Non-exhaustive list of genes associated with commercially important traits in pigs.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5083",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Significance, Prevention and Control of Food Related Diseases",title:"Significance, Prevention and Control of Food Related Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Food-borne diseases are major causes of morbidity and mortality in the world. It is estimated that about 2.2 million people die yearly due to food and water contamination. Food safety and consequently food security are therefore of immense importance to public health, international trade and world economy. This book, which has 10 chapters, provides information on the incidence, health implications and effective prevention and control strategies of food-related diseases. The book will be useful to undergraduate and postgraduate students, educators and researchers in the fields of life sciences, medicine, agriculture, food science and technology, trade and economics. Policy makers and food regulatory officers will also find it useful in the course of their duties.",isbn:"978-953-51-2277-7",printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4203-4",doi:"10.5772/60612",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"significance-prevention-and-control-of-food-related-diseases",numberOfPages:314,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"fb85a37391ab251574d0f2ad6cd3e805",bookSignature:"Hussaini Anthony Makun",publishedDate:"April 13th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5083.jpg",numberOfDownloads:37069,numberOfWosCitations:49,numberOfCrossrefCitations:30,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:61,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:140,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 13th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 8th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 6th 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"59728",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussaini",middleName:"Anthony",surname:"Makun",slug:"hussaini-makun",fullName:"Hussaini Makun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/59728/images/system/59728.jfif",biography:"Hussaini Anthony Makun is currently working as Professor of Biochemistry and Centre Leader of the Africa Centre of Excellence for Mycotoxin and Food Safety in the Federal University of Technology, Minna. He completed his PhD in Biochemistry (Toxicology) from the same University. The researcher was a Postdoctoral Fellow (PDF) with Food Environment and Health Research Group of the University of Johannesburg (UJ) between 2008 and 2010. He is the Lead Researcher of the Food and Toxicology Research Group (FTRG), which conducts researches on mycotoxins, African medicinal plants and substances of abuse in Nigeria. He has won seven national and international grants and is a member of the African Union Expert Committee on Contaminants in Food and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Contaminants in Food (2012-2016). He has 57 publications in peer-reviewed journals, technical papers and books.",institutionString:"Federal University of Technology Minna",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology Minna",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"328",title:"Food Technology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-bromatology-food-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"50189",title:"Food Safety – Problems and Solutions",doi:"10.5772/63176",slug:"food-safety-problems-and-solutions",totalDownloads:8306,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"When certain disease-causing bacteria, viruses or parasite contaminate food, they can cause food-related diseases. Another word for such a bacterium, virus, or parasite is “pathogen”. Since food-related diseases can be serious, or even fatal, it is important to know and practice safe food-handling behaviors to help reduce the risk of getting sick from contaminated food. According to the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), “food safety is the assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use”. Foodborne diseases are widespread throughout the world. The process by which a foodborne disease spreads begins with the features of the disease, contaminating the food, which in turn threatens both individual and public health by means of the foods. Healthy, or what can be termed as safe food, is food that has not lost its nutritional value, that is clean, in physical, chemical and microbiological terms and that is not stale. The factors causing the contamination of the food may threaten the safe consumption of it and thereby make the foods harmful to human health. For this reason, it is necessary to utilize various resources to prevent the food from being contaminated in all stages of the food chain, from harvest to consumption. The aim of this chapter is to determine the factors affecting food safety and proffer effective intervention strategies against food-related diseases.",signatures:"Aslı Uçar, Mustafa Volkan Yilmaz and Funda Pınar Çakıroğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50189",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50189",authors:[{id:"80923",title:"Prof.",name:"Aslı",surname:"Uçar",slug:"asli-ucar",fullName:"Aslı Uçar"},{id:"176587",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mustafa Volkan",surname:"Yılmaz",slug:"mustafa-volkan-yilmaz",fullName:"Mustafa Volkan Yılmaz"},{id:"176588",title:"Prof.",name:"Funda Pınar",surname:"Çakıroğlu",slug:"funda-pinar-cakiroglu",fullName:"Funda Pınar Çakıroğlu"}],corrections:null},{id:"50077",title:"Risk Factors Influencing Microbial Contamination in Food Service Centers",doi:"10.5772/63029",slug:"risk-factors-influencing-microbial-contamination-in-food-service-centers",totalDownloads:3610,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An improvement of food service centers in recent years has been made based on the implementation of the principles of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system. Food safety preventive measures have been focused on training of handlers in hygiene practices and on improving the sanitary quality of meals. In Europe, an increasing trend in foodborne outbreaks has been attributed to catering businesses. This fact highlights that the impact of preventive measures in the past few years has not been sufficiently effective as expected. Special attention should be paid to food services destined to susceptible population, such as hospitals, long-term care facilities, or school canteens, because people could be more susceptible to become ill when exposed to foodborne agents. There are numerous relevant factors influencing microbial contamination of foods, according to the preparation method, hygienic sanitary conditions of catering facilities, or food handling, storage, and distribution. In the present chapter, a review of the most significant risk factors influencing microbial contamination of foods in food service centers are described with special focus on those establishments where susceptible population (i.e., children, elderly, immunocompromised people) is present. Besides, potential preventive measures to be considered in that establishments and correct implementation of food safety actions are given to provide useful recommendations to food handlers, food operators, and risk managers.",signatures:"Antonio Valero, Magdevis-Yanet Rodríguez, Guiomar Denisse\nPosada-Izquierdo, Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez, Elena Carrasco and\nRosa Maria García-Gimeno",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50077",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50077",authors:[{id:"29379",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Carrasco",slug:"elena-carrasco",fullName:"Elena Carrasco"},{id:"35212",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Valero",slug:"antonio-valero",fullName:"Antonio Valero"},{id:"35213",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",surname:"García-Gimeno",slug:"rosa-maria-garcia-gimeno",fullName:"Rosa María García-Gimeno"},{id:"82252",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Pérez-Rodríguez",slug:"fernando-perez-rodriguez",fullName:"Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez"},{id:"176614",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdevis Yanet",surname:"Rodríguez",slug:"magdevis-yanet-rodriguez",fullName:"Magdevis Yanet Rodríguez"},{id:"176615",title:"Prof.",name:"Guiomar Denisse",surname:"Posada Izquierdo",slug:"guiomar-denisse-posada-izquierdo",fullName:"Guiomar Denisse Posada Izquierdo"}],corrections:null},{id:"49838",title:"Risk Factors and Outcomes of Food Poisoning in Africa",doi:"10.5772/62274",slug:"risk-factors-and-outcomes-of-food-poisoning-in-africa",totalDownloads:6784,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Food poisoning is one of the common health problems in most African countries. This review was conducted to describe the situation in Africa with regard to specific risk factors and outcomes of food poisoning in the African setting based on published literature.",signatures:"Ntambwe Malangu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49838",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49838",authors:[{id:"84773",title:"Prof.",name:"Ntambwe",surname:"Malangu",slug:"ntambwe-malangu",fullName:"Ntambwe Malangu"}],corrections:null},{id:"49997",title:"Potential Exposure and Risk Associated with Metal Contamination in Foods",doi:"10.5772/62683",slug:"potential-exposure-and-risk-associated-with-metal-contamination-in-foods",totalDownloads:2116,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Humans require several trace elements as components of the diet. Some of these elements are required in extremely small quantities (only micrograms per day). On the other hand, in higher concentrations, some elements may also have deleterious, even lethal, effects. Metals such as arsenic, chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg) are naturally occurring chemical compounds. The contamination of food with these metals occurs mainly through human activities, such as farming and industry, or from contamination during food processing and storage. People can be exposed to these metals by ingesting contaminated food or water, and their accumulation in the body can lead to harmful effects over time. The main objective of this chapter is to provide a literature review on the various types of foodborne poisoning caused by the contamination of food with arsenic, Cr, Pb, and Hg and on food safety issues associated with the presence of these metals in food. Research findings from various studies carried out to examine the relationship between metal exposure and the adverse health effects of metals are addressed.",signatures:"Luciana M. Coelho, Diego R. Pessoa, Kênia M. Oliveira, Priscila A.R.