KDIGO-suggested GFR categories [3].
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"283",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Colonoscopy",title:"Colonoscopy",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"To publish a book on colonoscopy suitable for an international medical audience, drawing upon the expertise and talents of many outstanding world-wide clinicians, is a daunting task. 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The author of a variety of articles on gastroenterology, hepatology and internal medicine topics, co-developer of several medical computer software programs, the co-author of three books in the field of gastroenterology, Dr. Miskovitz currently maintains a clinical consultative practice for gastroenterology, hepatology, gastrointestinal endoscopy and gastrointestinal parasitology, and teaches at the Weill Cornell Medical College in New York City and Doha, Qatar. 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\r\n\tCloud computing services play a very important role in many applications that involve the provision of machines for computing and storage. Additionally, the cloud infrastructure can also offer data platform services that span the different available databases. With all developments in cloud computing infrastructures and services, it becomes mandatory to use cybersecurity and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to address the needs of end-users of Cloud Computing. Utilizing AI software-based machine learning (ML) algorithms in cloud environments is widely used nowadays to deliver intuitive for users and customers. Alexa and Siri are good examples that use AI to search the cloud to get much information or to play songs to make a purchase. Cybersecurity in cloud computing environments is required for involving best practices in user access and privileges, hardware and software security, virtualization, firewalls, and other processes used to protect data and infrastructure.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will concentrate on all aspects of Cloud Computing. Principally, it will address topics that are core to Cloud Computing, focusing on the Cloud applications, the Cloud systems, utilizing both the AI and cybersecurity to advance Cloud systems for better use in the future.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-708-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-707-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-709-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d0810b3f0c23214bf7dddeaafcb6c3ef",bookSignature:"Dr. Yasser Ismail",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11925.jpg",keywords:"Cloud Computing, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Private Cloud, Cognitive Cloud Computing, Cybersecurity, Cloud Security, Cloud Infrastructure, Cloud System, Cloud Applications, Cloud Deployment, Types of Cloud Computing, Cloud Computing Features",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 18th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 17th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Yasser Ismail has over twenty years of professional experience in teaching and research in national and international universities, such as Southern University, A&M College, Mansoura University, and the University of Bahrain. He has obtained a Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. He is awarded the Partnering, Research, Innovation, Development, and Entrepreneurship award by Southern University and A&M College.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255636/images/system/255636.png",biography:'Overview\nA highly motivated detail-oriented professional with excellent organizational and results-oriented abilities. My educational background and diverse experiences have provided me with wide knowledge and a strong set of skills that allow me to contribute to many fields of image processing – based Machine Learning (ML) and how it may be used to characterize various materials’ degradations, digital video, and VLSI design (algorithmic and architecture levels), smart traffic system design, cybersecurity based Additive Manufacturing, and Internet of Video Things (IoVT).\nResearch Interest:\n•\tImage Processing – Based Machine Learning (ML): Develop a system that can monitor and determine the effect that long-term exposure to some chemical materials that can be added to plants and soils. This work may be extended to characterize various materials’ degradations,\n•\tSmart traffic-Based Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML): Develop smart systems-based Deep Learning algorithms that can automatically count different objects. Such systems and algorithms are very helpful in designing new smart cities.\n•\tInternet of Video Things (IoVT): Design video surveillance systems, for homeland security applications that match the allowed hardware complexity of the Internet of Video Things (IoVT) infrastructure.