Parameters for evaluating the perovskite single crystal photodetectors.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7417",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Future of Television - Convergence of Content and Technology",title:"The Future of Television",subtitle:"Convergence of Content and Technology",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book presents a collection of chapters that focus on the convergence of television today, approached using an interdisciplinary perspective. Clearly, the importance of technological advances describes only one aspect of this evolutionary process. In this book, convergence is also examined from other equally important perspectives, which include a historical case study on convergence and culture-viewer evolution and the changes that interactivity has introduced as opposed to static content. Because this publication focuses on all aspects that transform the medium, users, content, broadcasting, and interactive technology, it becomes evident that convergence is a highly interdisciplinary subject that must always be addressed from various perspectives.",isbn:"978-1-78985-754-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-753-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-075-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75322",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"the-future-of-television-convergence-of-content-and-technology",numberOfPages:90,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e9ae7433daa77973fd72130df6622c68",bookSignature:"Ioannis Deliyannis",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7417.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5088,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 17th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"103622",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",middleName:null,surname:"Deliyannis",slug:"ioannis-deliyannis",fullName:"Ioannis Deliyannis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103622/images/system/103622.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Ioannis Deliyannis is an Associate Professor at Ionian University in Corfu. He is a member of the Faculty of the Department of Audio and Visual Arts and a founding member of the inArts research laboratory. He has created various interactive multimedia systems ranging from experimental television stations featuring multiple modes of delivery to educational and multi-sensory games. He is the author of a series of journal and conference publications in the above field and a series of books targeting the experimental and creative aspects of the technologies involved. He is involved in the design of user-centred software products and services, focusing on the use of mobile sensory systems to create intelligent interactive systems, entertainment education systems, games, gamified systems, educational applications for people with disabilities, multimedia adapters, holograms, interactive navigation narrative applications, augmented and virtual reality systems.",institutionString:"Ionian University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Ionian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"760",title:"Telecommunication",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-telecommunication"}],chapters:[{id:"65218",title:"Introductory Chapter: Convergence of Content and Technology - The Role of Interaction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83742",slug:"introductory-chapter-convergence-of-content-and-technology-the-role-of-interaction",totalDownloads:1192,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Ioannis Deliyannis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65218",authors:[{id:"103622",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Deliyannis",slug:"ioannis-deliyannis",fullName:"Ioannis Deliyannis"}],corrections:null},{id:"64718",title:"Television Reception and Technological Convergence in the 1950s: The Case of Mexico City",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81782",slug:"television-reception-and-technological-convergence-in-the-1950s-the-case-of-mexico-city",totalDownloads:801,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to characterize and analyze the television audience in Mexico in the 1950s through the confluence of three audiovisual communications technologies: cinema, radio, and television. This research understands the convergence as a context and a social and cultural experience that changed roles, routines, perceptions, and stereotypes of the contemporary societies. How did the TV audiences of the Mexico City react to the technological convergence? How did cinema, radio, and television become interrelated? What elements mediated in television reception in the 1950s? To answer these questions, this research used the national press and specialized magazines of the time, oral history, and photographic archives as primary information sources. The chapter argues that the audience established a bond with TV from its past experience with cinema and radio. With the reference of the moving image, the immediately transmission and the domesticity, the viewers recognize themselves and react to screen contents. In 1950s, the audiences are active and interactive. This research concludes that technological convergence, from a historical point of view, constitutes a context of transformations and a set of assimilation, integration, and interaction practices. Likewise, it considers that in the middle of the XX century, the world experiments a “early convergence” of contents and technology, where the television is main characters.",signatures:"Laura Camila Ramírez Bonilla",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64718",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64718",authors:[{id:"266480",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura Camila",surname:"Ramírez Bonilla",slug:"laura-camila-ramirez-bonilla",fullName:"Laura Camila Ramírez Bonilla"}],corrections:null},{id:"64127",title:"High-Efficient Video Transmission for HDTV Broadcasting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79908",slug:"high-efficient-video-transmission-for-hdtv-broadcasting",totalDownloads:1237,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Before broadcasting a video signal, redundant data should be removed from the transmitted video signal. This redundancy operation can be performed using many video coding standards such as H.264/Advanced Video Coding (AVC) and H.265/High-Efficient Video Coding (HEVC) standards. Although both standards produce a great video resolution, too much data are considered to be still redundant. The most exhaustive process in video encoding process is the Motion Estimation (ME) process. The more the resolution of the transmitted video signal, the more the video data to be fetched from the main memory. This will increase the required memory access time for performing the Motion Estimation process. In This chapter, a smart ME coprocessor architecture, which greatly reduces the memory access time, is presented. Data reuse algorithm is used to minimize the memory access time. The discussed coprocessor effectively reuses the data of the search area to minimize the overall memory access time (I/O memory bandwidth) while fully using all resources and hardware. This would speed up the video broadcasting process. For a search range of 32 × 32 and block size of 16 × 16, the architecture can perform Motion Estimation for 30 fps of HDTV video and easily outperforms many fast full-search architectures.",signatures:"Yasser Ali Ismail",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64127",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64127",authors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail"}],corrections:null},{id:"63403",title:"Culture as a Determinant in Innovation Diffusion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80806",slug:"culture-as-a-determinant-in-innovation-diffusion",totalDownloads:1045,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study focuses