\nde Sousa, Lícia A. da Silva and Nívia M.M. Coelho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49997",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49997",authors:[{id:"163731",title:"Prof.",name:"Nivia",surname:"Coelho",slug:"nivia-coelho",fullName:"Nivia Coelho"},{id:"177651",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana",surname:"Coelho",slug:"luciana-coelho",fullName:"Luciana Coelho"},{id:"177653",title:"Ms.",name:"Diego",surname:"Pessoa",slug:"diego-pessoa",fullName:"Diego Pessoa"},{id:"177654",title:"Ms.",name:"Kenia",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"kenia-oliveira",fullName:"Kenia Oliveira"},{id:"177655",title:"Ms.",name:"Priscila",surname:"Sousa",slug:"priscila-sousa",fullName:"Priscila Sousa"},{id:"177656",title:"Ms.",name:"Licia",surname:"Silva",slug:"licia-silva",fullName:"Licia Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"50151",title:"Technologies for Detecting Botulinum Neurotoxins in Biological and Environmental Matrices",doi:"10.5772/63064",slug:"technologies-for-detecting-botulinum-neurotoxins-in-biological-and-environmental-matrices",totalDownloads:1794,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomonitoring of food and environmental matrices is critical for the rapid and sensitive diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases caused by toxins. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has noted that toxins from bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants present an ongoing public health threat, especially since some of these toxins could compromise security of the food supply. Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), produced by Clostridium spp., are among those bacterial toxins that pose life-threatening danger to humans. BoNTs inhibit the release of acetylcholine at peripheral cholinergic nerve terminals and cause flaccid paralysis. BoNTs are grouped in seven serotypes and many subtypes within these groups. Rapid and accurate identification of these toxins in contaminated food as well as in environmental matrices can help direct treatment. Herein, we discuss current methods to detect BoNTs with a focus on how these technologies have been used to identify toxins in various food and environmental matrices. We also discuss the emergence of new serotypes and subtypes of BoNTs and the increasing number of cases of botulism in wildlife. Finally, we consider how environmental changes impact food safety for humans and present new challenges for detection technology.",signatures:"Luisa W. Cheng, Kirkwood M. Land, Christina Tam, David L. Brandon\nand Larry H. Stanker",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50151",authors:[{id:"96462",title:"Dr.",name:"Luisa",surname:"Cheng",slug:"luisa-cheng",fullName:"Luisa Cheng"},{id:"177436",title:"Prof.",name:"Kirkwood",surname:"Land",slug:"kirkwood-land",fullName:"Kirkwood Land"}],corrections:null},{id:"50256",title:"Cholera – Epidemiology, Prevention and Control",doi:"10.5772/63358",slug:"cholera-epidemiology-prevention-and-control",totalDownloads:6127,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Cholera is an important public health problem, causing substantial morbidity and mortality especially in the developing countries. It is an indicator of socioeconomic problems and is a global threat to public health. Worldwide, approximately 3–5 million cholera cases and 100,000–120,000 deaths due to cholera occur annually. Cholera is transmitted by drinking water or eating food, which is contaminated with the Vibrio cholerae. Approximately 5–10% of persons suffer from severe cholera and if untreated, 50% of severe cases are fatal. The frequency, severity, and duration of cholera infection vary and keep on changing in different parts of the world. Environmental factors such as climate variability, temperature, and rainfall play an important role in cholera transmission. Population density, urbanization, and overcrowding also influence cholera transmission. It is also closely associated with the social and behavioral aspects of individuals as well as communities. Each year, many cholera outbreaks are reported from different regions of the world. These outbreaks have negative impact on social and economic conditions of the affected countries. An integrated, multisectoral program, designed on evidence-based interventions, is required to prevent and control cholera.",signatures:"Saulat Jahan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50256",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50256",authors:[{id:"85323",title:"Dr.",name:"Saulat",surname:"Jahan",slug:"saulat-jahan",fullName:"Saulat Jahan"}],corrections:null},{id:"49924",title:"Staphylococcal Food Poisoning and Novel Perspectives in Food Safety",doi:"10.5772/62177",slug:"staphylococcal-food-poisoning-and-novel-perspectives-in-food-safety",totalDownloads:2213,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ingestion of food is the major way for human beings to obtain nutrient substances for basic living, and therefore, the quality and safety of food is a major concern. Foodborne illness includes any illness resulting from the consumption of contaminated food that contains pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or chemical or natural toxins. Consequently, food safety is considered to be a globally expanding issue and thus a leading topic in public health, no longer limited to foodborne illnesses but extended to nearly every safety issue regarding “farm to table” food approaches. Bacterial foodborne infections occur by ingestion of food contaminated with growth of pathogenic bacteria, toxin production, and continuous bacterial growth in intestines. In the past decade, a large number of cases or reports have been available on food containing unhealthy, harmful, or toxic substances (other than food poisoning outbreaks) worldwide. Foodborne microorganisms, primarily associated with pathogenic bacteria and toxic substances produced in food, have presented major challenges for food safety. As a global foodborne pathogen, Staphylococcus aureus is typically capable of causing a large number of infections, including food poisoning. Thus, this chapter aims to review several factors contributing to the rise of staphylococci as a growing concern for the food safety industry, including the growth of S. aureus, production and regulation of staphylococcal enterotoxins, the viable putative but nonculturable (VPNC) state, and antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus caused by the indiscriminate use of antibiotics in both clinical and veterinary settings.",signatures:"Zhenbo Xu, Brian M. Peters, Bing Li, Lin Li and Mark E. Shirtliff",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49924",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49924",authors:[{id:"176645",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhenbo",surname:"Xu",slug:"zhenbo-xu",fullName:"Zhenbo Xu"},{id:"177833",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Peters",slug:"brian-peters",fullName:"Brian Peters"},{id:"177834",title:"Prof.",name:"Bing",surname:"Li",slug:"bing-li",fullName:"Bing Li"},{id:"177835",title:"Prof.",name:"Lin",surname:"Li",slug:"lin-li",fullName:"Lin Li"},{id:"177836",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark",surname:"Shirtliff",slug:"mark-shirtliff",fullName:"Mark Shirtliff"}],corrections:null},{id:"50200",title:"Toxoplasma gondii in Meat for Human Consumption – A Brief Review of the Most Described Strategies for Its Detection and Quantification",doi:"10.5772/63224",slug:"toxoplasma-gondii-in-meat-for-human-consumption-a-brief-review-of-the-most-described-strategies-for-",totalDownloads:2427,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic zoonotic disease widely distributed worldwide and is caused by the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii. The definitive host of T. gondii is the domestic cat and the entire cat family, in which the sexual stages of the parasite develop. T. gondii can also infect a wide range of intermediate hosts, affecting most warm-blooded animals including humans. In humans, toxoplasmosis is usually asymptomatic in healthy individuals, but can develop lymphadenopathy and nonspecific symptomatology or even be fatal in infants with congenital toxoplasmosis and in immunocompromised patients. Transmission to humans is mainly through food, especially by eating undercooked meat or meat contaminated with tissue cysts. This has led to various public health organizations worldwide monitoring programs on T. gondii in animals intended for human consumption, especially in meat samples. One of the techniques employed in the laboratory is that based on the polymerase chain reaction and some of its variants, which have proven to be valuable tools for the detection of T. gondii in tissues for human consumption and many other types of biological samples. The development of different strategies for the molecular detection of T. gondii has led to the identification and quantification methodologies varying widely among laboratories. Therefore, this chapter reviews the main methods of extraction, purification, detection and quantification of T. gondii DNA in tissue samples from different species destined for human consumption.",signatures:"G.F. Dzib Paredes, A. Ortega-Pacheco, J.A. Rosado-Aguilar, K.Y.\nAcosta-Viana, E. Guzmán -Marín and M. Jiménez-Coello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50200",authors:[{id:"30340",title:"Dr.",name:"Matilde",surname:"Jimenez-Coello",slug:"matilde-jimenez-coello",fullName:"Matilde Jimenez-Coello"},{id:"30391",title:"Dr.",name:"Karla Y.",surname:"Acosta-Viana",slug:"karla-y.