks containing 25 ml of test solution with various metal concentrations at a required pH adjusted prior to the experiment with 0.1 mol. L−1 of HNO3 or 0.1 mol. L−1 of NaOH solution. The flasks were shaken for the coveted contact time in an electrically thermostatic reciprocating shaker (Selecta multimatic-55, Spain) at 150 rpm. The contact time for metal ions and the hybrid materials were ranged from 10 to 100 min.
\nFor the adsorption isotherm contemplates, the initial metal concentration was run from 10 to 400 mg. L−1. After each adsorption procedure, the gathered examples were centrifuged at 12000 rpm for 20min with the end goal to separate the solid from the liquid phase. The supernatant containing metal ions was evaluated employing an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (SHIMADZU AA-680, Japan). The percent adsorption of metal ion delineated is as follows (Eq. (1)):
\nwhere
Dynamic adsorption trial run in the fixed-bed column was conducted in a glass column (3.5 cm length and 1.2 cm diameter), stuffed with 1 g of the xerogel. The metal ion concentration (150 mg. L−1) was pumped in a down flow mode at a flow rate of 20 mL min−1 by using a peristaltic pump (Flowtech India, model NFP01). Samples were gathered at determined time interims, and the residual adsorbate concentration (Ce) was measured spectrophotometrically (Eq. (2)). Column exploitation was ceased when the adsorbate concentration attained 95% of its initial concentration. The maximum column capacity (qc) can be reckoned as follows Eq. (3):
\nwhere qtotal (mg) is the total quantity of adsorbed metal ions, A is the area under breakthrough curve (Ce/(C0) versus time, Q (mL.min−1) is the flow rate, C0 (mg.L−1) is the influent concentration, and M (g) is the mass of adsorbent.
\nAs a means to examine the regeneration of the synthesized hybrid materials, the metal cation-loaded adsorbents are desorbed with 10 mL of HCl solution (0.5 M) for 60 minutes. Afterwards, the recovered xerogel is flushed with deionized water and parched in the air for the forthcoming experiment. Successive sorption-desorption cycles are rehashed 10 times to build up the genuine application and the high stability of the adsorbent.
\nThe effluent specimens are gathered from the discharge exits of electroplating plant, Yaroslavl, Russia. The physicochemical parameters of the electroplating effluent are enlisted in Table 1.
\nParameters | \nValues | \nWHO Standard | \n
---|---|---|
pH | \n2.8 | \n5.5–6.5 | \n
Temperature | \n40 | \n20–30 | \n
TSS (mg.L−1) | \n720 | \n20 | \n
COD (mg.L−1) | \n371 | \n280 | \n
BOD (mg.L−1) | \n90 | \n40 | \n
Zn (mg.L−1) | \n100 | \n5 | \n
Pb (mg.L−1) | \n10 | \n0.2 | \n
Cd (mg.L−1) | \n2 | \n0.1 | \n
Physicochemical characterization of electroplating wastewaters.
Samples are stored in plastic bottles and cooled to 20°C; afterward, they are diluted ten times and alkalized with 0.5 mol.L−1 of NaOH solution, and finally, are filtered through a 0.35 μm membrane filter. All physicochemical features of the effluent are determined by a conventional procedure [23].
\nThe morphology of xerogel adsorbents was portrayed by SEM, and the images are illustrated in Figure 2.
\nSEM micrographs of pristine adsorbents: (a)
It very well may be obviously observed that all hybrid materials evinced wrinkled surface and irregular shaped particles with pore diameter over 1.5 nm, indicating the mesoporous structure. The textural properties of the synthesized materials, including specific surface area, total mesoporous volume, and average pore diameter were assessed by N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms and BJH method. Interestingly, all samples recorded typical type IV adsorption-desorption isotherms which is a characteristic pattern of mesoporous composites as stated in IUPAC classification. Moreover, the hysteresis loop is of type H2 which is usually tied to the ink-bottle pores with bulky orifice of the border inner parts (Figure 3).
\nN2 absorption-desorption isotherms of (a)
A clearly defined step is eventuated roughly at P/P° = 0.4 characteristic of the mesopore filling owing to capillary condensation [24]. Evenly, the pore size curve obtained from the isotherm branch showed a tight distribution centered at about 3.5 nm.
\nBased on data in Table 2, all xerogels showed relatively high specific surfaces and pore volumes. More convincing underpins for the successful anchor of organic moieties into the siliceous network emanate from the 13C CP MAS NMR analysis.
\nSample | \nSBET (m2.g−1) | \nVpor (cm3.g−1) | \ndmoy (Å) | \n
---|---|---|---|
290 | \n0.4 | \n34.80 | \n|
310 | \n0.2 | \n20 | \n
BET surface area, pore volume, and average pore size of xerogels
The 13C NMR spectra of the synthesized materials are shown in Figure 4. These spectra recorded resonance peaks at 156.3–166.4 ppm (C=N) typical of sp2 carbon atoms which characterized the cross links of the organic functional groups in the inorganic network, providing the possibility of creating Si-N and Si-S covalent bonds. The peaks at 13–58 ppm were attributed to CH3CH2O-Si- groups (TEOS). This outcome portrayed the incorporation of the organic bi-functional compounds in the inorganic network, providing the formation of Si-N and Si-S covalent bonds.
\n13C NMR CP MAS spectra of
So as to confirm the attachment of the organic precursors onto the skeleton of silica species, FT-IR spectroscopy was carried out.
\nThe FT-IR spectra of all samples are depicted in Figure 5.
\nIR spectra of: (a)
All samples showed a typical band related to Si-O bonds, at 434–440 cm−1, bending of O-Si-O at 754–760cm−1, and strong bands at 1061–1134 cm−1 assigned to the stretching vibration of Si-O-Si groups. Besides, the broad and strong bands detected at 3383–3325 cm−1 were attributed to the stretching vibration of OH groups which are associated to Si-OH groups ensuing from the TEOS hydrolysis. The signals revealed at 1557–1576 cm−1 were ascribed to the stretching vibration of C=N groups (heterocyclic part). Another indicative band of the covalent Si-N bond created between 1,2,4-thiadiazole heterocyclic molecules and the polysiloxane backbone emerged at 1175 cm−1. The bands located at 780 and 2680 cm−1, attributed to Si-S links and S-H groups, were observed in the
The pH of the solution is regarded as one of the foremost adsorption factor
The effect of pH on the removal efficiency of heavy metal ions by hybrid materials was assessed inside a scope of 2–10. Zeta potential is the best and reliable method to determine the adsorbent surface charge, which was characterized by point of zero charge (pHpzc). The pH of zero charge (pHZps) of the as-prepared xerogels
Zeta potential of xerogels at different pH values.
As illustrated in Figure 6, when pH ˂ pHZps, the adsorbent surface charge is positive by virtue of the amino and thiol group protonation. Therefore, electrostatic repulsive force emerges between heavy metal ions and the adsorbent surface, inciting abatement in the adsorption capacity. Be that as it may, at pH > pHZps, all samples earn a negative surface charge, promoting electrostatic attraction between metal cations and adsorbent and therefore, the absorption efficiency enhancement. It ought to be stressed that beyond pH 5 [25], the uptake yield of heavy metal ions diminishes through the metallic hydroxide precipitation which thwarts the diffusion of the metal ions into the adsorbent active site. Therethrough, the pH at 7 was selected as the ideal incentive in the resulting experiments (Figure 7).
\nEffect of pH on adsorption of metal ions onto both xerogels ((a)
The contact time is well recognized as the dwelling time of sorbate uptake at the superficial adsorbent surface. To study the effect of contact time, 0.015 g of hybrid materials was thoroughly mixed in 25 mL of initial metal concentration 20 mg.L−1 and was shaken at a rotational speed of 150 rpm.
\nAs portrayed in Figure 8, the heavy metal adsorption onto the three xerogels rapidly increased in the first 40 min; thereafter, it becomes slower and in the later stage reaches to saturation (equilibrium). Further increase in contact time did not ameliorate the uptake efficiency; this trend may be attributed to the fact that padding of void active sites becomes impossible owing to the electrostatic repulsion between the solute ions of the adsorbent and bulk phases [26]. Thus, 60 min is seen fit to attain equilibrium in ulterior trials.
\nEffect of contact time and temperature on adsorption of metal ions by the two adsorbents (metal concentration: 20 mg.L−1; adsorbent dosage: 0.4 g.L−1; pH: 5): (a)
In order to acquire an insight into the adsorption mechanism and reveal the rate controlling steps, three kinetic models including pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intra-particle diffusion were checked.