on how culture may influence the rate of adoption of a television innovation, which is also a service innovation. The starting point is to understand theoretically what consumers may perceive they adopt when they adopt an innovation such as digital terrestrial television (DTT). To understand this, service theory is introduced to help define DTT in the eye of the consumers. The proposition is that a country’s culture may affect the rate of adoption of a service innovation no matter how the service innovation is perceived, but if the service innovation is perceived as part of or connected to a service offering that is broadly founded in the culture, there may be a stronger motivation to adopt the service innovation. The study introduces a novel approach to analyse culture in an innovation diffusion context by selecting 10 cultural variables that may have an influence on the rate of adoption of DTT in Denmark. The empirical part of the study concludes that these 10 cultural variables can play a role in innovation diffusion.",signatures:"Henrik Vejlgaard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63403",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63403",authors:[{id:"222858",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Henrik",surname:"Vejlgaard",slug:"henrik-vejlgaard",fullName:"Henrik Vejlgaard"}],corrections:null},{id:"65647",title:"Television as a Surveillance Tool",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83532",slug:"television-as-a-surveillance-tool",totalDownloads:813,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"“Television” has now become a screen for the projection of different kinds of data that operate in a full-duplex fashion where the screen and its accessories not only provide data to the viewer of the screen but also become a tool for the collection of data about the viewer. For instance, the moment a smartphone is connected to the screen to watch an episode on YouTube, data about the viewer and viewing habits of the viewer are available to a corporation. This process opens up significant opportunities for data collection that borders on surveillance, and different institutions are able to collect customized information about the individual. This chapter will explore the mechanisms of this process of surveillance and the benefits and burdens offered by this emergent technology.",signatures:"Ananda Mitra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65647",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65647",authors:[{id:"270558",title:"Prof.",name:"Ananda",surname:"Mitra",slug:"ananda-mitra",fullName:"Ananda Mitra"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1978",title:"Interactive Multimedia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"81343be857dbea4b8446359028998656",slug:"interactive-multimedia",bookSignature:"Ioannis Deliyannis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1978.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103622",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Deliyannis",slug:"ioannis-deliyannis",fullName:"Ioannis Deliyannis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7601",title:"Game Design and Intelligent Interaction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aef7c5d14fb716604538b9f7e1a3f2ef",slug:"game-design-and-intelligent-interaction",bookSignature:"Ioannis Deliyannis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7601.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103622",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Deliyannis",slug:"ioannis-deliyannis",fullName:"Ioannis Deliyannis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5833",title:"Microstrip Antennas",subtitle:"Trends in Research on",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"351227e37c8525ecf982ef45c2dea655",slug:"trends-in-research-on-microstrip-antennas",bookSignature:"Sudipta Chattopadhyay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5833.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"188270",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudipta",surname:"Chattopadhyay",slug:"sudipta-chattopadhyay",fullName:"Sudipta Chattopadhyay"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2044",title:"Quality of Service and Resource Allocation in WiMAX",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"372438e4e660a3d4955bc8eb679a6990",slug:"quality-of-service-and-resource-allocation-in-wimax",bookSignature:"Roberto C. 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Perovskite-structured materials have received increasing attention, since being discovered in the 1830s, because of their rich physical properties [1]. As shown in \nFigure 1a\n [2], the general chemical formula for such compounds is ABX3, in which A and B are different cations, and X is an anion that bonds to both the A and B cations. Owing to the flexibility of bond angles inherent in the perovskite structure, there are many different distortions that can occur from the ideal structure. Importantly, A can be organic cations, like methylammonium (MA+) or formamidinium (FA+) [4, 5, 6, 7, 8], B can be metal ions, such as Pb2+ and Sn2+ [9, 10, 11, 12], and X is usually halide ions [13], and such a class of materials is known as organic–inorganic hybrid perovskites. It was reported that a stable structure of hybrid perovskites can form where 0.81 <
\n
However, a vast array of prior research on perovskite optoelectronic devices has been centered on polycrystalline films. The polycrystalline samples usually suffer from grain boundaries, relatively higher trap densities and defects, and low stability, which would obviously obscure their potential in applications [35, 36, 37]. More recently, researchers have paid more attention to perovskite single crystals, which possess promising characteristics of no grain boundaries [15], relatively low trap density [38], large charge carrier mobility, and long carrier diffusion length [39, 40, 41]. In this regard, extensive efforts are being devoted to developing effective methods to improve the perovskite crystal quality and optimize the device performance. Existing in the forms of bulk or thin crystals, perovskite crystal samples have been widely applied in various optoelectronic applications [39, 42], and have made rapid and great strides in research progress [43, 44, 45, 46].
\nIn this chapter, we aim to summarize the recent achievements, ongoing progress, and the challenges to date in the area of hybrid perovskite single crystals, practically MA-based ones (MAPbX3, X = Cl, Br, and I), from the perspective of both materials and devices with an emphasis placed on the optimization of crystal quality, and provide an outlook on the opportunities offered by this emerging family of materials in field of optoelectronic applications.
\nAccording to the lower solubility of MAPbX3 in HX (X = Cl, Br, and I) solution as the temperature decreases, Tao’s group introduced the STL method to synthesize a MAPbI3 bulk single crystal (\nFigure 2a\n) [47]. After the reaction between methylamine (CH3NH2) and hydro-iodic acid (HI) in a cold atmosphere, the obtained white microcrystal MAI was reacted with Pb(CH3COOH)2∙3H2O in aqueous HI, and the solution was then cooled to 40°C. A 10 mm × 10 mm × 8 mm black MAPbI3 single crystal was grown in about one month (\nFigure 2b\n). Lin’s group discovered a more efficient way, and they synthesized the single crystals with a size of 5 mm in just around 10 days [48]. Lin et al. selected high-quality seeds and dropped them back into fresh solution and obtained single crystals sized up to 1 cm (\nFigure 2c\n). Furthermore, MAPbBr3 − xClx and MAPbI3 − xBrx mixed-halide perovskite crystals were studied using such method [49]. Hydro-bromic acid with hydrochloric acid or hydro-iodic acid were mixed in different molar ratios into methylamine and lead (II) acetate solution to fabricate single-halide and mixed-halide perovskite crystals (\nFigure 2d\n). The time-consuming factor is the biggest drawback of this method, which has indirectly led to the domination of other crystallization methods.