-acosta-viana",fullName:"Karla Y. Acosta-Viana"},{id:"30392",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia",surname:"Guzman-Marin",slug:"eugenia-guzman-marin",fullName:"Eugenia Guzman-Marin"},{id:"30393",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Ortega-Pacheco",slug:"antonio-ortega-pacheco",fullName:"Antonio Ortega-Pacheco"},{id:"176642",title:"MSc.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Dzib-Paredes",slug:"gerardo-dzib-paredes",fullName:"Gerardo Dzib-Paredes"},{id:"176643",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Alberto",surname:"Rosado-Aguilar",slug:"jose-alberto-rosado-aguilar",fullName:"Jose Alberto Rosado-Aguilar"}],corrections:null},{id:"49795",title:"Spread and Control of Prion Diseases in the Food and Feed Chains",doi:"10.5772/62118",slug:"spread-and-control-of-prion-diseases-in-the-food-and-feed-chains",totalDownloads:1812,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Prion diseases, or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), are a group of chronic, progressive, and fatal neurodegenerative disorders that affect a variety of mammalian species. This chapter discusses the issues raised by two foodborne prion diseases, namely bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD), particularly those related to their spread in cattle and humans, the contamination of specified risk material (SRM) in meat, the relevant regulations, and appropriate detection methods for surveillance.",signatures:"Qinchun Rao and Yun-Hwa Peggy Hsieh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49795",authors:[{id:"91208",title:"Prof.",name:"Yun-Hwa",surname:"Hsieh",slug:"yun-hwa-hsieh",fullName:"Yun-Hwa Hsieh"}],corrections:null},{id:"50013",title:"Herbal Extracts – Possibility of Preventing Food-Borne Infection",doi:"10.5772/62268",slug:"herbal-extracts-possibility-of-preventing-food-borne-infection",totalDownloads:1892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Despite the high degree of awareness of food preservation methods, there is increasing occurrence of disease outbreaks caused by pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms in foods. Due to consumer awareness and negative perception of artificial preservatives in food, in recent years attention is shifting toward alternatives that the consumers recognize as natural. Thus, herbal extracts are now getting more space in food industry to prevent the propagation of bacteria that affect the spoilage of food or for the spread of so-called food-borne diseases. Herbal extracts, particularly essential oils (EOs), have complex composition that quality and composition depend on the method of extraction. There are now numerous reports of the in vitro antimicrobial activity of EOs in the scientific and medical literature: EOs are found to have broad-spectrum inhibitory activities against various food-borne Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. In this chapter, definition, history, and economic importance of aromatic herbs and herbal extracts, particularly EOs, are described. Also, attention has been paid to techniques for extraction, as well as chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of herbal extracts. This chapter demonstrates the possibility of usage of herbal extracts in preventing food-borne infection through literature survey and original results.",signatures:"Biljana Damjanović-Vratnica",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50013",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50013",authors:[{id:"176635",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",surname:"Damjanović-Vratnica",slug:"biljana-damjanovic-vratnica",fullName:"Biljana Damjanović-Vratnica"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3115",title:"Mycotoxin and Food Safety in Developing Countries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b68e48027a6b243f0947e61e5eeebbae",slug:"mycotoxin-and-food-safety-in-developing-countries",bookSignature:"Hussaini Anthony Makun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3115.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"59728",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussaini",surname:"Makun",slug:"hussaini-makun",fullName:"Hussaini Makun"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. 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\r\n\tThis book will cover the processes of the fungi that attach themselves to plant roots forming mycorrhizae, the mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi are symbiotrophic mutualists, meaning that they grow and feed on living plant tissues without harming the host tissues. Arbuscular mycorrhizae, ectomycorrhizae, and ectoendomycorrhizae will be discussed in more detail. We will cover the taxonomic classification of spore germination and biotrophism. The establishment of mycorrhizae results in a series of events coordinated by the fungus and the plant and their interactions. Therefore we will have the possibility to further explore the molecular and biochemical signals of mycorrhization, its intra and extra root signals, and their occurrence. Furthermore, we want to address the availability of nutrients in the soil according to its characteristics and those of the host plants. Finally, we will address the characteristics, use, and management of the soil for a better symbiotic association between the fungi and the roots. Thus, a better response to the growth of the host plants will be observed in this book.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-090-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-089-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-091-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"dddc237ff52d11c9acbfbd488686336b",bookSignature:"Dr. Rodrigo De Sousa",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12144.jpg",keywords:"Fungi, Glomeromycota, Arbuscular Mycorrhizae, Ectomycorrhiza, Ectoendomycorrhizae, Obligatory Biotrophs, Quiescence, Symbiosis, Occurrence of Mycorrhiza, Stimulation of Plant Growth, Nutrient Use Efficiency, Mycorrhizal Dependence",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 18th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 19th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 17th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 6th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 4th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"19 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. de Sousa is a researcher on alternative sources of fertilizers in Brazil. 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From 2014 to 2015, he studied at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, USA. He also completed an internship at the Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, North Carolina State University, USA, in 2015, for which he studied the management of nitrogen fertilization in corn crops. 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However, the underlying molecular variation resulting in a specific phenotype often stems from mutations predating domestication. Although domestication generally leads towards a reduction in effective population size, land animal domestication cannot be seen as a simple split of a subset of individuals from their wild progenitors. The meaning of the word domestication is poorly defined and lacks consistency across different scientific disciplines [1]. From a population genetics perspective, domestication results in a deliberate separation of the captive, and then domesticated population from its parent population. Domestication is, therefore, initially indistinguishable from any other event that results in reduction of gene-flow between populations, and creating opportunity to respond to new selective pressures [2]. The simplest definition of domestication considers a domestic population as a subset of the wild population with cessation of gene-flow [3]. Therefore, one can expect that domestication results in a reduction of genetic variation in the domesticated population. The onset of domestication occurred in multiple geographically distinct areas during the late Pleistocene to early Holocene transition (12,000–8200 B.P, [4]). The process of land animal domestication, however, turns out to be a complex, long-term event initiated by cultural transitions related to food production [5, 6]. The definition of an animal to be considered domesticated varies, however, some common characteristics emerge from literature. Teletchea and Fontaine propose that a domesticated animal should be selectively bred in captivity and modified from its wild ancestors [7]. It is important to realize that those early considered domestic populations were genetically and phenotypically hardly distinguishable from wild types, and therefore geographical location was a better predictor of local characteristics than domestication status [3]. The general assumption that multiple centers of domestication exist has important implications for the source of genetic and phenotypic variation in domesticated species. In cattle, for example, two distinct cattle lineages that separated ~300,000 ya, contributed to two major lineages of extant cattle, that is, taurine cattle (originating from
Domesticated species are good models to study genomic and phenotypic consequences of demography and selection [19]. The use of higher DNA marker densities has enabled researchers to reveal the complexity of livestock domestication, which was shown to be far more complex than a single sampling from the wild [20]. Genotyping and sequencing technologies have opened up many opportunities to reveal the complex history of domestication, admixture, and selection in livestock [4, 20]. Combining modern sequence technologies with extensive studies on fossil records and land animal usage now enables the reconstruction of domestication in details. Apart from a suitable history and documentation, the availability of detailed genetic information is crucial to be able to study genomic alterations due to domestication. Pig (
Here I will discuss genomic variation within and between different populations of pigs, providing deeper understanding of how domestication has influenced genetic diversity of pigs. Five major events in the evolutionary history and domestication of pigs can be recognized that are of importance for the distribution of genetic variation in modern pig genomes (Figure 1).