\nThe adsorption rates were first examined by Lagergren’s pseudo-first-order [27] and its linearized integral form is spoken to as follows in Eq. (4):
\nwhere
The pseudo-second-equation provided by Ho [28] can be stated by the pursuing equation Eq. (5):
\nwhere
The kinetic parameters gained from pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order are introduced in Table 3. It is obvious that the theoretical adsorption capacities ((qth)) evaluated from the pseudo-second-order equation were very close to experimental (
Metal ions | \nPseudo-first-order kinetic | \nPseudo-second-order kinetic | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
k1(min−1) | \nqe cal (mg.g−1) | \nr | \nk2(g mg−1 min−1) | \nqe cal (mg g−1) | \nr | \n||
Pb2+ | \n285 | \n5.7.10−4 | \n178 | \n0.958 | \n17.3.10−4 | \n278 | \n0.998 | \n
Cd2+ | \n234 | \n2.8.10−4 | \n167 | \n0.953 | \n8.02.10−4 | \n38 | \n0.999 | \n
Zn2° | \n410 | \n7.5.10−4 | \n249 | \n0.936 | \n19.9. 10−4 | \n380 | \n0.998 | \n
Pb2+ | \n261 | \n4.6.10−4 | \n185 | \n0,926 | \n14.8.10−4 | \n265 | \n0.998 | \n
Cd2+ | \n214 | \n2.4.10−4 | \n150 | \n0,942 | \n7.3. 10−4 | \n199 | \n0.997 | \n
Zn2+ | \n360 | \n6.6.10−4 | \n210 | \n0,912 | \n17.8. 10−4 | \n320 | \n0.999 | \n
Pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order parameters for the adsorption of Pb (II), Cd (II), and Zn (II) onto two adsorbents at different temperatures.
By the by, the aforementioned kinetic models cannot identify the diffusion mechanism and also, the rate controlling step of the adsorption kinetic process. In this regard, it is important to apply the Weber and Morris intra-particle diffusion model. This later assumes that the adsorption process might be controlled either by one of the resulting steps, namely film diffusion, pore diffusion, and adsorption onto the inner sites of adsorbent or a mix of a few stages (multi-step process) [29]. The rate parameter for intra-particle diffusion is displayed as follows Eq. (6):
\nwhere \n
As depicted in Figure 9, all the plots show multi-linear uptake revealing three adsorption stages. The first steep-sloped portion corresponds to the transport of metal ions from bulk solution to the adsorbent external surface via film diffusion. The second stage describes the progressive adsorption step, indicating the diffusion of adsorbate through the pores of xerogel (intra-particle diffusion). The third small-sloped section corresponds to the final equilibrium stage where the intra-particle diffusion commences progressively to slow down because of the quick abatement of metal cation concentrations. Intra-particle diffusion model parameters are enrolled in the Table 4.
\nIntra-particle diffusion plots model for metal ions adsorption onto (a)
Sample | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
M1--Pb | \n10.252 | \n4.792 | \n2.103 | \n
M2--Pb | \n12.348 | \n6.453 | \n3.501 | \n
M1--Cd | \n11.457 | \n5.395 | \n3.424 | \n
M2--Cd | \n12.567 | \n6.637 | \n3.667 | \n
M1--Zn | \n10.684 | \n5.138 | \n2.735 | \n
M2--Zn | \n12.729 | \n6.841 | \n3.829 | \n
Intra-particle diffusion adsorption rate constants of metal ions onto the two adsorbents.
The boundary layer parameter C was diverse to zero, showing that the intra-particle diffusion ought not to be the sole rate limiting step [30]. Be that as it may, it ought to be accentuated that the rate controlled step was governed by film-diffusion towards the start and afterward followed by intra-particle diffusion.
\nAdsorption isotherm is viewed as a standout amongst the most critical elements for determining the mechanism between adsorbent and adsorbate. In this research, Langmuir, Freundlich, and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) isotherm models were utilized to assess the equilibrium data.
\nThe Langmuir isotherm model expects the formation of monolayer coverage of adsorbate on the external surface of adsorbent and a finite number of equipotential sites [31]. The Langmuir model can take the following linear form Eq. (7):
\nwhere
\n | Langmuir parameters | \nFreundlich parameters | \nD-R parameters | \n||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
qm (mg.g−1) | \nKL(L mg−1) | \nR2 | \nKF | \n1/n | \nR2 | \nqm (mol.g−1) | \nE(KJ mol−1) | \nR2 | \n|
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | |
Pb2+ | \n523 | \n0.07 | \n0.998 | \n75.85 | \n0.38 | \n0.845 | \n3.73.10−4 | \n13.1 | \n0.993 | \n
Cd2+ | \n507 | \n0.05 | \n0.997 | \n128 | \n0.27 | \n0.871 | \n2.64.10−4 | \n13 | \n0.991 | \n
Zn2+ | \n578 | \n0.1 | \n0.999 | \n149 | \n0.42 | \n0.832 | \n4.69.10−4 | \n13.63 | \n0.994 | \n
\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | |
Pb2+ | \n509 | \n0.09 | \n0.997 | \n135 | \n0.27 | \n0.836 | \n4.51.10−4 | \n12.82 | \n0.995 | \n
Cd2+ | \n493 | \n0.04 | \n0.998 | \n67 | \n0.41 | \n0.883 | \n3.34.10−4 | \n13.33 | \n0.992 | \n
Zn2+ | \n549 | \n0.09 | \n0.998 | \n140 | \n0.37 | \n0.842 | \n4.57.10−4 | \n13.22 | \n0.993 | \n
Langmuir, Freundlich, and D-R parameters for Pb (II), Cd (II), and Zn (II) adsorption onto mesoporous materials
The Freundlich isotherm is an experiential equation which presumes various affinities for the binding sites on the surface of the adsorbent accompanied by the interactions between adsorbed molecules. The linear form of the Freundlich adsorption isotherm [32] can be communicated as follows Eq. (8):
\nwhere
As can be seen, the adsorption capacity is higher for
The Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) model is a semi-hypothetical equation which is by and large allied to a sorption induced by a pore padding mechanism. This model gives valuable information on the nature of the adsorption process (chemisorption or physisorption) [33]. The linear presentation of the D-R isotherm equation [34] is granted as Eq. (9):
\nwhere
In addition, the magnitude of E (kJ.mol−1) value provided data about the type of adsorption mechanism, either physical or chemical. The maximum adsorption capacity qm, the adsorption free energy E, and the coefficients of linearity are computed and spoken to in Table 5. As observed from the table, the high correlation coefficients (≥ 0.99) propose that the adsorption equilibrium data fitted well the D-R isotherm model. Moreover, the mean adsorption energy values were in the range of 13–14 kJ·mol−1 for all samples. In perspective of the acquired outcomes, it tends to be reasoned that the adsorption processes of metal ions onto the as-prepared xerogels might be proceeded by chemisorption (binding surface functional groups) [35].
\nIt is well known that the column trials were conducted to predict the necessary residence time of effluent treatment with a specific flow rate and concentration (Figure 10).
\nBreakthrough curves for metal ion adsorption onto mesoporous materials
It ought to be stressed that the breakthrough curves characterize the dynamic performance of saturated columns; delineated as the ratio of effluent concentration to influent concentration over time. The time where the pollutant concentration in effluent reached 5% is called breakthrough time (tb); however, the time taken for the effluent concentration to attain 95% of initial pollutant concentration is appealed exhaustion time. The Breakthrough curves for metal ion adsorption onto both adsorbents are portrayed in Figure 6 and their column data are tabulated in Table 6.
\nAs portrayed in Figure 10, all breakthrough curves exhibited an S-shaped profile; besides, earlier breakthrough and exhaustion times were observed for
The regeneration ability is an essential factor for metal recovery and the applicability of adsorbents. The metal charged column was regenerated with 0.1 M HCl (40 mL) and then with 0.5 M HNO3 (20 mL) at a flow rate of 7 mL.min−1. Afterwards, each column was washed with 60 mL of hot deionized water and then dried in an oven at 60°C. The adsorption efficiency of the exhausted column was checked five times. The uptake yield decreased from 96%–94% to 90%–88% for
Adsorption-desorption efficiency of xerogels after 5 cycles: (a)
The mechanism of adsorption can be checked through determining thermodynamic parameters like Gibbs free energy
where
Determination of thermodynamic parameters for the adsorption of metal cations onto the two adsorbents: (a)
\n | Metal | \nBreakthrough time | \nExhaustion time | \nBreakthrough capacity (mg.g−1) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Zn (II) | \n45 | \n185 | \n442 | \n|
Pb (II) | \n42 | \n179 | \n410 | \n|
Cd (II) | \n40 | \n175 | \n403 | \n|
Zn (II) | \n38 | \n175 | \n420 | \n|
Pb (II) | \n36 | \n172 | \n406 | \n|
Cd (II) | \n35 | \n170 | \n394 | \n
Column data for metal ion adsorption.