\n\n
As a radically faster perovskite crystal synthesis approach, the ITC method has widely been applied in recent years. It was observed that the exhibited crystals from such method can be shape-controlled, higher quality, and obtained quicker compared with other growth techniques. Bakr et al. introduced this method to rapidly grow high-quality bulk crystals [50]. As shown in \nFigure 2e\n, an orange MAPbBr3 crystal and a black MAPbI3 crystal were grown within 3 hours. Chen’s group further studied the effect of molar ratio of MAX and PbX2 in the precursor solutions on the crystal quality [52], e.g., perovskite crystals with different sizes and shapes were obtained after a 6-hour ITC crystallization process when changing the MAX: PbX2 ratios from 1:1 to 2:1.
\nWith an aim of growing a large-sized bulk perovskite crystal, such ITC method was further modified. Using such technique, the strategy of incorporation of seed crystal growth has been proven to be favorable for single crystals as large as convenient. Liu’s group reported various large-sized perovskite crystals via using the modified ITC method, from which a number of larger-sized crystal (7 mm) were obtained through choosing good-quality seed crystals and repeating and carefully controlling the ITC process several times (\nFigure 2f\n). Moreover, Liu’s group also successfully grew MAPb(BrxI1 − x)3 single crystals with a finely-tuned bandgap [51]. The application of the different solubility of different perovskite single crystals at varying temperatures contributes to the time-saving feature of such ITC method.
\nAnother main method to grow perovskite crystals is the AVC method (\nFigure 2g\n), which was first introduced from Bakr’s group [15]. In this method, the solvent plays a significant role because two or more solvents should be selected, of which one should be a good solvent that is less volatile, and the other is a bad solvent that is more volatile. The principle of this method can be described as follows: when the bad solvent slowly diffuses into the precursor solution, the proficiency of the crystal formation increases at the bottom of the sample vial owing to the insolubility of the material in the bad solvent. Other groups, like Loi’s group and Cao’s group, also applied this method to obtain the high-quality crystals [38, 53]. Although the AVC method costs more time than the ITC method, its temperature-irrelevant characteristic is appealing to its widespread use.
\nBulk perovskite single crystals with thick sizes may cause the increase of charge recombination, which would lead to the degradation of their device performance and impede the practical applications. In this regard, growing thin perovskite crystals with a large area represents an effective approach to overcome the above obstacle and thus advances the further practical applications. Bakr et al. introduced a cavitation-triggered asymmetrical crystallization strategy, in which a very short ultrasonic pulse (≈1 s) was applied in the solution to reach a low supersaturation level with anti-solvent vapor diffusion and a thin crystal with several-micrometers grew on the substrates within hours (\nFigure 3a\n) [54]. Liu’s group synthesized perovskite crystal wafers with a much thinner thickness using a dynamic flow micro-reactor system [55]. They put two thin glass slides in parallel into a container with a predefined separation to grow single crystals within the slit channel, as shown in \nFigure 3b\n. Su’s group further used a space-limited ITC method and grew a 120-cm2 single crystal on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO)-coated glass, of which the operation and the obtained 0.4-mm-thin single crystal are shown in \nFigure 3c\n [56]. Meanwhile, Wan et al. reported a space-confined solution-processed method to grow the perovskite single-crystalline films with adjustable thickness from nanometers to micrometers (\nFigure 3d\n) [57]. Benefitting from the capillary pressure, the perovskite precursor solution filled the whole space between two clean flat substrates, which were clipped together and dipped in the solution.
\n\n
Currently, more promising approaches have been employed to grow thin single crystals with high quality and large scale. A one-step printing geometrically-confined lateral crystal growth method (\nFigure 3e\n) was introduced by Sung’s group to obtain a large-scaled single crystal [58]. During the process, a cylindrical metal roller with a flexible poly-(dimethyl-siloxane) (PDMS) mold was wrapped and then rolled on a preheated SiO2 substrate (180°C) with an ink supplier filled with the precursor solution. Alternatively, millimeter-sized single crystals were synthesized by Song’s group by a facile seed-inkjet-printing approach (\nFigure 3f\n) [59]. Perovskite precursor solution was injected onto a silicon wafer, and then the ordered seeds were formed on the substrate with the evaporation of the droplets. Thereafter, the substrate with a saturated perovskite solution was covered and the single crystals can be grew as the solvent dried at room temperature. Seeds were used to inhibit the random nucleation and trigger the growth of single crystals.
\nAs discussed above, some optimized space-limited approaches have been introduced and developed to synthesize perovskite thin crystals in recent years. Especially, size−/thickness-controlled thin crystals have also been widely used in various optoelectronic devices. With the aim to growing large-scaled and thickness-controlled thin crystals with longer carrier diffusion lengths, fewer defects, and higher efficiency, more promising strategies will be rewarding in the future.
\nThere are two normal ways to study the optical properties of hybrid perovskite crystals: absorption and PL measurements. Bakr et al. characterized the steady-state absorption and PL properties for MAPbBr3 and MAPbI3 crystals, as shown in \nFigure 4a\n and \nb\n [50]. Sharp band edges were observed in the absorption plots and the band gap values were determined to be 2.18 eV for MAPbBr3 crystals and 1.51 eV for MAPbI3 crystals; while the PL intensity peaks are located at 574 nm for MAPbBr3 and 820 nm for MAPbI3. As for the MAPbCl3 one, absorption measurement result revealed an edge at 435 nm (\nFigure 4c\n) [60]. Clearly, the optical absorption of perovskite crystals exhibited a clear-cut sharp band edge, which indicated that the single crystals are predominantly free from grain boundaries and have relatively low structural defects and trap densities.