\nSchematic overview of the history of the pig (
Knowledge about the source of the domesticated form, the origin of the species, is essential to understand genetic variation within modern breeds. The Suidae family is particularly interesting for molecular genetic studies as it is one of the few mammalian lineages that has closely related species living today. Multiple
The demographic and geographic history of the domesticated pig may be just as complex as that of its wild counterpart. There is compelling evidence that pig domestication events occurred at multiple locations, Eastern Anatolia and China independently, some 9000–10,000 years ago [26, 37]. Domestication has not been a single event, but rather a long period with recurrent admixture with wild populations [38]. Following initial domestication, the traits selected as well as how animals were kept, strongly differed in Europe and Asia resulting in highly different domesticated pigs between Europe and Asia. Asian pigs were kept in close proximity of humans, often integrated in their settlements. By contrast, European pigs were roaming freely in forested areas in the surroundings [39, 40]. Only during the Industrial Revolution, a more strict pig farming system was adopted and implemented to fulfill the increasing demand for pork. Because of recurrent gene-flow between wild and domestic pigs, a reduction in genetic diversity cannot be observed in domesticated pigs compared to their presumed wild counterparts [35, 38, 41]. One should realize though that European and Asian domesticated pigs have been geographically isolated for over a million years ago, because they have distinct wild origins. Therefore, they genetically resemble local wild boar more than domestic pigs from different geographic origins [24, 35]. This dichotomy also underlies the fact that European pigs and wild boar are genetically less diverse than Asian wild boar and domestic pigs.
\nIt is well documented that during the Industrial Revolution in Europe, European pigs have been deliberately hybridized with Asian pigs. Urbanization in Europe increased the demand for meat such as pork, but during those times, pig farmers would still have their pigs roaming in surrounding forests. Forest cover was decreasing and a different pig production system seemed inevitable [40]. Due to this changing environment, pig breeders sought a way to improve their stock in such way that pigs had to become adapted to living in small(er) enclosures, be more prolific and gain weight more rapidly. This led to selection for traits better adapted to the changed environment. Many of these traits were already present in Asian domestic pigs. Therefore, British farmers started crossbreeding their own pigs with these Asian pigs [40]. This introgression of Asian genetic material into European populations has long been demonstrated by genetic markers [42, 43]. Moreover, the intentional crossbreeding and consecutive artificial selection on Asia-derived traits enabled adaptive loci to emerge in the genome of European domestic pigs. Genes of Asian origin have been demonstrated to contribute to increased fertility and fatness in commercial Large White pigs [44, 45]. Very recently, hybridization between wild and domesticated pigs has been reported in Western Europe, resulting in traceable Asian genetic material in local wild boar populations in Germany [31, 32, 34].
\nDue to the worldwide consumption of pork, the species is farmed at a global scale, far exceeding its original natural distribution (IUCN). The influence and contribution of commercial pig breeds to local ecology and biodiversity is however debated [31, 32, 46]. Also, escape or intentional release of local stocks have resulted in feralization of domesticated pigs, which is now a major population in the United States, although the continent is not part of the native range of the species [47]. The domesticated pig as it is used nowadays for agricultural purposes consists of many breeds that have been separated and kept isolated for decades, which has resulted in many genetic differences between these breeds. Breed and population specific genetic studies have greatly enhanced the dissection of complex traits that are economically important. Knowing and understanding the origin and distribution of variation in (domesticated) species is important for conservation of genetic resources, such as culturally important heritage breeds [48]. Local husbandry and breeding techniques have created an enormous diversification of pig breeds. Generally, European breeds can be categorized into global commercial breeds, stemming from the White type in England, and local heritage breeds, developed locally and now often endangered [39]. It is notable that many heritage breeds genetically resemble the local wild boar more than global pig breeds, most likely because they were not improved by Asian gene-flow two centuries ago [35, 49, 50, 51]. The globalization of pig breeding and consumption has swamped local pig breeds with common commercial breeds from British heritage background, such as Large White, Landrace, Pietrain and Duroc [39]. Also, extensive admixture between breeds of different origin is known to occur, highly dependent on local breeding practices.
\nIncreasing evidence showed that humans play an important role in stimulating hybridization in wild species, either unintentionally or on purpose. Human-induced hybridization can not only be a by-product of globalization as some species became widely distributed due to human mobility, but it can also be intentional such as in domesticated species [40, 52]. It is becoming apparent that many livestock species/breeds are actually a mixture of highly divergent populations with a mixed demographic history, combined in one genome. The formation of livestock breeds provides a good example of how man has influenced the genomic architecture of a species. In cattle, for example, exchange of genetic material between different species promoted the uptake of beneficial traits from closely related species [53]. In pig, domestication does not seem to have left a clear population bottleneck, as demonstrated by the high level of genetic variation in European pigs [38]. This suggests that the majority of the genetic variation that is present in European wild boar is also present in domestic breeds, even though modern pigs are phenotypically clearly different from their wild counterparts. Moreover, the gene-flow with wild populations as well as between different domestic lineages enabled pig breeders to select for locally and globally preferred traits, using a broad genetic background [44, 45]. Remarkably, the extensive mixture of genetic material leading towards the current European commercial pigs has resulted in domestic breeds that are genetically more diverse than their wild ancestors in Europe [24, 35, 36, 41]. This counter-intuitive characteristic of commercial pigs is mainly driven by the influx of Asian genes during the Industrial Revolution [45]; local heritage breeds that do not display signs of Asian gene-flow tend to have lower genetic diversity [50, 51]. Nowadays, many breeds and definitions are used to describe the origin of (local) stock, with some being a complex mixture of Asian and European heritage, depending on the geographical region and the breeding practice of pig farmers.
\nPig farming has drastically changed since first domestication. Todays’ elaborate pig breeding industry has only few characteristics in common with early pig farmers, and has resulted in a highly professional large-scale pork production system, making use of latest technologies in animal breeding. Selection for particular traits not only improved due to more precise phenotyping and better defined traits such as carcass quality, growth rate and fertility [54], but also because of crossing breeds with desirable traits of different origins [45]. The use of pedigree information and large-scale tracking of animal relatedness has speeded up the improvement of pig breeds. In other livestock, especially cattle, the implementation of the use of genetic markers on top of pedigree information resulted in even more efficient selection [55]. The recent and rapid genetic progress can be achieved due to the implementation of genomic selection, in which animals are selected based on their performance predicted from their genotypes, rather than phenotypes [56]. This way, animals can be selected at an earlier stage, and predicted phenotypes for typically female traits can also be implemented using genotype information from males [57, 58].
\nGenomics has not only proven useful as a tool in genomic selection, but also has provided more understanding about the molecular mechanisms that underlie traits of interest. Knowledge about the link between genes and trait enables more accurate breeding [54]. Moreover, if the function of a specific gene is known, it can provide insight into the selection history of a breed. Numerous studies have successfully identified selection for genes linked to specific commercially important traits (Table 1). Interestingly, some of these genes under selection in European breeds have an Asian origin [59, 60, 61]. Also, genome-wide scans for detrimental variants have identified mutations in commercial populations with negative effects [62, 63]. Recent work demonstrates that some variants that cause lethality in homozygous state are present at relatively high frequency in commercial pig lines [64, 65]. Knowing these recessive lethal mutations can aid in avoiding matings between carriers of such mutations within the breeding scheme. Overall, genomics has provided valuable insight into variation in pigs: what its origin is, how is it maintained, reduced and increased. This turned out to be a complex interplay of molecular processes, selection, demographic history, gene-flow and human interference. Moreover, genomics is an important tool in the pig industry nowadays and is integral to modern commercial breeding.
\nGene | \nTrait | \nStudy | \n
---|---|---|
Coat color | \nAndersson and Plastow [66] | \n|
Coat color | \nOkumura et al., [61] | \n|
Coat color | \nKijas et al., [67]; Fang et al., [68] | \n|
Coat color | \nAi et al., [59]; Wilkinson et al., [69] | \n|
Lean growth | \nvan Laere et al., [70] | \n|
Lean growth | \nFujii et al., [71] | \n|
Lean growth | \nMilan et al., [72] | \n|
Body size | \nRubin et al., [73] | \n|
Body size | \nRubin et al., [73] | \n|
Body size | \nRubin et al., [73] | \n|
Body composition | \nRubin et al., [73] | \n|
Fertility | \nChoi et al., [74] | \n|
Fertility | \nBosse et al., [44] | \n|
Fatness | \nChoi et al., [74] | \n|
Ear morphology | \nWilkinson et al., [59] | \n
Non-exhaustive list of genes associated with commercially important traits in pigs.