Pb (II) | \nT(K) | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
293 | \n−22.51 | \n−74.67 | \n−162 .3 | \n|
303 | \n−21.82 | \n|||
313 | \n−20.94 | \n|||
293 | \n−23.92 | \n−62.23 | \n−143.31 | \n|
303 | \n−22 .89 | \n|||
313 | \n−22.19 | \n|||
\n | ||||
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n||
293 | \n−22.08 | \n−69.08 | \n−157.71 | \n|
303 | \n−21.72 | \n|||
313 | \n−21.55 | \n|||
293 | \n−20.72 | \n−59.86 | \n−131.34 | \n|
303 | \n−20 .53 | \n|||
313 | \n−20.39 | \n|||
\n | ||||
\n\n | \n\n\n | \n\n\n | \n||
293 | \n−23.16 | \n−80.12 | \n−172.35 | \n|
303 | \n−22.93 | \n|||
313 | \n−22.75 | \n|||
293 | \n−21.87 | \n−66.74 | \n−152.27 | \n|
303 | \n−21 .64 | \n|||
313 | \n−21.41 | \n
Thermodynamic parameters for heavy metal adsorption onto the two adsorbents
The values of Gibbs free energy change
SEM, FTIR, and XPS analysis have been extensively used to identify the possible metal cation-adsorbent interactions. In order to examine the morphology structure of the adsorbents, SEM micrographs were taken after metal ion adsorption (Figure 13).
\nSEM micrographs of the two adsorbents after metal-ion adsorption.
These micrographs indicated clearly the deformation and the presence of many shiny small particles over the surface of both supports
To gain further insights into the mechanism involved in the metal ions uptake process, the FTIR spectra were analyzed, and the band positions for each adsorbent exposed to metal ions are listed in Table 8.
\nν (cm−1) | \nOH and NH | \nC=N | \nSi▬N | \nS▬H | \nSi▬O | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
M1(pristine) | \n3343–3325 | \n1557 | \n1174 | \n— | \n1058-951-460 | \n
Pb (loaded) | \n3303 | \n1559 | \n1170 | \n— | \n1061-951-464 | \n
Cd (loaded) | \n3310 | \n1561 | \n— | \n— | \n1060-948-462 | \n
Zn (loaded) | \n3307 | \n1558 | \n— | \n— | \n1059-950-459 | \n
M2(pristine) | \n3383 | \n1576 | \n— | \n2680 | \n1134-946-434 | \n
Pb (loaded) | \n3380 | \n1572 | \n— | \n— | \n1131-947-430 | \n
Cd(loaded) | \n3383 | \n1574 | \n— | \n— | \n1132-949-433 | \n
Zn (loaded) | \n3380 | \n1577 | \n— | \n— | \n1135-944-436 | \n
Band positions before and after metal cation adsorption.
In the
To deepen the understanding of the mechanism of metal uptake, XPS analysis before and after metal ion adsorption were performed.
\nAs displayed in Figure 14 a single peak was clearly observed at 398.2 eV, corresponding to the presence of N atom in primary and secondary amine groups. After metal ion adsorption, a new peak with higher binding energy was appeared at about 400.2 eV which may be attributed to the complexation between NH2 and metal ions (R-NH2---M2+). On the other hand, the S2p spectra exhibited a faint peak at 167.3 eV assigned to oxidized sulfur. Another peak was observed at 162.6 eV which corresponds to the unbounded S atom in thiol groups. After metal uptake, the peak ascribed to oxidized sulfur becomes much stronger as well as its ratio area, indicating the ion exchange reaction between (S-H) groups on the
XPS spectra of N1 s and S2p core level spectra before and after metal cation adsorption.
As portrayed in Figure 15, the binding energies for Pb 4f7/2, Cd 3d5/2, and Zn2p3/2 were 137.9 eV, 404.7 eV, and 1021.1 eV, respectively. This result is in agreement with the FTIR analysis which suggests that metal ions form a bidentate complex on amino functionalized xerogel.
\nXPS spectra of Pb4f, Cd 3d, and Zn2p after metal ion adsorption.
The most important part of this work was to evaluate the potential use of both synthesized adsorbents for the treatment of real effluent, via electroplating wastewater. The whole analysis was conducted under the same predetermined conditions (Figure 16). The treatment of paint wastewater utilizing hybrid material is represented in Table 9.
\nEfficiency of the as-prepared xerogels for metal ion removal from electroplating wastewater.
It is obvious that the adsorption rate decreased from 94%–92% to 78%–76% for
The selectivity of the adsorbent increases its interest for commercial use. In this context, the selectivity of the two xerogels was carried out by removing an aqueous solution containing a mixture of three metal ions (Pb (II), Cd (II), and Zn (II)) under the predetermined optimized conditions, that is, pH = 5, t = 60 min, adsorbent mass = 0.015 g, and T = 20°C.
\nIt is apparent from Figure 17 that the adsorption efficiency of the two adsorbents towards different ions exposed the following order (Cd+2 ˂ Pb+2 ˂ Zn+2). The great selectivity of both xerogels for Zn (II) ions could be ascribed to their low hydrolysis constant and high covalent index. In this regard, the as-prepared adsorbents are relevant for practical application under industrial conditions.
\nSelectivity of
The uptake efficiency of the as-prepared xerogels for the removal of three metal ions (Pb (II), Cd (II), and Zn (II)) was compared with other stated adsorbents (Table 10).
\nParameters | \nValues | \nWHO standard | \n
---|---|---|
pH | \n5.8 | \n5.5–6.5 | \n
Temperature | \n27 | \n20–30 | \n
TSS (mg.L−1) | \n419 | \n20 | \n
COD (mg.L−1) | \n320 | \n280 | \n
BOD (mg.L−1) | \n78 | \n40 | \n
Zn (mg.L−1) | \n4.5 | \n5 | \n
Pb (mg.L−1) | \n0.15 | \n0.2 | \n
Cd (mg.L−1) | \n0.08 | \n0.1 | \n
Physicochemical characterization of treated electroplating wastewaters.
Adsorbent | \npH | \nMetal ions | \nqm (mg/g) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
SBA15-NH2 | \n5 | \nPb2+ | \n54.6 | \n[38] | \n
6 | \nPb2+ | \n241.36 | \n[39] | \n|
Amino xerogel | \n5 | \nPb2+ | \n523 | \nThis work | \n
Sulfhydryl xerogel | \n5 | \nPb2+ | \n509 | \nThis work | \n
MIONPs-NH2 | \n6 | \nCd2+ | \n33.72 | \n[40] | \n
MC/Al2O3 | \n3–6 | \nCd2+ | \n49.98 | \n[41] | \n
Amino xerogel | \n5 | \nCd2+ | \n507 | \nThis work | \n
Sulfhydryl xerogel | \n5 | \nCd2+ | \n493 | \nThis work | \n
SiNAL4 | \n6 | \nZn2+ | \n86.51 | \n[42] | \n
SG-MCF | \n6 | \nZn2+ | \n39.96 | \n[43] | \n
Amino xerogel | \n5 | \nZn2+ | \n578 | \nThis work | \n
Sulfhydryl xerogel | \n5 | \nZn2+ | \n549 | \nThis work | \n
Comparison of adsorption capacity of both mesoporous materials
It can be remarkably noted that the synthesized xerogels exhibited considerably higher adsorption capacity for metal cations than other sorbents specified previously.
\nThis pattern might be attributed to high specific surfaces as well as the number of chelating fragments on the surface of the synthesized adsorbents. Besides, the facility of the synthesis method and the lower adsorption parameters such as contact time, pH solution, and adsorbent dosage made them more appropriate for industrial utilization.
\nThe primary targets of this work were to synthesize novel functional organic-inorganic hybrid materials and to check their ability to remove metal ions from aqueous solution. The structural order, morphology, and texture of the prepared hybrid gels were studied by FTIR, 13C CP MAS NMR spectroscopy, SEM, and nitrogen adsorption-desorption analysis.
\nThe adsorption kinetic studies abide by the pseudo second-order model and exhibit a three-stage adsorption process. Moreover, the adsorption rate of metal cation was controlled by the diffusion rate inside the pore. The Langmuir model showed the best fit for the entire experimental data. The free energy values (E) of metal ion adsorption onto
Thermodynamic parameters depicted the spontaneity and the exothermic nature of the adsorption process at 20–40°C. The FTIR and XPS analysis revealed that the chelation between the metal ions and the ligating nitrogen atoms of amino functionalized xerogel was the main mechanism involved in cadmium uptake. Otherwise, the proposed mechanism for lead adsorption onto sulfhydryl xerogel was probably through the ion exchange reaction between metal ions and (▬SH) groups. Prior tests accomplished on electroplating wastewater evinced that the xerogel adsorbents possess an exceptional performance in heavy metal uptake from real wastewater. The findings reported in this work showed that the as-prepared xerogels could be widely applied for treatment of industrial wastewater owing to their cost-effectiveness, prominent reusability, good selectivity, and high adsorption efficiency.