\nSteady-state absorption (
More recently, there have been more broad publications on the apparent disparity in optical properties (i.e., absorption and PL) between perovskite single crystals and thin films, which can be attributed to the incorrect measurements as a result of reabsorption effects. Snaith’s group performed a detailed investigation of the optical properties of MAPbBr3 crystals as compared to those of the polycrystalline films by employing light transmission spectroscopy, ellipsometry, and spatially resolved and time-resolved PL spectroscopy [61]. They showed that the optical properties of the perovskite crystals were almost identical to those of polycrystalline films, and their observations indicated that the perovskite polycrystalline films were much closer to possessing ‘single-crystal-like’ optoelectronic properties than previously thought, and also highlighted the discrepancies in the estimation of trap densities from the electronic and optical methods (\nFigure 4d\n). For the further development of perovskite crystals, more detailed experimental investigations combined with theoretical calculations that focus on the optical features are required, which would assist in the preparation of the high-quality perovskite single crystals and the development of the high-performance device applications.
\nAs for hybrid perovskite crystals, in addition to the remarkable optical properties, their promising electrical properties have caught the great attention. In general, there are five common methods to measure the transport mobilities in perovskite crystals, including the space charge limited current (SCLC), time-of-flight (TOF), Hall Effect, THz pulse and field-effect transistor (FET) measurement methods. Among these methods, the SCLC method is widely employed to determine the carrier mobility and trap density of perovskite crystals. The current–voltage (
\n
Although the above measurement approaches have been widely used in the perovskite crystals, the obtained results from different groups are sometimes different. Sargent et al. demonstrated that one main challenge that may explain these order-of-magnitude discrepancies is that the Hall Effect, TOF, and SCLC methods all probe the mobilities near the respective Fermi levels during the experiments, and the (non-equilibrium, high-injection-level) Fermi level is widely different in each experiment [64]. In this regard, they developed a contactless method to measure the mobility of a perovskite crystal directly [64]. Plus, THz pulse measurement was also used to estimate
Carrier lifetime (
The widely studied hybrid perovskite solar cells with high performance are usually made from polycrystalline films; however, the current studies have also focused on the developments and optimization of single crystal perovskite solar cells, owing to their significant advantages. Huang et al. fabricated photovoltaic devices based on MAPbI3 bulk crystals by depositing gold (Au) as anodes and gallium (Ga) as cathodes (\nFigure 6a\n) [63]. A red-shift of 50 nm of the EQE cutoff to 850 nm showed that MAPbI3 crystals increased the upper limit of short-circuit current density (
\n
In addition to the vertical-structured solar cells, Huang’s group also fabricated the lateral structure perovskite crystal device (\nFigure 6d\n) [73], which showed a
Photodetectors which can convert incident light into electrical signals are critical for various industrial and scientific applications. To evaluate the photodetector performance, several parameters are important, including responsivity (
Quantity | \nUnit | \nDefinition | \n
---|---|---|
Photocurrent ( | \nA | \nCurrent through a photodetector resulting from illumination. | \n
Dark-current ( | \nA | \nCurrent through a device in the absence of illumination. | \n
Photoresponsivity ( | \nA/W | \n\n | \n
Detectivity ( | \nJones | \n\n | \n
Gain ( | \n— | \n\n | \n
Linear dynamic range ( | \ndB | \nLDR is calculated by LDR = 20log( | \n
External quantum efficiency ( | \n% | \nCarrier number divided by the number of incident photons. | \n
Internal quantum efficiency ( | \n% | \nIt is the ratio of carrier number to the number of incident photons that are absorbed by the device. | \n
Parameters for evaluating the perovskite single crystal photodetectors.
Huang’s group fabricated perovskite crystal photodetectors that exhibited a high sensitivity capacity, which led to a narrow-band photo-response with a full width at half maximum (FWHM) of less than 20 nm under V = −1 V (\nFigure 7a\n) [49].
\n
Although perovskite crystal photodetectors have shown better performance, macroscopic crystals cannot be grown on a planar substrate, restricting their potential for device integration. To overcome this shortcoming, Bakr et al. grew large-area planar-integrated crystal films onto the ITO-patterned substrates (\nFigure 7c\n) [42], and the fabricated photodetector possessed a high
UV detection is a key technology in the fields of flame detection [80], remote security monitoring [81], environmental monitoring [82], and so forth. Researchers have endeavored to develop UV photodetectors based on perovskite crystals considering their excellent UV absorption properties. Visible-blind UV photodetectors based on MAPbCl3 crystals a suitable bandgap of about 3.11 eV were fabricated (\nFigure 8a\n) [60], and the device showed the dark current as low as 4.15 × 10−7 A at 15 V and a drastically high stability (\nFigure 8b\n). Planar-integrated MAPbCl3 crystal UV photodetectors on ITO-deposited glass substrate were reported by Sargent et al. (\nFigure 8c\n) [83], which showed decreased
\n
NIR photodetectors have widespread uses in telecommunications [86], as well as thermal and biological imaging [87, 88, 89, 90]. Meredith’s group demonstrated the perovskite crystal that overcame the large bandgap and presented photodetectors with performance metrics appropriate for NIR detection by using the trap-related linear sub-gap absorption (\nFigure 8e\n) [84]. A strong NIR photo-response was achieved in photodiodes based on MAPbI3 crystals illuminated by a continuous 808-nm laser (∼10 mW/cm2). The photodiodes could also respond to a laser with a wavelength as long as 1064 nm (\nFigure 8f\n).
\nIn addition to the common light detections from UV to IR, perovskite crystals have been employed for the detection of X-rays, which have important applications in medical diagnostics, clinical treatment, and the non-destructive testing of products [53]. Huang et al. fabricated a sensitive MAPbBr3 crystal X-ray detector with the structure of Au/MAPbBr3/crystal/C60/BCP/Ag or Au (\nFigure 9a\n) [53]. Through reducing the bulk defects and passivating surface traps, the devices showed a detection efficiency of 16.4% at a near zero bias under irradiation with continuum X-ray energy up to 50 keV. The lowest detectable X-ray dose rate was 0.5 μGyair/s with a sensitivity of 80 μC/Gyaircm2, which is four times higher than the sensitivity achieved in
\n
Similar to X-ray detectors, the
Huang’s group further reported a Cl− dopant compensation of MAPbBr3 single crystal process to fabricate a low-cost
With the exceptional PL efficiency and high color purity, perovskite crystals can also perform as high-performance LEDs [97]. Most of the existing perovskite LEDs employ a polycrystalline film with sizes of nanometers to micrometers, and coherent light emission is a challenge [98]. In Yu’s work, the LEDs with the structure of ITO/MAPbBr3 micro-platelet/Au cathode had the turn-on voltage of about 1.8 V and could last for at least 54 h with a luminance of ∼5000 cd/m2 (\nFigure 10a\n) [99].