Many conditions or pathologies can modify teeth surfaces and cause several functional and esthetic problems to the dental patient. They could be divided in:
congenital defects or developmental dental defects;
acquired dental defects.
Congenital dental defects include pathologies as amelogenesis imperfecta, dentinogenesis imperfecta and molar-incisor hypomineralization.
On the other side, dental caries, occlusal trauma and tooth wear are recognized as the most important reasons of dental tissue changes, concerning acquired dental defects. However, tooth wear has always been underrated and less considered than dental caries and trauma [1, 2]. Also congenital dental defects are little considered because of the lower prevalence in the population then dental caries although there is a clear association between some types of developmental defects and dental caries in primary dentition [3].
Regarding tooth wear, today the common opinion of dental clinicians is that the prevalence of tooth wear is increasing, because of a high incidence of non-physiological tooth wear and this is confirmed by important surveys [4, 5]. Also the prevalence of extensive wear is thought to increase, especially erosive tooth wear at young age [6].
Regarding congenital dental defects, the comprehension of genetic and environmental influences on enamel and dentine development are considered crucial for preventive actions and treatment planning of these conditions [7].
With the increased life expectancy and augmented frequency of oral hygiene procedures, problems related with tooth wear and congenital teeth defects are likely to place greater demands upon dental clinicians.
Then, in order to face that, it is important to understand the pathological mechanisms underlying developmental dental defects and dental wear and what biochemical processes and incorrect habits are involved in these conditions.
Congenital dental defects are due to inherited or spontaneous genetic or epigenetic mutations that influence specialized cellular and biochemical pathways involved in dental hard tissue formation [8]. Local or systemic defects depend on where affected genes are expressed [9, 10].
However, these conditions are also caused by environmental factors such as drugs, infections, nutritional deficiencies, medical conditions or trauma [7]. Clinical importance of these defects is related to the risk of tooth decay, especially in respect of biofilm retention [11]. In addition, problems in restorative treatment because of the effectiveness of the materials and cements used for patient rehabilitation could be present.
Developmental enamel defects are mostly due to mutations in genes that code for enamel proteins. Generalized systemic conditions may also be present and could involve neuroectodermal mesenchyme tissues, that share common embryologic origins with enamel and dentin [12]. Otherwise, they could be induced by some pre-, peri- and postnatal factors.
Clinically, enamel abnormalities due to gene mutations are grouped under the name of amelogenesis imperfecta (AI) [7] and can be clinically divided into qualitative and quantitative defects. Qualitative defects differ from quantitative ones because they are characterized by the presence of normal amounts of enamel that is deficiently mineralized while quantitative defects are referred to enamel quantity.
Hypoplasia is a quantitative reduction of enamel formation due to disruption in ameloblast production. It can affect both the primary and permanent teeth [13]. The etiology of hypoplasia is related to insults occurring during the earliest stages of enamel development (matrix formation) [14]. It causes pits, grooves, thin or missing enamel, dental surface breaks and deficiencies.
Hypomineralization is a qualitative defect due to insults occurring in the calcification process. The resulting reduced mineralization could be recognized as soft enamel. When an altered translucency or opacity affects the entire tooth, or a localized area we can also talk of hypomaturation [12]. In case of hypomaturation and/or hypomineralization, enamel could fracture easily under loading [15] and this could result in severe tooth wear.
In the field of hypomineralization defects, a peculiar type of chronological enamel hypomineralization is the molar-incisor hypomineralization (MIH). It determines well demarcated opaque areas on the surface of permanent molars and incisors that could be colored from white to yellow or brownish, depending on the severity of the pathology [16]. In these cases, teeth often show enamel disintegration at the occlusal surfaces, post eruptive tooth structure loss and high caries susceptibility. Tooth sensitivity could also be present because of the porous prismatic enamel morphology [17]. This condition may predispose to tooth wear due to attrition between teeth and it can be aggravated in presence of other factors as abrasion and erosion. The severity of the clinical status may require extensive treatment [18, 19, 20].
Systemic factors affecting enamel development may also be distinguished in pre-, peri- and postnatal conditions in relation to the timing of the event [18] and could be caused by metabolic disturbances, drugs consumption, local infections, trauma and radiation [21, 22].
Amelogenesis defects may predispose to tooth sensitivity, plaque accumulation and increased caries risk, and in severe cases even space loss and malocclusion [23]. Also tooth wear can be associated to developmental enamel defects [7]. Infact, tooth wear could be a detrimental consequence of attrition between teeth in case of amelogenesis imperfecta and this may also cause the alteration of the normal occlusal pattern. Qualitative enamel defects may decrease the resistance of teeth both to erosion and abrasion because of the weak resistance to acid attacks and friction with foreign bodies. Furthermore, the augmented risk of dental caries and the porosity of enamel structure can enhance the process of tooth breakdown due to occlusal loading. Anterior open bite and increased calculus formation are commonly encountered in association to amelogenesis imperfecta [15] and could worsen the oral condition. Also tooth wear can be associated to developmental enamel defects.
Developmental dentin defects principally origin from mutations in genes coding for the proteins involved in type 1 collagen or in the extracellular matrix as well as in the mineralization processes. Defects may involve only dentine or both dentine and skeleton, if altered proteins are specific to dentine or expressed both in bone and dentine. These two types of clinical phenotype classified inherited dentine defects in the Shield’s classification system [24].
Dentinogenesis imperfecta is the most common type of developmental disorder of dentine, affecting both primary and permanent teeth. It is sometimes associated with osteogenesis imperfecta [25]. When dentine and osseous defects are associated, there is a genetic fragile bone condition together with a reduced support of dentine that could show an opalescent brown discoloration. Lacking teeth support leads to easily fractures of the overlying enamel fractures as well as rapid wear and attrition of the teeth. Progressive pulp obliteration usually begins soon after eruption of the teeth and wear could arrive to the gingival level [7]. Dentine dysplasia is less common and shows normal appearing crowns with normal or short roots and pulp reduced in size. Occasionally, other abnormalities such as dental discolorations, bulbous crowns and pulp obliterations may be encountered [26].
Dentin developmental defects are highly expressed in familiar hypophosphatemia, also known as ‘vitamin D-resistant rickets’, an X-linked dominant inheritance condition [27]. This condition is associated with reduced resorption of phosphate in the renal tubules and characteristic rachitic bone deformities [28]. Spontaneous dental abscesses in children with no history of caries or trauma showing teeth involved in familial hypophosphatemia may occur [29]. Poorly mineralized dentine, and tubular defects extended closed to the dentino-enamel junction could predispose the pulp to exposures and infection as soon as the enamel is removed (superficial caries or attrition) [28, 30].
Because of the X-linked condition, boys are affected by the most severe dental involvement and girls the least. A wide range of spectrum manifestations has been described [26].
Tooth wear is defined as the progressive loss dental hard tissues from the surfaces of the teeth, caused by relative motion (friction) at the surface [1]. This type of wear includes attrition and abrasion, but also dental erosion and abfraction are nowadays included in this condition.
Tooth wear due to masticatory function is regarded as a natural phenomenon and a certain degree of tooth wear is considered unavoidable during age [31]. If the degree of destruction or the rate of loss becomes excessive, overcoming the physiological mechanisms of compensation (e.g. formation of secondary dentin), problems arise with the necessity of treatment [32]. It may cause functional and esthetic problems, dental sensitivity [1], or it could prejudice the survival of the teeth [2]. Wear could be critically pathological when it leads to poor masticatory function with concomitant reduction in quality of life and possible deterioration of systemic health [33].
The presence of developmental dental defects of enamel or dentine origin could enhance the process of tooth wear. In fact, decreased resistance in teeth with enamel and dentin abnormalities is a fact and the etiological mechanical and chemical processes of attrition, abrasion, erosion and abfraction may critically reduce the survival rate of teeth with developmental dental defects.