\n“Greenspace” the word itself is so vast for the academicians that it has been used by researchers differently in different contexts. With the revolutions in the research of sustainability, the term “green” not only symbolizes trees and vegetation but is also used as an adjective for environment-friendly built environments and even technologies. In urban planning, the term “greenspace” is referred to as the vegetation cover of the spatial area. Greenspace is an urban space that fulfills various esthetics, air purification, conservation of ecology, etc. Urban green spaces (UGSs) in cities exist as natural or semi-natural, managed parks and gardens, supplemented by scattered vegetation pockets associated with roads and random green spaces [1].
Some traditional and cultural parameters, including health, ecological, social, and recreational, remain a major deterministic factor for the optimum usability of these spaces. These UGS can be accessible or inaccessible within city areas. Accessibility of green spaces is an important aspect to assess its impact. There are many UGS within the city area which are inaccessible to the public, and thus citizens are not able to avail themselves of its best benefits. In such cases, green space may not perform its function. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the context of green spaces in urban planning. To further elaborate the green space, ‘public open spaces’ is another term that can further help understand the concept, functionality, and psychological impact of the population affected by green spaces. UGS include natural elements like green belts, soil, water, parks, etc. have a positive effect on human wellbeing, as shown in Figure 1.
UGS in Chandigarh city, India (Chandigarh is the first the planned city of India by architect-planner Le Corbusier and is famous for its green spaces integration in the master plan). (Source: author).
The sustenance of human life on Earth is entirely due to a natural environment and large biodiversity functions. Fresh air, water, fruits, woodlands and minerals are all provisioned by various ecosystem services. Green spaces in cities serve as a natural gathering place for the community, fostering social interaction and integration. They also promote individuality and belongingness to urban areas. The effectiveness of UGS to attenuate air pollution is enhanced by vegetation density. Urban greenery provides a safe and healthy atmosphere for walking, jogging, and running and a conducive environment for social contact and physical and leisure activities. Consuming the maximum benefits of city greens requires them to remain unaltered by the urban infrastructure such as the buildings, highways, and other infrastructural components. The current times require greens to be planned as ecological functional spaces coexisting to support the human functions of recreation, esthetics, leisure activities and conserving environmental values.
Vacant built-up space remains as elapsed wasteland or gaps between buildings and other constructions. These spaces have a high potential for reconstruction and repurposing by integrating them into the public, and for creating stunning spaces by distinguishing their specific character. For example, the exact characteristic of a former railway track is that it connects two regions and can be renovated into a green corridor. Depending on their location, abandoned areas can be converted into different facilities. Every city has such vacant spaces that are waiting to be adapted to the current urban fabric so that they can be part of the total cityscape.
An environmental justice issue that affects so many communities is the lack of green space. Most cities have green areas throughout them for the health of the citizens. In areas that are predominantly lower income or a minority group tend to have less green space. Green spaces are very important to maintain good air quality and promote exercise [2]. There are many cases of this environmental justice problem that were acknowledged and even fixed. A few examples are Tartu, Estonia, Faro, Portugal, and Phoenix, Arizona. Green space is something everyone should have equal access to, but due to the environmental justice problem certain groups are deprived of easily accessible green space.
Living near a green space might even help you live longer. A scientific review published in The Lancet Planetary Health found urbanites living near a park or a garden had a lower risk of premature passing. In their work, the researchers used a vegetation index to measure the density of greenery in locales. Using their scale, infertile areas composed of rocks or sand would score closer to a zero, while an area like a lush tropical rainforest would score closer to one.
The chapter holistically covers and generalizes concepts and concerns associated with UGS across urban planning domain. The chapter is written based on the review and analysis of secondary data available in the form of published literature from reputed data sources, government reports and based personal observation of the author may during the course of study.
The green space can be differentiated from open space as it constitutes only a two-dimensional land area that has not been modified to buildings, highways, and other infrastructural components. Greens should be mainly classified into an ecological function space (flora and fauna, physical infrastructure (drainage, stormwater management, and water quality conservation), and human function (provision for recreational, aesthetical, emotional, and leisure activities, preservation of environmental values, and solar access). Green space may consist of a vast range of pre-hold and leasehold land tenure with different use and access rights. Green space may also find its share in further land-use planning.
In the early 1700s, garden squares and parks were firstly introduced in urban areas. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the parkway movement, headed by Frederick Law Olmsted, led to the belief that green space was an important cultural and social element of the urban form. The idea of integrating green space into the urban development process came out with the regeneration of the environmental movement in the 1960s [3]. Although public access is defined for various green spaces, green space does not imply public accessibility automatically. Here the green space categories the open spaces which support human socio-cultural and health requirements, biodiversity preservation as well as discussion related to historical green space perspective [4, 5].
There are different types of green spaces like food production areas, national parks, grasslands, green belts, and playfield (like a golf course) that are predominately utilized for corps and live stocks, habitation to animals and medicinal herbs, cattle grazing, the barrier between the pavement and human settlement, and sports activity respectively. Green space categories intermingled with the next one, parks and gardens, where the needs of individuality for recreation and enjoyment are fulfilled [6, 7]. Table 1 shows the Indian UGS typology according to the designated documents with different contexts, categories, classification, and other hierarchies.
Many cities in India have a categorization of spaces that are derived from literature (Table 2). And then, there is a hierarchy of classification of categorized spaces. The planned cities have systematic cataloging of green spaces like the recreational spaces, green areas and tourist areas. Each town has its USP (unique selling point), and it offers the spaces it has according to its function. Table 3 showcases the different cities of India and how they have their green spaces categorized, their further classification and the hierarchy.
Documents | Context | Category | Classification | Hierarchy |
---|---|---|---|---|
UDPFI (1996) | Open spaces | Recreational facilities | Parks and open spaces Sports centers and playgrounds Botanical and zoological parks Water bodies/other natural features Places of tourist interest | Housing cluster Sector Community District Sub-city center |
URDPFI (2014) | Open spaces | Recreational space Organized green Other common spaces (such as vacant lands/open spaces including flood plains, forest cover etc. In plain areas) | Recreational | Recreational P-1 Playgrounds/stadium/sports complex P-2 parks and gardens—public open spaces P-3 multi-open space (Maidan) Organized green Housing cluster Neighborhood Community District/zone Sub-city center |
Urban Green Guideline (2014) | Green spaces | Urban greens | Reserved forest Protected forest District park Neighborhood park Tot-lots Playgrounds Green belts (buffer) Green strip | Tot lot Playground Neighborhood park Community park |
Indian UGS typology.
Typology | International typology | Indian typology |
---|---|---|
Amenity green space | Recreational green space Parks and gardens Outdoor sports areas Green street space Private green space Green roofs Courtyard Greenery at housing estates Greenery at commercial buildings | Reserved forests Protected forests National parks Sanctuary |
Functional green space | Green trail Car parking space Pedestrian area Stormwater retention area Old landfills/dumps Productive green space Remnant farmland City farms Cemeteries/churchyards | City parks District parks Neighborhood parks Tot lots |
Linear green space and open spaces | River and canal banks Transport corridors—road/rails | Green belts (buffers) Green strips Transport corridors |
Natural and semi-natural spaces | Wetlands Woodlands Vacant land Post-industrial land | Playgrounds |
Green corridors | Tree belts Canal and riverbanks Disused railways | |
Allotments, community gardens, and urban farms | Allotments Community gardens City farms | |
Outdoor sports facilities | School playing fields Community playing fields | |
Provision for children and young people | Facilities for young people Community parks Children’s play area | |
Privately usable areas | Facade greening Roof garden Front garden Courtyard Balcony | |
Leisure areas | Campsite Multifunctional leisure facility Sports ground | |
Eco-sensitive areas | Waterlogged Marshy Swampy |
Categorization of green spaces according to the typology.
City name | Categorization of spaces | Classification of categorized spaces | Hierarchy of classification of categorized spaces |
---|---|---|---|
Jaipur | Recreational space/tourism zone | G1 eco sensitive areas G2 green zones G3 parks | Parks Gardens Stadium Sports ground |
Jodhpur | Recreational space | Parks and open spaces Stadium and play grounds Fair and tourism Public entertainment | No further classification |
Sriganganagar | Recreational space | Parks, open spaces and playground stadium | No further classification |
Chandigarh | Recreational space/green areas | Sports facilities Cremation ground Cultural facilities | Organized open space Forest Agriculture |
Naya Raipur | Recreational space | Open spaces | Film city Parks and play areas Stadium and sports complex Nature resort/theme park Reserved forest Botanical park, jungle safari |
Lucknow | Recreational space/green areas | Parks and open spaces | No classification |
Pune | Recreational space | Community hall Museum/theaters Parks and open spaces | No classification |
Varanasi | Recreational space | Gardens, open spaces and urban forest | No classification |
Panaji | Recreational space | City level parks and playgrounds | Housing area park Neighborhood park Community park District park |
Pudducherry | Recreational space/tourism zone | Open space | Parks Gardens Stadium |
Categorization of green spaces according to the typology.