\n\n
The excellent properties, including a small trap density, long lifetime and electron–hole diffusion length, and large carrier mobility, also make perovskite crystals suitable for laser devices with low lasing thresholds and high qualities. Xiong’s group grew typical MAPbI3 triangular nano-platelets and optically pumped them by a femtosecond-pulsed laser (\nFigure 10b\n) [100], and the peaks centered at
Hybrid perovskite single crystals have shown great potential in high-performance optoelectronic devices; however, several challenges and issues still remain in terms of their practical applications. They mainly include (1) the effects of surface defects, (2) the large-area fabrication, as well as (3) the stability of the perovskite single crystal devices and (4) the health and environmental concerns.
\nThe absence of grain boundaries makes perovskite crystals acquire better optical and charge transport properties than their polycrystalline counterparts. However, the surface of crystals usually possesses lots of chemical impurities, dangling bonds, surface dislocations, and under-coordinated atoms, and becomes disordered owing to hydration, thus decreasing the carrier mobility and carrier diffusion length and promote the recombination of carriers near the crystal surface [76, 104, 105, 106]. Thus, the further decrease of defects, especially the surface defects, is required, aiming to gain high-quality perovskite crystals. To realize high-performance optoelectronic devices based on perovskite crystals with low-level surface defects, more research should be carried out on the surface passivation.
\nHybrid perovskite thin crystals are freer of grain boundaries and exhibit better transport properties than those of the polycrystalline candidates, so their large-area fabrication will ensure a promising future. However, the embedding of volatile and vulnerable organic components on fragile inorganic framework makes them difficult to be fabricated with a large area by deposition techniques or solution-based methods [42, 54]. Furthermore, thin crystals were grown directly on conductive substrates like FTO- or ITO-glass [42, 56], and tailored substrates, such as SiO2/Si [97], which provide in-situ growth for thin crystals and be directly made into devices. Nevertheless, these large-area thin crystals have rough surfaces and a great number of surface defects, and thus their optoelectronic properties remain inferior to the bulk counterparts. Further optimization of growth methods for large-area thin crystals is needed for industry productions in future.
\nLow stability of the current hybrid perovskite crystal devices hinders their broad practical application. Several factors that affect the device stability, like ion migration [107, 108], can cause hysteresis and photo-induced phase separation, and the interaction between single crystals and their surroundings lies in the degradation of perovskite by humidity and light [109, 110, 111]. Therefore, to further enhance the stability of single crystal devices, optimized device structures should be designed to control the ion migrations. Meanwhile, various compositions and interface engineering approaches are also intensively investigated to confront this critical issue. In addition, encapsulation has been demonstrated to be a valid method to protect hybrid perovskite devices.
\nThe growth of hybrid perovskite crystals adopt heavy metal ions, like lead (Pb) or tin (Sn), and organic functional groups, which can impact both the environment and human health. This critical issue needs to be overcome, aiming for further commercialization. As for the common MAPbI3 perovskite crystal, the Pb-ion is toxic to both the human health and natural environment; while the organic solvents used during the growth process of crystals are also toxic and easily penetrate into the human body [112]. To solve these problems, capsulation and recycling are needed in the use of crystal materials and organic solvents. Furthermore, other alternative metals to Pb, with a lower toxicity, are also being studied, such as bismuth and antimony [113, 114], and thus, the optoelectronic properties of these Pb-free perovskite crystals need to be explored further for device applications.
\nMore recently, hybrid perovskite crystals, having different dimensional forms: bulk and thin crystals, and micro−/nano-plates, have been widely explored as functional layers for optoelectronic devices owing to their excellent physical properties combined with the advantage of ease of processing. Although these types of devices are still in the early stages of development, a strong potential for a variety of technological and commercial applications clearly remains. Here, we presented a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in hybrid perovskite crystals with respect to the background knowledge on the optoelectronic properties and charge transport dynamics of crystals, and their applications in the area of optoelectronic devices, and a fundamental understanding of the device performance. We summarized the main growth methods for the bulk crystals and also some modified and optimized approaches to synthesize thin crystals. The detailed discussions are focused on charge transport characteristics, operation mechanisms, and challenges, aiming to provide a critical understanding of further advance in materials design and device engineering in a variety of optoelectronic technologies.
\nIn conclusion, the research progress achieved to date in the area of perovskite crystal optoelectronic devices, with the emphasis placed on challenges faced by the research community, has been summarized systematically, and finally perspective on the opportunities offered by this emerging family to photoactive materials in practical and commercial technologies is also proposed. Further exploration of high-quality perovskite crystals, combined with an in-depth understandings of working mechanism of devices, indicates a promising future for wide applications with markedly-enhanced performance.
\nThe author acknowledges support from Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DECRA) (DE180100167) from the Australian Research Council (ARC).
\nThere are no conflicts to declare.
In late December 2019, the emerging epidemic of Coronavirus, Sars-Cov-2 (Covid-19) first appeared in China. Then, it spread on a very large scale to most of the world’s countries. For this reason the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared it a global pandemic. The main distinguishing characteristic of this pandemic is its very high contagion power and subsequently, which gives it a spectacular speed of propagation. Recently [1], it was associated with the Spanish flu of 1918 in this regard. For this reason, efforts to forecast, predict, and model the spread of Coronavirus (Covid-19) global pandemic are accumulating to understand its contamination mode [2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. The objective of these efforts is to explore ways for predicting its evolution curve to be able to skirt the contamination, in the absence of an effective vaccine serving as an antidote against this disease.