Then, understanding and recognizing the disruptive processes of tooth wear and if it hides possible developmental dental defects is necessary to prevent and treat several dental pathologies as worn dentition.
Attritional is defined as the loss of tooth tissue due to friction between opposing teeth and is thus related to dental occlusion. The progressive tooth substance loss (TSL) is considered by Berry and Poole [31] a normal aging process, in which formation of secondary dentine, muscle adaptation, alveolar growth and attrition are all part of a compensation mechanism. In this view, attrition, as a normal process of changing dental morphology, should not be regarded as excessive. However, the loss of tooth tissue usually affects the dental occlusion, and it is still controversial the fact of ignoring a changing occlusion in the management of dental problems such as ‘extensive’ attrition or temporomandibular disorders. For these reasons and because of different assessment criteria, the exact prevalence of attrition is unclear [1, 2].
The literature on attrition does not provide clear evidence for the efficacy of particular occlusal designs in the management of attrition [34, 35]. Some cross-sectional studies [36, 37] indicate that anterior (spatial) relationships and attrition were related. As expected, anterior guidance, which is partially determined by vertical overbite and horizontal overjet, seems to reduce the risk for posterior attrition, but increases the risk for anterior attrition. Canine protection, that ensures anterior guidance, may reduce the posterior tooth substance loss but only one study tried to demonstrate it [37]. Absent posterior support did not necessarily lead to increased attrition of the remaining teeth, whereas a reduced number of teeth may lead to increased wear of the remaining teeth [38].
In dentinogenesis imperfecta, attrition is deleterious. As reported in literature, the reduced support of dentine due to genetic condition leads to easily fractures of the overlying enamel and to a progressively rapid tooth wear caused by attrition [7].
For this reason, attrition is very common in dentinogenesis imperfecta and have to be considered as one of the most important factors of tooth wear.
Attrition in patients with amelogenesis imperfecta may result in widespread exposed dentin both in primary and in permanent teeth. Deficiencies in enamel attachment to dentin and defective enamel structure take part in the process of tooth wear, that could be faster and result in dentoalveolar abnormalities because of the continuous eruption of teeth [39].
In Molar-incisor hypomineralization (MIH), tooth substance loss could be enhanced due to attrition mechanisms [40]. MIH complicated with tooth substance loss may not only compromise the esthetics and function but also endanger the pulp and longevity of the affected teeth. Tooth substance loss might be complicated by eruption of the teeth with its dentoalveolar processes which obliterate the space for any restorations [41].
Attention in these patients should also be placed when a prosthetic restoration is performed on the antagonist tooth because of the possible increased wear. The material choice is fundamental regarding mechanical properties, hardness and patient occlusion scheme, and the prosthetic restoration of the antagonist with the same material could be considered.
Attrition may be accelerated by “demastication”, intended as a tooth wear process occurring during mastication of food influenced by the abrasiveness of the individual food particles [42, 43]. High levels of inorganic compounds and salts were found in snuff by Dahl et al. [44] while silica abrasive particles were also discovered in tobacco chewing by Bowles et al. [45]
Despite the possible augmented tooth substance loss because of the food particles abrasiveness, a restorative rehabilitation of the patient with developmental dental defects is important also for reestablish an appropriate food intake. In fact, the tooth wear and pain disturbances evoked by some types of food may altered patient’s alimentary habits, avoiding the consumption of some important nutrients [46, 47].
Some parafunctional habits (bruxism and clenching) may contribute to attrition [1, 48]. One study concluded that excessive forceful grinding during ongoing sleep bruxism events may cause canine attrition (Figure 1) [49]. While the prevalence of bruxism is unclear, studies report between 5–96% of the population may be affected [1]. Its prevalence on population with developmental dental defects is not reported in literature but considering the weakness of the tooth tissues in these patients, it could be responsible of a severely worn dentition in young age [50]. Night bruxism and clenching are detrimental and a thorough dental and muscular examination has to be carried out to identify signs of bruxism and clenching in order to avoid major dental destruction. A misdiagnosis may involve future complex oral rehabilitations in order to treat patients with developmental dental defects and severe worn dentition [50].
A case of teeth attrition caused by bruxism.
Dental abrasion is defined as the loss of tooth substance due to friction with food and foreign body (e.g. toothbrush) and may obliterate attrition wear patterns caused by friction of opposing teeth [51]. Some types of dental abrasion may be related to habit or occupation [1, 2, 52]. Notching of incisal edges may be caused by pipe smoking, nut and seed cracking, nail biting, and hairpin biting [51, 53].
The etiology may also be deduced from the location and pattern of abrasion [52, 54]. The most common cause of dental abrasion can be found at the cervical areas and is related to toothbrushing. The technique applied, the time and frequency, the bristle design, and also the dentifrice used during toothbrushing can strongly influence this pattern [1, 48, 52]. A zealous, vigorous and repeated toothbrushing as well the use of toothbrush with not rounded tips of the bristles and abrasive dentifrice, could lead to an important dental abrasion.
In literature studies, premolars were more frequently affected with lesions varying from wedge-shaped and dish-shaped to flattened irregular and concave, with several depth and size (Figures 2 and 3) [55]. Data analysis revealed that vigorous toothbrushing is the major etiologic factor [56, 57, 58, 59, 60].
Mild abrasion in canine and premolar teeth.
Severe abrasion and abfraction lesions of the first and fourth quadrant teeth.
In patients with developmental dental defects, it is important to place a strong emphasis on an adequate oral home-care regimen. Education of the patient and parent guardian on an adequate tooth brushing technique and recommended oral hygiene habits is required. Pitted enamel surfaces and roughness of teeth especially in amelogenesis imperfecta may predispose plaque accumulation and augmented susceptibility to dental caries. Oral hygiene could be poor in some patients, often because of tooth hypersensitivity and the presence of an anterior open bite associated with mouth breathing [61]. Patients have to be informed regarding their situation and instruct to maintain correct oral hygiene habitudes.
Motivation to home oral hygiene instructions is important not only for the health of hard dental tissues but also for the soft gingival tissues. Restorative procedures are usually performed in patients suffering of enamel and dentine defects. Then, teeth surfaces may retain more plaque and gingival hyperplasia can be expressed near restorations.
Dental abrasion is principally associated with horizontal brushing technique [56], but also with brush stiffness [62, 63], dentifrice abrasiveness [57, 58] and age [64, 65]. It was observed that hard bristles caused the least amount of tooth abrasion while soft bristles caused the most amount of abrasion, because of the major retention of toothpaste offered by smaller diameter filaments and denser tufts [66, 67].
Although studies show a strong association of cervical abrasions to toothbrushing, some authors affirm that dental erosion plays a great role in this tooth wear [1, 48, 63]. Experiments show that an interval of 1-hour should be considered before toothbrushing after an acid attack, in order to allow a period of remineralization necessary for improving the resistance of eroded enamel against brushing abrasion [68, 69]. Seong et al. [70] observed that enamel repair commences within 2 hours following an acidic attack and is completed 4–24 hours later. Then it could be concluded that the enamel repair process is relatively slow, exposing to high risk of tooth wear mediated by erosion/abrasion. In this context, patients with developmental dental defects and especially with enamel hypomineralization should have particular attention to avoid toothbrushing after eating acid foods and drinks. In this context, two mechanisms could accelerate tooth wear: the increased demineralization after an acid attack due to the enamel matrix hypomineralization and the reduced rate of remineralization caused by the alteration of the enamel matrix [14].
Obviously, the amount of saliva produced by each patient is one of the most important protective factors to avoid erosion of tooth structure. An appropriate evaluation of salivary rate production should be performed in this sense.
Dental hypersensitivity related to cervical abrasion and exposure of dentin to the oral environment may be possible and generally more frequent than in other populations [71].
Erosion is known as the dissolution of the surface of an object by means of fluids. Dental erosion is always caused by acid dissolving hard tooth tissues [72] and has been defined as the irreversible loss of dental hard tissue caused by a chemical process not involving bacteria (Figure 4) [43].
Occlusal erosion of molar teeth.