Figure 2 shows an overall view of UGS and countries’ happiness worldwide. This map highlights regional differences in the green space distribution due to climate; countries near the Equator in tropical climates have relatively high UGSs, while countries in the 20–30 latitude range have exceptionally low UGSs due to the dry climate. The UGS increases with latitude in higher-latitude regions. On the other hand, Northern and Western European and North American countries display relatively high happiness scores. Western Asian countries also show relatively high happiness with a low UGS, indicating that the relationship between happiness and green space is not trivial.
UGS and happiness index of countries worldwide (a) The map of urban green space and happiness in 60 developed countries. The size and color of circles represent the level of happiness and urban green space in a country, respectively. The markers are placed on the most populated cities of each country. (b) Histogram of happiness (c) Histogram of UGS (d) Histogram of log-GDP.
The distribution of UGS and happiness over the world. (a) The map of UGS and happiness in 60 developed countries. The size and color of circles represent the level of happiness and UGS in a country, respectively. The markers are placed on the most populated cities of each country. (b)–(d) The histograms of (b) happiness, (c) UGS and (d) logarithmic GDP per capita (log-GDP). We use the logarithm of the total NDVI per capita as an indicator of UGS and the logarithm of GDP per capita as a measure of wealth.
The usage of Greenspace for recreation and leisure purposes led to the identification of its economic, cultural, environmental, and social values, which further increased the attention on its management and planning. In this chapter, the focus is on the relationship of Greenspace to human interaction on various levels of livability, recreational purposes and improved quality of life. The other perspective describes urban vegetation, such as parks, yards, and gardens related to a green stuff kind of open space. This perspective may be defined as a subsidiary of a comprehensive notion of Greenspace, i.e., limited to the built-up environment subsection of open space.
UGS are critical for making our cities sustainable and energy-efficient [8]. However, for UGS to contribute to the optimum, they have to be planned, designed, developed and managed/maintained appropriately so that they are accessible both in terms of area and population coverage. It is a fact that urbanization in India will continue unabated. The Urban Greenspaces generate diverse ecosystems of substantial significance for human wellbeing and human activities, shaping their dynamics. Many green spaces in cities disconnected from the wider environment tend to lose biodiversity due to continuous construction activities. Hence, protecting green spaces in isolation will often fail to sustain the capacity of urban ecosystems to generate value and have to be well integrated into the overall city landscape.
Figure 3 shows the distribution, parts and sub-parts of the UGS.
Synonymous nature of UGS.
Furthermore, the socio-cultural, functional, health-related aspects are labeled for a specific place, i.e., “Greenspace”, as a park or recreational area [9]. Sprawling population, commerce, industries, transportation accelerated the gross domestic production, varied product availability to the consumers, and more excellent connectivity. With the high-rise demand of time, the researchers explored the correlation between these sectors and related aspects of “Greenspace”.
Typology | Definition |
---|---|
Natural land | Unoccupied/unused lands, left unturned by the authorities or the locals, come under this category. Grasslands are also a big part of the natural land group. |
Green belts | Green belts of buffers include green girdle, park belt, rural belt, agricultural belt, country belt etc., which generally refers to a stretch between towns or regions separating one from the other. These areas are dominantly farmlands as they support agriculture and related functions. Green belts are established to keep in check the growth of the built-up regions, preserve neighboring towns from merging and also maintain a unique character of a town. |
National parks | National park is an area that is protected and conserved due to the presence of remarkable natural flora, fauna, geological formations and natural scenic spots. |
Reserved forests | Area duly notified under the Indian Forest Act, 1927 or the State Forest Acts having complete protection. All activities inside are prohibited unless expressly permitted. |
Protected forests | They are found in urban and peri-urban areas secured by fencing or constructing a compound wall, or both. Here no construction activity is allowed. |
District parks | It is a designated term per the hierarchy of green spaces in an urban city. It is a prominent use of a vast green area and developed as a crucial green space in a city. As per UDPFI guidelines, one district park serves 500,000 of the population in plain areas. |
Typology | Definition |
---|---|
Campsite leisure | Land that is dedicated to camping acquires a significant part of the green space category, especially in the trekking zones of any country |
Wetlands/marshy land | A wetland is a part of the ecosystem flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally. Wetlands are considered amongst the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal species. |
Functional green space | Spaces like cemeteries, pedestrian area, landfills, farms, etc., are functional green spaces. These areas acquire land which is usable for the users. |
Playing fields | As part of any institution/university/school, fields serve as a decent open area for any city. It enables the users to use it for any leisure/formal purposes. |
Typology | Definition |
---|---|
Linear green space | Areas like pedestrians, river canals, street trees are included in Linear Green Space. It adds to the esthetic and usability value of any city. |
Green stripe | A green strip is developed on vacant land, for instance, land under high tension power supply lines. It is also developed along the arterial roads, separating residential areas from other land uses. |
Green roof/facade | Green roofs are the most popularly deployed form of roofs; they are generally lightweight and low cost. They are purposely fitted or cultivated with vegetation. They are also be known as living roofs, eco-roofs or vegetated roofs. They can reduce both heating and cooling loads in buildings. This has positive implications in terms of their energy consumption. The green roofs and facades increase the esthetic value of the scape. |
Neighborhoods parks | It is developed at the neighborhoods level for a population of 10,000. Neighborhoods Parks are conveniently located within the developed residential areas, preferably within walking distance. It is planned on a site of 2000−4000 m2 |
Indian city | Typology |
---|---|
Chandigarh: The capital city has a forest and tree cover of 35.5% in its 114-km2 area. Chandigarh has become the greenest city in the country. The tree cover saved the city from becoming an all-concrete jungle, a fate that has overcome many Indian towns. | The green belts of Chandigarh also facilitate a healthy population of diverse birds. The parks along the spine of Chandigarh include Rajendra Park, Bougainvillea Garden, Leisure Valley Garden, Zakir Rose Garden, Shanti Kunj, Bamboo Valley Garden, Bulbous Hibiscus Garden, Fragrance Garden and Dahlia Garden. |
See Figure 4.
Indian city | Typology |
---|---|
Delhi: The capital of India is one of the greenest capitals in the world due to the consistent emphasis on greening and strict monitoring of tree cutting. | Recently, the parks and garden society has been set up to coordinate the greening activities in Delhi. The city has some well-maintained parks and gardens like Lodhi Gardens, Mughal Gardens, Deer Park, Budha Jayanti Smarak Park, Indraprastha Millennium Park and The Garden of Five Senses besides the Ridge. |
Plan of Chandigarh.
See Figure 5.
City abroad | Typology |
---|---|
New York – Central Park: Central Park is an urban park in New York City located between Manhattan’s Upper West and Upper East Sides. It is the fifth-largest park in the city, covering 843 acres (341 ha). It is the most visited urban Park in the United States, with an estimated 42 million visitors annually as of 2016, and is the most filmed location in the world. | The Park has natural-looking plantings and landforms, having been almost entirely landscaped when built in the 1850s and 1860s. It has eight lakes and ponds created artificially by damming natural seeps and flows. Several wooded sections, lawns, meadows, and minor grassy areas. There are 21 children’s playgrounds and 6.1 miles (9.8 km) of drives. |
Plan of Delhi.
See Figure 6.
City abroad | Typology |
---|---|
London – Hyde Park: Hyde Park is famous for being the largest Park in Central Park and the royal parks of London and its speaker’s corners. | Hyde Park is a Grade I-listed major park in Central London. It is the largest of four Royal Parks that form a chain from the entrance of Kensington Palace through Kensington Gardens and Hyde Park, via Hyde Park Corner and Green Park, past the main entrance to Buckingham Palace. The Park is divided by the Serpentine and the Long Water lakes. |
Plan of New York Central Park.
See Figure 7.
Plan of London Hyde Park.
Different direct accessibility Greenspace typologies provide ecological benefits such as ambient temperature, air and noise pollution reduction, water harvesting, and a barrier between pavement and locality. Green Space provides indirect health benefits instead of direct benefits. These green spaces offer various herbs, vegetables, cereals, fruits, etc., supporting human health. Flourished greenspaces promote tourism, health wellness product vending and fetch high real sale values for the properties near parks and greenways. Apart from these direct benefits, many researchers have established many indirect benefits of Greenspace, which will be discussed later in this chapter.