In this context, in a recent study [7] on the spread of Covid-19 in 15 different countries, we have showed that the pandemic spread in a given population follows a sigmoidal law. Indeed, the curve of variation of the cumulative number of infected persons
Percolation is a mathematical model which first introduced by S.R Braodblent and J. Hammersely in 1957 [10]. As a geometric phase transition, he described large-scale connectivity from other links that are randomly established on small scales. Such connectivity brought the studied system from one state of disorder to another more ordered state. This model has been widely applied to explain phase transitions in a very wide variety of physical systems such as alloys, complex fluids, semiconductors, communication networks, etc. As examples of the application of the percolation model, we can cite the following transitions: Insulating conductive composite material (Insulator/conductor), Glass transition (Liquid/glass), Polymer gels (Liquid/gels), Quarks in nuclear matter (confinement/non confinement) [11].
Meanwhile, in our laboratory, we used to study several kinds of colloidal systems, in particular, the microemulsions water in oil, so-called reverse micelles. These are nano-droplets of water surrounded by monolayers of surfactant and dispersed in oily phases. In these systems, a percolation phenomenon has often been highlighted and widely studied. In fact, in reverse micelle systems, the percolation phenomenon was manifested by a spectacular increase in the transport properties (viscosity, dielectric constant electrical conductivity, etc.) of the micelles for a volume fraction,
It seems imperative to mention that we are dealing here with two systems with several similarities in dynamics. Regarding the reverse micellar systems, these are indeed spherical particles of nanometric sizes in Brownian (random) motion. This movement leads to permanent inter-micellar collisions giving rise to mutual exchanges of matter and electrical charges. Therefore, reverse micelles transport phenomena such as viscosity
Schematic representation of the analogy between reverse micelles and the virus spread.
Electrical percolation of reverse micelles | Spread of the virus (Covid-19) |
---|---|
Reverse micelles: charge carriers | Infected people: carriers of the virus |
Electrical charge (the Na+ ion) | Virus |
Nature of movement: Brownian (random) | Random |
Micellar collision | Contamination of surfaces, spread of droplets carrying the virus, handshaking with contaminated people. |
Detailed similarities between reverse micelles and the pandemic spread.
From a qualitative viewpoint, we find that the evolution of the number of people infected over time followed the same curve as the evolution of the micelles’ electrical conductivity as a function of temperature. These are two trays separated by an exponential progression. We have measured the electrical conductivity of water/AOT/reverse micelles of composition
(a) Electrical conductivity of water/AOT/isooctane reverse micelles (
Authors [13, 14] are used to using the sigmoid Boltzmann equation (SBE) to model the percolation process in reverse micelles. It is important to elucidate some notions on the SBE equation so that both the relevance of this equation and the definitions of both of its terms are understood.
To describe the evolution of a quantity evolving as a function of a variable, the Sigmoid-Boltzmann equation (SBE) has the following form:
Rearranging Eq. (1),
where
The equation therefore essentially deals with the switching of a variable from an initial state (state of
By applying this equation to the electrical conductivity of the inverse micelles,
From an experimental point of view, it is often convenient to use the logarithmic scale to better highlight the variations. The equation therefore becomes:
In a recent work, we modeled the evolution of the cumulative number of infected people
Knowing that at least one person is infected therefore
On a logarithmic scale, the sigmoid equation becomes:
Considering that at least one person is infected, so
For the spread of the pandemic in a given population, the Boltzmann equation (SBE) allows us to derive important parameters describing the spread of the virus. The most important parameters are the time interval,
The pandemic percolation time
This is the transition point corresponding to the pandemic percolation threshold. At this time, the number of infected people rises drastically until the day with the maximum propagation speed. After that time the speed of virus spread decreases and the number of infected cases per day begins to decrease. It represents the pandemic peak
Maximum number of infected persons
It is a cumulative number of infected people signaling the stabilization of the epidemic crisis in a population. The real maximum number of people infected is in the vicinity of this number.
The time constant
It is called the time constant. It characterizes the rise of the exponential part (gradually or abrupt). Generally, the epidemic state stabilizes when the number of infected cases
Considering Eq. (6), the
So, we can estimate the time necessary for the stabilization of the epidemic state of each country
For reverse micelles systems, the energy required to make two micelles appear and activate the exchange of charges between them is called the activation energy of percolation. This energy constitutes a barrier to be crossed for this energy constitutes a barrier to be crossed to put two micelles in contact and trigger the exchange of charges. It takes the form of the famous empirical law of Arrhenius [13]:
Where
Where
So, for the virus spread, Arrhenius law can be applied to the cumulative number of infected cases
Having the dimension of time,
We have mentioned before that the rationalization of the experimental results resulted in two theoretical approaches discussing the state of a system during the percolation phenomenon. A static model which suggests that at the time of percolation, the charge carriers merge with their neighbors, thus establishing a network of connected particles exchanging charges. Besides, a dynamic model whose particles carrying the charges are in permanent collision, merge randomly at the percolation threshold, and exchange the charges. The scheme depicted in Figure 3 simplifies the difference between the two percolation models.
Schematic representation of the two percolation models.
Theoretically, scale laws have been established to identify the predominant model for a given system. These laws are explained by two equations, which are applied only around the percolation point. For electrical percolation in reverse micelles systems, induced by temperature variation, these equations take the following forms:
Where
In the case of the propagation of Covid-19, these two equations apply to the vicinity of the peak pandemic as follows:
From an epidemiological point of view, the static percolation model corresponds to the formation of geolocated chains of transmission of the virus [17]. However, the dynamic model reflects randomly distributed chains of transmissions in space.