A general trend of increasing tooth wear by acid erosion in particular, amongst the young people, was highlighted by several authors [73, 74, 75]. In particular, young women (15–25 years old) are often affected by psychosomatic eating disorders [76].
These phenomena often clinically overlap with other clinical pathologies such as abrasion and attrition (Figure 5). This could lead to a difficult differentiation, especially at the initial stages. However, as the degree of erosion increases, a more suitable differential diagnosis can be performed. It is very important to establish if dental erosion underlines any developmental dental defect that may contribute to the pathologic condition observed. And it is already fundamental to understand what type of developmental defects may affect the dentition similarly or in addition to acid erosion. Sometimes, it could be difficult to distinguish if teeth with missing enamel and dental surface breaks are affected by hypoplasia, that is a quantitative reduction of enamel formation or by acids consumption. Erosion mediated by acids may also be undistinguished from enamel hypomaturation, when diffused opacities are observed. Then, the area of the opacities or structure deficiencies must be carefully observed and all the mouth have to be analyzed to understand if those defects are localized in only a part of the mouth or widespread. A correct anamnesis of the patient must also be performed regarding diet habits, gastrointestinal pathologies or drugs assumption. Dietary analysis and advice regarding erosion and sugars are fundamental to reduce further problems in teeth affected by amelogenesis imperfecta [77]. Conversely, children with AI and DI will often avoid ice cream and fridge-cold products because of the hypersensitivity and this constitute a protective factor. However, a lot of other cariogenic or acidic products may be responsible for erosion processes.
Increased tooth wear of mandibular teeth cause by a combination of attrition and erosion.
In the advanced state, the erosion can extend into dentin. The level of painful hypersensitivities as well as the esthetic or functional limitations are generally related to the extension of the erosion, although sometimes an individual component for dentin hypersensitivity may exacerbate this phenomenon. Also in this case, poorly mineralized dentine, and tubular defects in dentinogenesis imperfecta may express as extensive tooth wear, similarly to advanced case of erosion with similar hypersensitivity.
From an etiologic point of view, erosive defects can be distinguished in endogenous and exogenous. The consumption of acidic food and drugs, as well as occupational acid exposure such as wine tasters and professional swimmers, are considered extrinsic exposures [78]. Instead, intrinsic erosion is intended when gastric fluids come into contact with the oral cavity, especially in patients suffering of gastrointestinal reflux disease, eating disorders, and/or alcohol abuse [79].
Usually, a palatal and occlusal localization of the erosion defects is due to an intrinsic erosion, while an extrinsic erosion affects the labial surfaces of the anterior teeth [80]. Both types of erosion produce deleterious effects on dental elements, with a pattern of destruction dependent on the erosivity of the erosion-causing solution (pH, buffer capacity, and mineral concentration), and also on the frequency and type of acid exposure. However, as gastric fluid is evaluated as 1 in the pH scale and is provided with a high amount of free acid, its erosive potential is higher than that of extrinsic acids [81]. Moreover, patients with eating disorders often show xerostomia because of the lower salivary flow rate caused by the general dehydration or by the antidepressant drugs, which could further increase the risk of developing erosive lesions.
Abfraction or Non Carious Cervical Lesions (NCCL) have been used to describe wedge shaped cervical lesions as a wear defect [82]. It is recognized as the loss of cervical tooth tissues induced by mechanical loading which led to enamel and dentin flexure and failure [83]. Some biomechanical analyses show that the most important area of stress concentration is located at the cervical areas of the teeth in response to overloading, that leads to initiation of a cervical lesion [84, 85].
Another study, using FEM, suggested that oblique loading on the tooth stretches the enamel surface near the cemento-enamel junction causing plastic deformation at the cervical area [86]. It was seen that lateral forces produce compressive stresses on the side toward which the tooth bends and the tensile stresses are on the other side. These stresses create microfractures at the cervical region which propagate perpendicularly to the long axis of the tooth, leading to a localized defect around the CEJ [87]. The tensile forces could disrupt the hydroxyapatite (HA) crystals of the enamel structure, allowing saliva and other small molecules to penetrate between the prisms and prevent re-establishment of the interprismatic bonds on release of the stress (Figure 6). Ultimately, when the enamel breaks away at the cervical margin and exposes the dentin, the process continues in this way and may accelerate because of the structure of the dentin [82].
Abfraction lesions associated with moderate tooth wear.
Cervical lesions depend on type and severity of the etiologic factor, and not all these lesions require restorations. They appear primarily at the cervical region of the dentition and are typically wedge-shaped, with sharp internal and external line angles [55].
Treatment planning of non carious cervical lesions is based on the reduction of stress concentration in order to strengthen the tooth, the prevention of dentin hypersensitivity with major pulp protection and the modification of oral hygiene habits, improving also the esthetics [82]. Composites and glass ionomer restorations can be adopted if lesions are not too much extended. On the other hand, metal crowns can be used where the masticatory load is higher. In order to treat hypersensitivity, dentin bonding agents, fluoride varnishes and other desensitizing agents may be useful. Gnatologic devices also can be fabricated to protect teeth during night, however changing of dietary and oral habits is mandatory [88, 89].
Tooth wear is multifactorial in origin [51]. The major factors responsible for tooth wear should be identified starting from a correct and thorough anamnesis of the patient in order to establish a predictable treatment plan. Several signs may result useful in the differential diagnosis process and the appearance of worn tooth surfaces resulting from the various types of wear differ. In order to make a correct diagnosis of the etiology of tooth wear it is fundamental not only to observe the wear pattern but also to investigate if any erosive or abrasive factor is present in the anamnesis. However, if a clear etiological factor is not find, the observed tooth wear may be due to the mechanical type. However, identification and recognition of developmental dental defects is of extreme importance (Table 1) [23, 94]. In fact, early diagnosis and preventive care are essential for the successful treatment of developmental dental defects. Children with a family history of amelogenesis or dentinogenesis imperfecta, or medical syndromes commonly associated with them such as prematurity of birth or hypophosphatemia should be assessed for developmental dental defects as soon as the teeth erupt. Defects in primary teeth may possibly indicate a risk also for permanent dentition [7].
Etiology | Clinical signs | Preventive and possible therapeutic options | |
---|---|---|---|
Attrition | Friction between opposing teeth [72] | Occlusal tooth wear | Teeth prosthetic or conservative restorations [1, 2] |
Erosion | Contact between acid substances and teeth [43] | Vestibular, palatal and/or occlusal tooth substance loss | Avoid acid foods and drinks consumption [90, 91] |
Abrasion | Friction between teeth and foreign body [72] | Cervical vestibular tooth substance loss | Avoid horizontal toothbrushing technique and dental abrasive habits [48, 52] |
Enamel hypoplasia | Quantitative reduction of enamel formation [12] | Thin enamel area with surface pitting or vertical grooving on several teeth | Microabrasion and restorative or prosthetic treatment [12, 92] |
Enamel hypomineralization | Reduced enamel mineralization [40, 93] | Soft and/or discolored enamel | Fluoride applications, restorative and/or prosthetic treatment [16, 17] |
Dentinogenesis imperfecta | Alterations in collagen proteins [47] | Tooth discoloration, enamel fractures, pulp obliteration | Prophylactic coverage with stainless steel crowns, Fluoride applications [7] |
Summary table of the etiology, clinical signs and preventive and therapeutic options of developmental dental defects and tooth wear conditions. Clinicians must consider possible associations between these two pathological entities.
For children with developmental dental defects, a preventive program should be instituted immediately after diagnosis. Neutral sodium fluoride gels or varnishes professional applications every 3/6 months, in addition with calcium and phosphate rich agents (casein phosphopeptide-amorphous calcium phosphate, CPP-ACP) are recommended to reduce caries risk and developmental opacities in teeth with enamel hypoplasia [95]. Because of the structural weakness of the teeth with developmental dental defects, other important recommendations are the same as erosive protection advices such as reduced consumption of acidic food, diet and soft drinks, control of eventual psychosomatic disorders, because of the possibility of frequent vomiting [90]. It is also important to consider that the risk of erosive lesions is increased when acid or soft drinks are assumed by children from a feeding bottle at bed- or nap-time, because of the lower salivary flow rate during sleep [96]. Furthermore, several drinking habits (sips drinking, use of a straw in direct contact with teeth, and intensive rinsing) cause a prolonged pH drop in the oral cavity compared to a short consumption [97]. Then, patients should restrict the consumption of acidic food and drinks only to main meals. Acidic beverages should be consumed cool and as fast as possible in order to reduce their erosivity. Some foods as yogurts that have high concentrations of calcium and phosphate, result non-erosive despite their low pH [91].