Recreation opportunities, Areas that are culturally and historically valuable. It has an impact on physical and mental health. Green spaces provide a refreshing contrast to the harsh shape, color, and texture of buildings and stimulate the senses with their simple color, sound and smell. Particular types of green space may offer a bigger diversity of land uses and opportunities for a wide range of activities, help to foster active lifestyles, and can be of real benefit to health.
Green Spaces add to the Landscape features of any cityscape; screened views are formed from different angles of the city. Growing trees and experiencing nature is a path to a positive passive lifestyle.
Air pollution reduction, Sound Control, Glare and Reflection reduction. Impacts on urban climate through temperature and humidity control. Urban forests act as temperature buffers providing shade in the summer and windbreaks in the winter in addition to reducing noise pollution and CO2 levels and providing a habitat for wildlife [10]. Urban greening improves air, water, and land resources by absorbing air pollutants, increasing water catchment in floodplain surfaces, and stabilizing soils.
Biotopes for flora and fauna in any urban environment is benefitted and, in turn, help the environment. Trees absorb pollutants; moderate the impact of humans, absorbing pollutants and releasing oxygen. They contribute to maintaining a healthy urban environment by providing clean air, water and soil. Green vegetation has been shown to lower wall surface temperatures by 17°C, which led to a reduced air conditioning load by an average of 50%. They improve the urban microclimate and maintain the balance of the city’s natural urban environment [11]. They preserve the local natural and cultural heritage by providing habitats for various wildlife and conserving a diversity of urban resources.
Tourism is increased due to the aesthetical change in any scape. The property value is increased—the value of market-prices benefits [12]. Property owners value urban greenery by the premium they pay to live in the neighborhood of UGS and public parks. Plots and flats adjoining Park add to the value. In densely populated areas, this effect is even more noticeable. For example, the view of green spaces and proximity to water bodies increases the real estate prices. The impact of neighborhood parks on the transaction price of multi-storied residential units in cities illustrates that neighborhood parks could increase the cost.
Humans appear to adapt to almost anything in their environment, including air pollution, noise and environmental dullness. Man’s apparent ability to adapt may be his most significant liability. On the one hand, it allows him to adjust to slowly developing adverse conditions; on the other, it could easily threaten his survival. Adaptability permits human adjustment to damaging environmental circumstances we aren’t aware of. When environmental conditions deteriorate to a point where they are readily apparent, it may be too late to reverse the cycle. If an individual has a feeling of wellbeing in the built environment that surrounds him, it is reflected in his activities. The type of space that covers us can either stimulate or be in habitus. Some have tried to isolate how spaces (man-made and open space) play a behavior role in our way of life and specific ways of thinking. While these studies can be rationalized from many perspectives, a case can be made that the type and amount of spaces in our urban areas do, to some degree, shape our social behavior. As urban life becomes more stressful, the more significant the influence of open space [13]. Stress is most pronounced in low-income neighborhoods.
Higher-income neighborhoods outside our major cities tend to be less densely populated, which may reduce the resident’s perceived need for public open space. Often, the lower a neighborhood’s economic scale is, the less likely it becomes for that neighborhood to have the available space and recreational activities required for good physical and mental development.
Placing an economic value on urban open space related to public benefits is a difficult task. Land value in a free enterprise system depends on supply and demand. The value of the real estate is directly proportional to the market demand, potential use, and rights of ownership within its geographic locality. Publicly owned open space used for recreation does not fit into the regular private land market. The parcel’s value as open space cannot be measured in dollars in the same way as land or improvements for a commercial venture.
One method of estimating the economic value of public open space is to monitor the success of a program and determine the revenue that is directly or indirectly generated by it [14]. At the same time, public parks are primarily supported by tax dollars appropriated through the general fund.
More indirectly, open space generates revenues by enhancing the value of adjacent private properties. For example, a 1977 study in Chicago concluded that property prices were $1000 higher for parcels within one block of an urban park as compared to a similar area. Hammer [15] estimated that for each acre of a public park adjacent to a stream, sur-rounding private property values would increase an average of $2600.
Ecological considerations directly related to land and resource preservation often are neglected. These include the function of open space for water-shed management, environmental quality, and esthetic appreciation.
Greenbelts adjacent to natural water bodies can reduce sedimentation, increase preservation, reduce the need for excessive flood control projects and lessen flood damage [16]. Areas of open space can:
Ensure groundwater recharge.
Improve water quality by reducing soil erosion and sedimentation.
Increase recreational benefits, such as nature study, fishing and boating.
Sustain wetlands, which provide wildlife habitats.
Absorb peak water discharge and naturally filter some of the suspended pollutants.
Keep lake and stream levels more constant over the entire year.
Enhance the community appearance.
The benefits of green spaces for our cities are well documented, but they are seldom given desired attention with other computing land uses such as the residential, commercial and industrial use within the urban planning process. Negligence by planning authorities and decision-makers results in not meeting the quantitative and qualitative standards of green spaces and results in their unequal distribution on the spatial scale. Inaccessible green spaces within urban centers also raise concerns regarding city dwellers’ utilization. Primarily new developments in urban centers diminish the future opportunities for recreational provision, and most often, the existing green spaces are not very well managed. Various UGS planning and management issues are thus identified in the subsequent subsections.
The quality of green space is a critical determinant to assess its value to the urban population. In generic terms, the quality of green space is understood in terms of its esthetic outlook and the level of facilities served by it. But in the spatial planning domain, the density of vegetation and the spread of tree crowns can be realized as they essentially lead to the several ecological and social benefits associated with green space. Improved physical and mental health, reduced stress levels, and increased happiness and satisfaction amongst citizens indicate the existence of superior quality greens in the city. Scenarios of degenerating UGS quality are well reported across many cities [17]. The city of Bengaluru in India has seen a decrease of 78% in green cover over the course of four decades, along with its deteriorating quality. These scenarios can be related to rising accounts of air pollution, obesity, shrinking health, and social and psychological collapse amongst the citizens. Overall degenerating quality of the greens and cities can be associated with multiple factors such as lack of maintenance, not choosing native trees, urban sprawl on green belts and ecological areas, deterioration of green riverfronts and loss of biodiversity in forests.
Policy frameworks in an urban planning setup are intended to guide associated decision-makers in the field towards achieving suitable outcomes related to various city infrastructures. Provision, maintenance and broadening of appropriate green covers in cities require policy measures supporting the existence and promotion of several ecosystem services delivered by UGS. Recommendations made by World Health Organization (WHO) suggests the availability of a minimum of 9 m2 of green space per person, ceases the intent at large of appropriate green space provision policy as it follows the ‘one size fits all approach and neglects varying physical and social circumstances across world cities [18]. Furthermore, catering to large densities in urban centres, many cities fail to meet the standard. For example, (see Table 4) amongst many Indian cities, only a few cities like Chandigarh, Delhi, and Bangalore meet the WHO standard, and numerous like Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, Chennai, and Hyderabad miss it on a large scale.
City | City area (km2) | City population in million (census 2011) | Area of UGS (km2) | Per capita UGS (m2 per person) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chandigarh | 114 | 1.05 | 50 | 47.37 |
Delhi | 1484 | 16.34 | 324.44 | 19.84 |
Bangalore | 709 | 8.43 | 150 | 17.80 |
Mumbai | 735 | 18.45 | 122 | 6.61 |
Ahmedabad | 464 | 5.57 | 21.8 | 3.91 |
Surat | 326.5 | 4.46 | 11.84 | 3.32 |
Chennai | 176 | 8.69 | 11 | 1.26 |
Hyderabad | 172 | 7.75 | 8.72 | 0.88 |
Per capita UGS in Indian cities.
Source: author.
The Ministry of Urban Development sets out urban and regional development plan formulation and implementation (URDPFI) guidelines for, Government of India and suggests appropriate urban development standards. It identifies UGS as part of organized greens within the city’s social infrastructure and categorizes them based upon their spatial hierarchy as housing area, neighborhood, community, district and sub-city parks (see Table 5). The population to be served per unit and associated area requirements are mentioned within these categories. Such standards meet the quantitative aspects of UGS, but attention to their physical distribution and accessibility in regards to providing the serving radius is missed out.
S. no. | Category | Population served per unit | Area requirement (ha) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Housing area park | 5000 | 0.50 |
2 | Neighborhood park | 15,000 | 1.00 |
3 | Community park | 1,00,000 | 5.00 |
4 | District park | 5,00,000 | 25.00 |
5 | Sub city park | 10,00,000 | 100.00 |
Categories of UGS in Indian cities as per URDPFI guidelines.
Source: URDPFI, volume 1.
Indian cities broadly vary in topography, and thus while setting out UGS standards and policy measures, it is crucial to incorporate their diverse local climate context and cultural practices, which these standards miss out on largely.