Typically, to detect the percolation threshold (temperature, volume fraction…), a differential method is used [9, 13]. The method consists of determining the maximum of the curve
Similarly, we can consider that the differential,
Using data provided by Johns Hopkins university resource center [19] on the number of infected cases in 5 countries (China, France, Germany, Italy and Tunisia) during 6 months of the virus spread since the day of the first case detection of until June 30.
We plotted in Figure 4 the variation of the cumulative number of infected people in each country versus the number of days since the first detected case. The existence of 3 stages can be discerned: a first phase, where the number of cases varies gradually over time. A second phase in which the number of cases unexpectedly rises very quickly and a third phase in which the rate of increase in the number of cases is stabilized overtime. We have therefore adjusted all these curves with the sigmoid Boltzmann equation (SBE) (Eq. (6)). The results are listed in Table 2. The fit results can therefore be interpreted with respect to the evolution of the epidemic situation as follows:
The number of infected cases reaches maximum of around 82011.46. The rise to this maximum lasts approximately 28 days. The transition point to a stable state is marked around day 18 (pandemic peak) since the first case detected.
The number of infected cases reaches maximum of around 1142.57. The rise to this maximum lasts for approximately 58 days. The transition point to a stable state is marked around day 32 (approximately 1 month) (pandemic peak) since the first case detected.
The number of infected cases reaches maximum of around 227262.40. The rise to this maximum lasts for approximately 87.58 days. The transition point to a stable state is marked around day 63 (approximately 2 months) (pandemic peak) since the first case detected.
The number of infected cases reaches maximum of around 227262.40. The rise to this maximum lasts approximately 93.302 days. The transition point to a stable state is marked at day 71 (approximately 2.5 months) (pandemic peak) since the first case detected.
The number of infected cases reaches maximum of around 154264.94. The rise to this maximum lasts approximately 98.873 days. The transition point to a stable state is marked around day 75 (pandemic peak) since the first case detected.
Variation of the cumulative number of confirmed case
China | 82011.460 | 18 | 4 .944 | 28.827 | 0.993 |
Italy | 227262.403 | 63 | 11.227 | 87.587 | 0.929 |
France | 154264.941 | 75 | 10.901 | 98.873 | 0.993 |
Germany | 184037.613 | 71 | 10.184 | 93.302 | 0.994 |
Tunisia | 1142.577 | 32 | 12.184 | 58.682 | 0.994 |
Fit parameters of number of infected cases
By plotting the Arrhenius curve
Arrhenius plot of the number of cumulative infected persons
0.160 | 0.54 | 0.037 | 1.563 | 2416.317 | |
0.170 | 0.53 | 0.035 | 1.565 | 85819.368 | |
0.123 | 0.577 | 0.053 | 1.547 | 2.532.108 | |
0.121 | 0.579 | 0.051 | 1.549 | 2.532.108 | |
0.076 | 0.624 | 0.042 | 1.558 | 1.436.107 |
The critical exponents and contamination frequency for the 5 studied country.
The determination of the critical exponents (Eqs. (17) and (18)) before (
In the first section of this article, we stated that the differential
Speed of the pandemic spread
Furthermore, we can also notice that the speeds achieved take on considerable values except for Tunisia (
To assess the speed of propagation between the studied countries, we also have adjusted our findings by estimating the root mean square speed of propagation
Where
The root mean square speed of propagation
We analyzed epidemic data on the cumulative number of cases infected with covid-19 in 5 countries affected differently by the pandemic. The data describe the state of the virus spread during more than 6 months of its appearance (appeared at the beginning in China (December 2019)). This analysis was consisted of the application of the percolation theory on the evolution of the cumulative number of people infected
By applying the Arrhenius law on the cumulative number of cases in each country, we introduced a characteristic contamination factor this rate measures the frequency of interpersonal contact in each country. This permits us to compare contamination frequency following the traffic restriction measures taken by each country (border closure, general confinement, geo-located confinement, etc.). The application of scale laws at the vicinity of the percolation threshold
Finally, the determination of the propagation speed
Finally, all of the results show that Tunisia and China have implemented the most effective strategies to combat the first wave of Covid-19. Indeed, Tunisia’s authorities have opted for general containment (lockdown) throughout the country since the second week after the first confirmed case of Covid-19 was discovered. According to our findings, this strategy significantly reduced the frequency of contact between individuals carrying the virus, as well as the speed of covid-19 propagation over the next three months. As a result, the total number of cases infected with covid-19 remained very low. This clearly demonstrates the effectiveness of this strategy in combating the pandemic. In addition, the second country which showed low propagation indicators (contact frequency, speed of propagation, total number of infected people) is China. This is due to China’s adoption of a strategy known as targeted containment. That is, the confinement was limited to the city of Wuhan (the site of the virus’s appearance). Such a strategy has clearly demonstrated its effectiveness by significantly slowing propagation. However, the three European countries (Italy, France, and Germany) experienced relatively high propagation rates as well as a high number of covid-19 cases. These outcomes are the result of the authorities’ failure to implement general containment procedures on the right time.
This further proves that the most effective strategy to bypass the spread of covid-19 is either general containment or targeted containment.