When tooth wear is already present, the treatment planning in children with extensive enamel defects due to may involve complex restorations, orthodontics, exodontia and prosthodontics [77].
Normally, without any developmental dental defects, the treatment planning depends on the severity of tooth wear. The amount of tooth wear necessary for intervention is not clear from the scientific literature, even if with the Smith and Knight index [98], the threshold to start restorative treatment is set once dentine was involved. A recent paper summarizes when it is recommended a restorative treatment [99]. Another paper indicates several techniques and treatment strategies for tooth wear, clearly distinguishing between pathological and physiological tooth wear; it is also highlighted that dentist has to detect the speed and severity of tooth wear process in order to decide when intervening [100]. However, difficulties in detecting a pathological dental loss at early stages differently from physiological loss, is challenging for the dentist. A complicating factor is also that tooth wear may be cyclical and can be inactive in the majority of the patients, despite obvious wear facets in their dentitions [101].
However, in developmental dental defects, because the structural weakness of the hard tissues leads to its readily deterioration under masticatory stresses and both amelogenesis and dentinogenesis imperfecta are associated with rapid toothwear and crown fractures, protection from toothwear is recommended soon after eruption [102]. Ideally, restorative stabilization of the dentition should be completed before excessive wear and loss of vertical dimension occur [103]. Guidelines for the treatment of developmental dental anomalies have been established by AAPD (American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry) [104]. For developmental enamel defects, treatment should begin as soon as possible according to patient compliance in office dental care. Early identification and preventive interventions are critical for infants and children with enamel defects due to amelogenesis imperfecta in order to avoid the negative social and functional consequences of the disorder. The appearance, quality, and amount of affected enamel and dentin will dictate the type of restorations necessary to achieve esthetic, masticatory, and functional health. Depending on the severity of enamel defects and tooth wear, treatment can range from bleaching and/or microabrasion [92] to composite resin, porcelain veneers [105] or full coverage restorations with crowns placement [39].
Treatment of dentinogenesis imperfecta frequently includes preventing severe attrition associated with enamel loss and rapid wear of the poorly mineralized dentin, rehabilitating dentitions that have undergone severe wear, optimizing esthetics, and preventing caries and periodontal disease [104].
Stainless steel crowns are a highly durable restoration choice for the prophylactic coverage of teeth affect by developmental dental defects. In teeth with dentine defects, they reduce the risk of pulp exposure and infection, especially in some types of dentine defects (hypophosphatemia) [28]. Fluoride applications and desensitizing agents may also diminish tooth sensitivity [106]. In teeth affected by enamel hypoplasia both primary and permanent molars show a reduction in tooth sensitivity and in cusp fractures after prosthetic rehabilitation with stainless teel crowns. This also helps to maintain space and crown height, important also for orthodontic issues. The crowns are best inserted using a conservative technique, originally proposed by Seow, that involves a minimal removal of tooth structure in order to protect teeth with large pulps and dentin defects [28, 107]. In adulthood, the stainless steel crowns may be replaced with gold or porcelain crowns to provide long term protection of the teeth.
It should also be considered that marginal leakage around restorations and recurrent caries with eventual pulp involvement may be determined from the enamel deterioration [108, 109]. Materials as resin modified glass-ionomer cements and polyacid modified composites should be used for restoring teeth affected by enamel defects in order to take advantage of the optimal bonding of these material with both dentine and enamel [110]. However, despite their esthetic value, composite resins have low adhesion to poorly mineralized enamel. Then, it is important to consider the amount of tooth wear in order to proceed with conservative or prosthetic rehabilitation.
In cases with significant loss of vertical dimension because of tooth wear, the reestablishment of a more normal vertical dimension is crucial for a correct function, mastication and esthetics. Cases showing severe loss of coronal tooth structure and vertical dimension have to be considered candidates for overdenture therapy. Overlay dentures placed on teeth that are covered with fluoride-releasing glass ionomer cement have also been used with success [111].
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
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\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
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\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
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\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
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Marine eutrophication has a negative impact on food security, ecosystem health and economy through disruptions in tourism, fisheries and health industries. Both N and P have known point and non-point sources. Control of point sources has been easier than non-point sources particularly agricultural sources for both N and P as well as fossil fuel combustion for N, which remains a major challenge. Implementing mitigation strategies for N has been reported to be effective for P mitigation; however, the converse is not true due to mobility and volatility of N. Excessive N and P cause algae blooms, anoxic conditions, and ocean acidification with these conditions leading to dead zones, fish kill, toxin production, altered plant species diversity, food web disruption, tourism disruption and health issues. Management of N and P pollution includes reduction of leaching from farms through crop selection, timely and precise application of fertilizer and building artificial wetlands, proper management of animal waste, reduction of fossil fuel N emission, mitigating N and P from urban sources and restoration of aquatic ecosystem. Mitigation measures need to focus on dual nutrient strategy for successful N and P reduction.",book:{id:"7547",slug:"monitoring-of-marine-pollution",title:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution",fullTitle:"Monitoring of Marine Pollution"},signatures:"Lucy Ngatia, Johnny M. 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The air pollution is because of a complex interaction of dispersion and emission of toxic pollutants from manufactories. Air pollution caused due to the introduction of dust particles, gases, and smoke into the atmosphere exceeds the air quality levels. Air pollutants are the precursor of photochemical smog and acid rain that causes the asthmatic problems leading into serious illness of lung cancer, depletes the stratospheric ozone, and contributes in global warming. In the present industrial economy era, air pollution is an unavoidable product that cannot be completely removed but stern actions can reduce it. Pollution can be reduced through collective as well as individual contributions. There are multiple sources of air pollution, which are industries, fossil fuels, agro waste, and vehicular emissions. Industrial processes upgradation, energy efficiency, agricultural waste burning control, and fuel conversion are important aspects to reducing pollutants which create the industrial air pollution. Mitigations are necessary to reduce the threat of air pollution using the various applicable technologies like CO2 sequestering, industrial energy efficiency, improving the combustion processes of the vehicular engines, and reducing the gas production from agriculture cultivations.",book:{id:"10178",slug:"environmental-emissions",title:"Environmental Emissions",fullTitle:"Environmental Emissions"},signatures:"Rabia Munsif, Muhammad Zubair, Ayesha Aziz and Muhammad Nadeem Zafar",authors:[{id:"251787",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Zubair",slug:"muhammad-zubair",fullName:"Muhammad Zubair"},{id:"318519",title:"Ms.",name:"Rabia",middleName:"Jathol",surname:"Munsif",slug:"rabia-munsif",fullName:"Rabia Munsif"},{id:"320637",title:"Ms.",name:"Ayesha",middleName:null,surname:"Aziz",slug:"ayesha-aziz",fullName:"Ayesha Aziz"},{id:"320675",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"muhammad-nadeem-zafar",fullName:"Muhammad Nadeem Zafar"}]},{id:"48090",title:"Biological Contamination of Air in Indoor Spaces",slug:"biological-contamination-of-air-in-indoor-spaces",totalDownloads:2751,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"4572",slug:"current-air-quality-issues",title:"Current Air Quality Issues",fullTitle:"Current Air Quality Issues"},signatures:"Anca Maria Moldoveanu",authors:[{id:"25924",title:"Prof.",name:"Anca",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Moldoveanu",slug:"anca-moldoveanu",fullName:"Anca Moldoveanu"}]},{id:"64537",title:"Degradation Pathways of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in the Environment",slug:"degradation-pathways-of-persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-in-the-environment",totalDownloads:2068,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are resistant to most of the known environmental degradation processes. 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