Developing the proper functionality of an UGS is vital to make it enduring. In the context of UGS associating them with the recreational programming during the planning process, it drives them to become more functionally sound and exciting and vibrant for citizens use. But a large number of green spaces in urban centers lack on this front as greens existing across the riverfront, green belts and even large cities scale greens are usually found with the least footfall and thus are encroached by slums and squatters [19]. Even in low hierarchy greens such as local or neighborhood parks, the absence of supporting recreational amenities such as sitting area, walking pathways, sports facilities, biking trails, open gyms, etc. are either not found or are not so well maintained. One of the studies in the Alexandria city of Egypt brings forth the lack of recreational programming of UGS and how it negatively affects the usability of city greens by the urban citizens (see Figure 8).
Inappropriate recreational programming in Al Shalalat park Alexandria, Egypt. (Source: 2003; De Sousa; thinking brownfields into green space in the city of Toronto).
Improving the UGS scenarios in our cities requires strategic measures with the coordinated efforts of all decision-makers and the stakeholder’s participation. These measures would intend to improve the qualitative and quantitative structure of urban greens in our cities, ensuring equitable distribution and making the greens accessible for citizens. Improving the planning process, strengthening the spatial data, enhancing quality greens, applying ecological principles, using altered greening practices and promoting public participation are discussed in the subsections below as the strategies for UGS improvements.
UGS assists sustainable development by being environmentally, socially and economically viable. The accustomed green planning process involves using standards approach wherein a set of standards are used while deciding greens provision. The standards approach ensures enough green spaces exist in cities, but it often compromises other vital aspects. UGS should be of satisfactory quality, adequate quantity, well-distributed and variably accessible [19, 20]. The process of determining standards should be appropriate for the greens’ of the greens and should be custom made. They are using local intensive methods such as neighborhood index which are more suitable for the green planning process. The planning process needs to be flexible enough to take in the political change occurring in the cities and should integrate a multi-disciplinary approach involving natural, social, economic, planning, and legal components.
UGS are a system of ever-evolving complexity, and to plan them effectively, spatial information is required that is fine, vigorous, and constantly updated. Geographic Information System (GIS) is one such tool that processes the geospatial data from satellite imagery, aerial photography and remote sensors helping to understand the current green spaces needs. It puts together vast amounts of spatial information and thus assists in analyzing the areas of priorities for UGS and determining the feasibility of developing new green sites in our cities [21]. In GIS, one can run numbers on queries, monitor fluctuations, predict environmental effects and thus help urban planners seek amplified visibility into the available data. Improved public participation is also achieved by using GIS tools for planning UGS, as people can get to know the actual ground reality to be achieved.
For adequate UGS planning, the existing green spaces in the city need to be addressed first. The stub semi-natural land with quality vegetation and varied, rich species can produce sound recreational and biodiverse spaces. The choice of vegetation plays a crucial role in determining and enhancing the quality of greens in a space. Choosing a natural species composition that supplements the biodiversity of the area is required. In cities undergoing densification, innovative greening techniques such as green roofs, green walls, street sites, and renaturation are very beneficial to improving green quality [22]. On an architectural scale, green needs to be saved by making effective plans. Also, site trees should not be cut during the construction phase. Proper distribution of UGS within the cities should be ensured to enhance their accessibility and visibility. Efforts to green the city streets should be made using various shrub species in order to improve the overall quality of UGS.
The efficacious planning of city greens can be achieved by utilizing ecological principles such as greenways, green fingers, and green belts. Using these principles aims at availing the optimal use of UGS geometry, thus enhancing their accessibility and diversity. Greenways act as a UGS management tool and are usually developed linearly across cities, contributing effectively to city greens. They are created along roads, railways, rivers and ridges helping to preserve green spaces and bring green vegetation into urban areas. Green fingers are conceptualized in the shape of human fingers and have green spaces set in a radial form spreading from city centre to periphery [23]. They bring green vegetation into the core of settlements and their adjoining areas, enabling citizens easy access to UGS. Green belts are set out to act as a protective mechanism checking the outward growth of cities. They are usually created in a ring form at city outskirts to prevent urban sprawl. They also acted as city boundaries separating one city from another. They contributed mainly to preserving city vegetation by safeguarding peripheral land for agriculture, forestry and recreation.
Within compact, dense cities, the land availability is less and thus, altering greening practices are required to fulfill the cities UGS requirements. In such cases practice of green roofs and walls comes to the rescue. Green roofs are the roof of a building covered with vegetation [19]. They not just provide esthetically pleasing landscapes but also create a habitat for wildlife and lower air temperature and mitigate the urban heat island effect. Providing green roofs increases property value in addition to many other benefits. Green wall, on the other hand, is a vertical greening typology wherein the walls are covered with vegetation. It can be used to enhance green spaces on land by using effective multi-level greenery designs. To encourage more and more people to use green roofs and walls, various policy measures in terms of economic incentives and tax exemption is required. Also, spreading environmental knowledge regarding them will increase the willingness of more people to implement these alternative greening measures.
The end-users of the UGS are city residents, and thus it is essential to involve them in the planning process. Public participation programs need to be thoughtfully planned and provide all the necessary information to the stakeholders. The urban planners and decision makers need to be open-minded and committed to considering the stakeholder’s inputs. To have active participation, the stakeholders need to explain the decision-making process and have a visual presentation clearly. For effective public participation, the demographic structure of the area needs to be identified, and further, the goals for UGS needs to be set accordingly [24]. Developing a questionnaire based on the area profile, demographics and UGS requirements should be formulated. To educate the citizens regarding UGS, workshops, seminars, and expert discussions can be conducted, which will also help the decision makers better identify local needs and demands.
With the rapid urbanization occurring in our cities, the need for sustainable development is more than ever. UGS are significant contributors to sustainable development as they provide us with several ecological services. They assist carbon sequestration, reduce the urban heat island effect, act as a barrier for noise pollution and bring down air pollution. The built environment is majorly affected by the UGS as they comprise recreational spaces for citizens that promote social inclusion in communities. Urban planners play a significant role in the provision of UGS in our cities. They are the primary decision-makers guided by the various standards, policies, laws and legislations. But most of the time, UGS seldomly take a back seat in the planning process over other land use such as residential, commercial, industrial and institutional. Therefore, it is essential for urban planning to address the challenges associated with UGS and suggest various strategies and measures. Indian cities face many challenges with the incredible pace of urbanization, such as less quantity of UGS and inappropriate quality. UGS is not equitably distributed in many cities and is not easily accessible [25]. The intended purpose not being served causes dissatisfaction amongst the city residents. To improve the situation of UGS in our cities, it is utterly vital to improve the planning process and at the same time strengthen the spatial data available to the decision-makers [26]. It is primarily important to work on enhancing the quality of UGS and incorporate various ecological principles available to us in the planning process. In cities undergoing densification and reduced land availability, alternative greening practices such as green roofs and walls can be of great help. Above people are all that avail the UGS, so it’s imperative to involve them in the planning process. It is equally essential for the youth to take this up in their hands of responsibility, and that is only possible if they have been given a chance, ensured support and most importantly, allotted funds for improving the UGS.