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Tunisian Ministry of Education, Research, and Technology.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:193348,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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Transcriptome sequencing or RNA-seq using next-generation sequencing (short and long reads) is the most widely deployed technology for accurate quantification of gene expression. According to the biological aim of the experiment, replications, platform, and chemistries, propelling improvement has been demonstrated and documented using RNA-seq in plants, humans, animals, and clinical sciences with respect to gene expression of mRNA, small non-coding, long non-coding RNAs, alternative splice variations, isoform variations, gene fusions, single-nucleotide variants. Integrating transcriptome sequencing with other techniques such as chromatin immunoprecipitation, methylation, genome-wide association studies, manifests insights into genetic and epigenetic regulation. Epi-transcriptome including RNA methylation, modification, and alternative polyadenylation events can also be explored through long-read sequencing. 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The enzymes of the glycolytic pathway presenting the greatest multiplicity were phosphofructokinase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and pyruvate kinase. The genes that encode citrate synthase and subunits of the succinate dehydrogenase complex are the ones that show the greatest multiplicity, while in the phosphoenolpyruvate-pyruvate-oxaloacetate node, only malic enzymes and pyruvate phosphate dikinase present two copies in some Streptomyces. The extra DNA from these multiple gene copies can be more than 50 kb, and the question arises whether all of these genes are transcribed and translated. As far as we know, there is few information about the transcription of these genes in any of this Streptomyces, nor if any of the activities that are encoded by a single gene could be limiting both for growth and for the formation of precursors of the antibiotics produced by these microorganisms. Therefore, it is important to study the transcription and translation of genes involved in carbon metabolism in antibiotic-producing Streptomyces growing on various sugars.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Toshiko Takahashi, Jonathan Alanís, Polonia Hernández and María Elena Flores"},{id:"82757",title:"Seed Dormancy: Induction, Maintenance and Seed Technology Approaches to Break Dormancy",slug:"seed-dormancy-induction-maintenance-and-seed-technology-approaches-to-break-dormancy",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106153",abstract:"Dormancy is the major cause of erratic germination, patchy emergence and uneven seedling establishment in the field. These traits are exceedingly undesirable in crop production as future phases of growth and development are strongly linked to uniform seedling development at early growth phases. Variations in maturation time, and difficulty in managing abiotic and biotic stresses during pre- and postharvest are common consequences of uneven germination and seedling emergence. Minimizing this negative impact of dormancy in a seed lot is the major concern of all seed production companies. Generally, mature seeds show some considerable dormancy during which embryo growth is halted momentarily because one or more internal and external stimuli for growth resumption is/are absent. If the inhibition of seed germination is solely due to insufficient or complete absence of external signals, then the seed is in a state of quiescence. Otherwise, if linked to internal factors, then the seed is in a state of dormancy. Induction, maintenance, and release of dormancy are therefore related to Seed-dependent factors such as morphology, hormones, state of embryo maturity at seed dispersal and chemical inhibitors. This chapter focuses on species-dependent methods currently used to break dormancy, reduce germination time and improve emergence and seedling establishment.",book:{id:"11322",title:"Seed Biology Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11322.jpg"},signatures:"Tabi Kingsley Mbi, Ntsomboh Godswill Ntsefong and Tatah Eugene Lenzemo"},{id:"79168",title:"Pulses: A Potential Source of Valuable Protein for Human Diet",slug:"pulses-a-potential-source-of-valuable-protein-for-human-diet",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99980",abstract:"Nutritional profile of pulses has significant importance in human diet with respect to protein and mineral quality and bioavailability. Protein energy malnutrition is widespread throughout the world especially among the developing countries. Pulses being rich in macronutrients such as protein from 20 to 26% and low in calories are most suitable for product development for target-oriented population. During last decade, the demand for pulse-based products with high protein and fiber, low glycemic index, and gluten free with more antioxidant showed increasing trend by the consumers. Drift of end-use application of pulses generated interest for research in all disciplines such as breeding, agronomy, food, and nutrition, etc. A great share of plant protein in human diet may be a critical step for reducing dependence on animal origin protein source. This chapter will review contribution or choice of plant-based protein from legumes or pulses with good-quality protein based on amino acid composition. Additionally, this overview can give insight into the development of new product with balanced nutritional quality and high protein contents as a potential protein supply for malnourished population.",book:{id:"12236",title:"Legumes Research- Volume 2",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12236.jpg"},signatures:"Saima Parveen, Amina Jamil, Imran Pasha and Farah Ahmad"},{id:"83043",title:"Applications of CRISPR/Cas9 for Selective Sequencing and Clinical Diagnostics",slug:"applications-of-crispr-cas9-for-selective-sequencing-and-clinical-diagnostics",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106548",abstract:"In this chapter, we will discuss the applications of CRISPR/Cas9 in the context of clinical diagnostics. We will provide an overview of existing methods and their use cases in the diagnostic field. Special attention will be given to selective sequencing approaches using third-generation sequencing and PAM-site requirements. As target sequences in an AT-rich environment cannot easily be accessed by the commercially available SpCas9 due to rarity of NGG PAM-sites, new enzymes such as ScCas9 with PAM-site requirements of NNG will be highlighted. Original research on CRISPR/Cas9 systems to determine molecular glioma markers by enriching regions of interest will be discussed in the context of potential future applications in clinical diagnostics.",book:{id:"11804",title:"CRISPR Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11804.jpg"},signatures:"Maximilian Evers, Björn Brändl, Franz-Josef Müller, Sönke Friedrichsen and Stephan Kolkenbrock"},{id:"83012",title:"Cotton Based Cellulose Nanocomposites: Synthesis and Application",slug:"cotton-based-cellulose-nanocomposites-synthesis-and-application",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106473",abstract:"Nanocellulose is a renewable natural biomaterial which has risen to prominence due to its biodegradability and physiochemical properties making it a promising candidate to replace non-biodegradable synthetic fibers. Due to its profound qualities, nanocellulose extracted from cotton fibers have tremendous application potential and have been intensively studied particularly in the generation of nanofillers and as reinforcement components in polymer matrixes. Deposition of inorganic nanoparticles on cotton fabric result in antimicrobial textiles with multifunctional use particularly in manufacture of PPE and as filtration devices against environmental pollutants and pathogens. This chapter compiles three main sections. The first section gives an overview of the extent of work done in the creation and application potential of cotton-based nanocomposites. The second section describes the in situ and ex situ methods of nanoparticle deposition and self assembly on cotton fabrics to generate multifunctional cotton-based nanocomposites with antimicrobial potential while the final section describes the incorporation of cotton nanofibers in polymer matrices, their reinforcing properties, as well as surface modification to assist their incorporation. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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