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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Shirazi, Afshin Zarghi, Farzad Kobarfard, Rezvan Zendehdel, Maryam Nakhjavani, Sara Arfaiee, Tannaz Zebardast, Shohreh Mohebi, Nassim Anjidani, Azadeh Ashtarinezhad and Shahram Shoeibi",authors:[{id:"50146",title:"Dr",name:"Shohreh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohebi",slug:"shohreh-mohebi",fullName:"Shohreh Mohebi"},{id:"56704",title:"Dr.",name:"Farshad",middleName:null,surname:"Hosseini Shirazi",slug:"farshad-hosseini-shirazi",fullName:"Farshad Hosseini Shirazi"},{id:"56708",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Nakhjavani",slug:"maryam-nakhjavani",fullName:"Maryam Nakhjavani"},{id:"56709",title:"Dr.",name:"Rezvan",middleName:null,surname:"Zendehdel",slug:"rezvan-zendehdel",fullName:"Rezvan Zendehdel"},{id:"56710",title:"Dr.",name:"Azadeh",middleName:null,surname:"Ashtarinezhad",slug:"azadeh-ashtarinezhad",fullName:"Azadeh Ashtarinezhad"},{id:"56711",title:"Dr.",name:"Nassim",middleName:null,surname:"Anjidani",slug:"nassim-anjidani",fullName:"Nassim Anjidani"},{id:"108737",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Arfaei",slug:"sara-arfaei",fullName:"Sara Arfaei"},{id:"108810",title:"Dr.",name:"Afshin",middleName:null,surname:"Zarghi",slug:"afshin-zarghi",fullName:"Afshin Zarghi"},{id:"108811",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzad",middleName:null,surname:"Kobarfard",slug:"farzad-kobarfard",fullName:"Farzad Kobarfard"},{id:"108812",title:"Dr.",name:"Tannaz",middleName:null,surname:"Zebardast",slug:"tannaz-zebardast",fullName:"Tannaz Zebardast"},{id:"119771",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahram",middleName:null,surname:"Shoeibi",slug:"shahram-shoeibi",fullName:"Shahram Shoeibi"}]},{id:"23376",doi:"10.5772/21984",title:"Heterogeneity of Phenotype in Breast Cancer Cell Lines",slug:"heterogeneity-of-phenotype-in-breast-cancer-cell-lines",totalDownloads:2908,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"329",slug:"breast-cancer-carcinogenesis-cell-growth-and-signalling-pathways",title:"Breast Cancer",fullTitle:"Breast Cancer - Carcinogenesis, Cell Growth and Signalling Pathways"},signatures:"Bruce C. Baguley and Euphemia Leung",authors:[{id:"45751",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruce",middleName:null,surname:"Baguley",slug:"bruce-baguley",fullName:"Bruce Baguley"},{id:"45766",title:"Dr.",name:"Ephemia",middleName:null,surname:"Leung",slug:"ephemia-leung",fullName:"Ephemia Leung"}]},{id:"53532",doi:"10.5772/66989",title:"Nanobiotechnology for Breast Cancer Treatment",slug:"nanobiotechnology-for-breast-cancer-treatment",totalDownloads:2790,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Despite many technological breakthroughs, even the best breast cancer treatments available today are not 100% effective. Chemotherapy has improved, but many drugs still do not reach the tumor site at effective doses and are often associated with high systemic toxicity and poor pharmacokinetics. Moreover, for many malignancies, diagnosis is obtainable only in metastatic stages of development, reducing the overall effectiveness of treatment. The choice of available treatments depends on tumor characteristics such as biomarkers, tumor size, metastatic disease, ligands, and antigen or endocrine receptor expression. Combined with surgical resection, chemotherapy and radiation remain the first line of treatment for patients with cancer. Even with these treatments, however, cancer continues to have high fatality rates and current therapeutic modalities have yet to significantly improve the often dismal prognosis of this disease. Nanotechnology is a highly focused approach, which may provide more effective and less toxic treatment when compared to chemotherapy. This area of research has emerged as cancer treatment in the form of new drugs and has reached promising results in preclinical and clinical trials proving its value as a potential tumor therapy.",book:{id:"5431",slug:"breast-cancer-from-biology-to-medicine",title:"Breast Cancer",fullTitle:"Breast Cancer - From Biology to Medicine"},signatures:"Márcia Rocha, Natalia Chaves and Sônia Báo",authors:[{id:"147895",title:"Dr.",name:"Sônia Nair",middleName:null,surname:"Báo",slug:"sonia-nair-bao",fullName:"Sônia Nair Báo"},{id:"190527",title:"MSc.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Chaves",slug:"natalia-chaves",fullName:"Natalia Chaves"},{id:"190529",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcia",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira Da Rocha",slug:"marcia-oliveira-da-rocha",fullName:"Marcia Oliveira Da Rocha"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53856",title:"Early-Stage Progression of Breast Cancer",slug:"early-stage-progression-of-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:1684,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Breast cancer can be defined as a group of diseases with heterogeneous origins, molecular profiles and behaviors characterized by uncontrolled proliferation of cells within the mammary tissue. Around one in eight women in the US will develop breast cancer in their lifetime, making it the second most frequently diagnosed cancer behind skin cancer [1]. In 2015, an estimated 231,840 cases of invasive carcinoma were diagnosed, and over 40,000 deaths were caused by breast cancer which accounts for almost 7% of all cancer mortality each year. In 2015, 60,290 cases of in situ breast cancer were diagnosed, representing over 14% of all new cancer cases among women and men. The steep increase in diagnosis of early‐stage breast cancer over the past 10 years is believed to be a result of more frequent mammography. However, since over half of these in situ lesions will not progress to invasive breast cancer, controversies have arisen about approaches to treatment and prevention of progression of early‐stage in situ breast cancer. Understanding the mechanisms of transition of normal breast to in situ pre‐neoplastic lesions and invasive breast cancer is currently a major focus of breast cancer research with implications for preventive and clinical management of breast cancer. In this review, we give an overview of current knowledge on the molecular and pathological changes that occur during early‐stage progression of breast cancer and describe some of the current models that are used to study this process.",book:{id:"5431",slug:"breast-cancer-from-biology-to-medicine",title:"Breast Cancer",fullTitle:"Breast Cancer - From Biology to Medicine"},signatures:"William Kietzman, Anna T. Riegel and Virginie Ory",authors:[{id:"190578",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Riegel",slug:"anna-riegel",fullName:"Anna Riegel"},{id:"190580",title:"Dr.",name:"Virginie",middleName:null,surname:"Ory",slug:"virginie-ory",fullName:"Virginie Ory"},{id:"190583",title:"MSc.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Kietzman",slug:"william-kietzman",fullName:"William Kietzman"}]},{id:"23391",title:"Scleroderma and Breast Cancer",slug:"scleroderma-and-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:6205,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"329",slug:"breast-cancer-carcinogenesis-cell-growth-and-signalling-pathways",title:"Breast Cancer",fullTitle:"Breast Cancer - Carcinogenesis, Cell Growth and Signalling Pathways"},signatures:"Adamantios Michalinos, Michalis Kontos and Ian S. Fentiman",authors:[{id:"119147",title:"Prof.",name:"Ian",middleName:null,surname:"Fentiman",slug:"ian-fentiman",fullName:"Ian Fentiman"}]},{id:"52969",title:"Histopathological Characteristics: Clinical Course of Breast Cancer Subtypes Depending on the ER(+) (−)/PR(+) (−) Receptor Status",slug:"histopathological-characteristics-clinical-course-of-breast-cancer-subtypes-depending-on-the-er-pr-r",totalDownloads:1890,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Breast cancer patients were divided into separate groups, which were the estrogen receptor (ER)+/progesterone receptor (PR)+ HER2−, the ER or PR+ HER2−, the ER+/PR+ HER2+, the ER or PR+ HER2+, the ER−/PR− HER2−, and the ER−/PR− HER2+ groups. Patients with the ER/PR(+)/HER2− subtype breast cancers show better clinical prognosis compared to the hormone-negative, triple-negative (TN), and HER2+ subtypes. TN, HER2+ tumors in postmenopausal women were of higher grade, showing lymph node and lymphovascular invasion with poor prognosis in all case series. However, the ER+/PR−/HER2+ subgroup had the lowest survival rates in 2- and 5-year follow-ups. Comparison between the ER+PR+HER2+ and ER+PR−HER2− subgroups showed that HER2− status is an indicator of improved prognosis in long-term follow-up. Single hormone receptor (HR)(+) status, particularly HER2(−) cases, was in between the favorable and poor survival subgroups. The ER−, PR−, and HER2+ properties were found to be risk factors for frequent recurrences. In this chapter, breast cancer subtypes are compared with each other. Results from different studies highlight the importance of ER/PR/HER2 receptor variations in the choice of treatment and prognosis of breast cancer.",book:{id:"5431",slug:"breast-cancer-from-biology-to-medicine",title:"Breast Cancer",fullTitle:"Breast Cancer - From Biology to Medicine"},signatures:"Nilufer Bulut",authors:[{id:"189255",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nilufer",middleName:null,surname:"Bulut",slug:"nilufer-bulut",fullName:"Nilufer Bulut"}]},{id:"42313",title:"HER2-Driven Carcinogenesis: New Mouse Models for Novel Immunotherapies",slug:"her2-driven-carcinogenesis-new-mouse-models-for-novel-immunotherapies",totalDownloads:4490,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"2883",slug:"oncogene-and-cancer-from-bench-to-clinic",title:"Oncogene and Cancer",fullTitle:"Oncogene and Cancer - From Bench to Clinic"},signatures:"Cristina Marchini, Lucia Pietrella, Cristina Kalogris, Chiara Garulli, Federico Gabrielli, Elena Quaglino, Manuela Iezzi, Serenella M. 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Pupa"}]},{id:"42310",title:"MLL Gene Alterations in Acute Myeloid Leukaemia (11q23/MLL+ AML)",slug:"mll-gene-alterations-in-acute-myeloid-leukaemia-11q23-mll-aml-",totalDownloads:5216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"2883",slug:"oncogene-and-cancer-from-bench-to-clinic",title:"Oncogene and Cancer",fullTitle:"Oncogene and Cancer - From Bench to Clinic"},signatures:"Denisa Ilencikova and Alexandra Kolenova",authors:[{id:"140472",title:"Dr.",name:"Denisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ilencikova",slug:"denisa-ilencikova",fullName:"Denisa Ilencikova"},{id:"155307",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Kolenova",slug:"alexandra-kolenova",fullName:"Alexandra Kolenova"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1075",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. 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