\n•\tDigital Video Processing Algorithms/Architectures levels: Develop video processing algorithms and architectures. My research involves Video Compression algorithms and architectures, specifically Motion Estimation and Compensation, DCT transform, and Vector Quantization.\n•\tVLSI and FPGA Design (Low-Power and High-Speed Performance Embedded Systems): Design video systems taking into consideration optimizing the encoding speed and study the effect on both the area and power consumption of the designed systems. Systems are tested and implemented in either FPGA or ASIC flow design.\n•\tWireless and Digital Communication Systems: Design several techniques and systems that help in compressing the transmitted bit-rate of a speech signal over wireless communication channels. \nEducation\t\n•\tPh.D. Computer Engineering. University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA, 2010. Dissertation Title: “Efficient Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-time Video Transmission in Pixel and Frequency Domains”.\n•\tM.S. Computer Engineering. University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, USA, 2007.\n•\tM.S. Electrical Communication Engineering. Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt, 2002. \n•\tB.Sc. Electronics Engineering. Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt, 1999.\nHonors and Awards\n•\tThe 2019 Partnering, Research, Innovation, Development, and Entrepreneurship award (P. R. I. D. E) by Southern University and A&M College – USA.\n•\tListed in Marquis Who’s Who in America 2009 and 2010.\n•\tThird place winner in “the student paper contest” at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2009 and 2008.\n•\tHonored Student, The University of Louisiana at Lafayette Honors Convocation Committee (2006) and (2007).\n•\tFirst Rank Graduate in MS, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt (2003).\n•\tSecond Rank Graduate in BS, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt (1999).\nAppointments and Teaching Experience \n\n•\tMay 2022 to Present: Associate Professor, Southern University and A&M College, Department of Electrical Engineering, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.\n•\tAugust 2017 to May 2022: Assistant Professor, Southern University and A&M College, Department of Electrical Engineering, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.\n•\tJuly 2016 to July 2017: Assistant Professor, Mansoura University, Electronics and Communications Department, Egypt, \n•\tSeptember 2016 to June 2017: Adjunct Assistant Professor, Zewail City of Science and Technology - University of Science and Technology - Zewail City, Egypt.\n•\tSeptember 2012 to June 2016: Assistant Professor, University of Bahrain, Computer Engineering Department, Kingdom of Bahrain.\n•\tOctober 2010 to July 2012: Assistant Professor, Umm Al-Qura University, Computer Science Department, Makkah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.\n•\tJanuary 2005 to May 2010: Teaching Assistant, College of Engineering – Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, University of Louisiana at Lafayette (ULL), Lafayette, LA, USA.\n•\tJanuary 2001 to January 2005.Teaching Assistant, Mansoura University, Electronics and Communications Department, Egypt.\nCourses taught\n•\tMicroprocessors, Computer Design and Implementation \n•\tDigital Logic Design Circuits\n•\tDesign and Analysis of Algorithms\n•\tElectromagnetic Waves\n•\tSignals and Systems\n•\tDigital communication system\n•\tElectrical Circuits I/II\t•\tVLSI design of embedded systems\n•\tComputer Architecture and Organization \n•\tElectronics I/II/III \n•\tDigital Signal Processing\n•\tProgramming Languages\n•\tImage Processing and Computer Vision\n•\tTroubleshooting\n•\tRobotic Design and Implementation\n•\tAn Introduction to Cybersecurity\nPending Grant\n\n•\tSouthern University Partnership for Research and Education in Materials Excellence (SUPREME), National Science Foundation (NSF) (2021 – 2027), (Role: Co-PI) ($3,992,932).\n•\tCAREER: Improving Student Learning in Machine Learning and Internet of Things Applications and Technologies Utilizing Modern Learning, National Science Foundation (NSF) (2022 – 2027), (Role: PI) (738,985).\n\nAwarded Grant\n\n•\tUsing Sensor Networks and Machine Learning to Characterize Agricultural Responses to Stimuli – Funded by US Federal Government (2021 – 2023), BAA ID#: CGR-2020-0001-P1. (Role: Co-PI) ($ 350,000) \n•\tHigh-Fidelity Fatigue, Drowsiness, and Drunk Drivers Detection (FD4) System, - Funded by Louisiana Transportation Research Center (LTRC) (2021 – 2022), (Role: PI) ($ 30,000)\n•\tSupervised Undergraduate Research Experiences (SURE) Competition, BOARD OF REGENTS, Baton Rouge 2020-2021. (Role: Supervise undergraduate student; LaBreya Brumfield). ($5,000) \n•\tSupervised Undergraduate Research Experiences (SURE) Competition, BOARD OF REGENTS, Baton Rouge 2020-2021. (Role: Supervise undergraduate student; Dailynn Thomas). ($5,000)\n•\tEnhancing Computer Engineering and Big Data Education (CEBDE) at Southern University and A&M College, Microsoft Impact2020 (2020 – 2021). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 200,000).\n•\tEnhancing Additive Manufacturing Education with Cybersecurity and Virtual Reality – Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2019 – 2024), Award Id: 1915520. (Role: Senior Investigator) ($ 851,877) \n•\tTargeted Infusion Project: A Computer Engineering Research Lab (CERL) at Southern University and A&M College (SUBR) – Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2019 – 2021), Award Id: 1912397. (Role: PI) ($ 396,190) \n•\tEvaluation of Counting Device for Pedestrians and Bicyclists - Funded by Louisiana Transportation Research Center (LTRC) (2018 – 2019), Award Id: LTRC 19-1SA. (Role: PI) ($ 85,792)\n•\tAutomatic Recognition of Arabic handwriting in Historical Manuscripts - Funded by the King Abdul-Aziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) (2014 - 2015). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 379,337)\n•\tFast and Smart Security Cameras for Video Surveillance systems in Hajj Rites – Funded by The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Institute of Hajj researches – KSA (2014-2015). (Role: PI) ($ 35,000)\n•\tASIC Design of a Low Complexity High-Speed H.265/HEVC for Wireless Transmission Video Surveillance System - Funded by University of Bahrain (2014 -2015). (Role: PI) ($ 13,297)\n•\tFast video surveillance system for Hajj rites security - Funded by the Transportation and Crowd Management Center of Research Excellence (2014 - 2015). (Role: PI) ($ 26,595)\n•\tUS-Bahrain Cooperative Research with Central Michigan University: Intelligent Video Surveillance Systems for Hajj — Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) (2013 – 2014), Award Id: 1341126. (Role: Co-PI) ($ 36,649)\n•\tFast Video Surveillance system for the roadway security monitoring — Funded by University of Bahrain (2012 -2013). (Role: PI) ($ 13,297)\n•\tDesktop and Mobil-phone Secure Backup System hosted on a Storage Cloud — Funded by the Center of Research for Hajj and Omrah – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) (2011 - 2012). (Role: Co-PI) ($ 132,978)\n\nMaster and Ph.D. Students Supervision\n•\tOpeyemi P. Ojajuni “Fostering 21st-Century Skills and Computational Skills in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Students Using the Internet of Things (IoT) Technology” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, Expecting graduation on (2023).\n•\tSunday Bezaleel Anwansedo “Using Mobile-Based Application for Healthcare Management In Sub-Sahara Africa: A Case Study of Covid-19 Vaccine Distribution” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tSurya Veera Reddy Sirigireddy “Predicting Material Composition by Analyzing Color in Copper Silver Gold Alloys” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tAkodu Moruf Olagunju “The application of Machine learning algorithms in healthcare classification: Prostate Cancer as a case study” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2021).\n•\tWillson Junior Meli Ngong “Video-Based Automated Pedestrians Counting Algorithms for Smart Cities” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2020).\n•\tAli H Al Majed “Smart Detection Algorithms Under Different Weather Conditions” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2020).\n•\tRaja Naga Rahul Paramkusam “Synthesis and Analytical Characterization of Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide for Gas Sensing Applications” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2019).\n•\tDe’Shon Swafford “Fabrication of Zinc Oxide Varistor used in Gas Sensing Application” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2019).\n•\tYeshak A. Dabels “Miniaturization of Chemical Identification bY Magnetoelastic Sensing (ChIMES) Technology” Southern University and A&M College, Electrical Engineering Department, (2018).\n•\tMohamed Nabil Hammad “High-Speed On-Chip Motion Estimation Co-Processor for H.265/HEVC Standard,” University of Bahrain, Computer Engineering Department, (2016).\n\nPublications\nJournal Papers\n1.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi” Cost Minimization of Cloud Services for On-Demand Video Streaming” Accepted to be published in SN Computer Science Springer Journal, June 2021.\n2.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Hammad, Mahmoud Darwichand, and Wael Elmedany “Homeland Security Video Surveillance System Utilizing the Internet of Things (IoT) for Smart Cities” IET Computers & Digital Technique journal, Volume 15, Issue 4, Pages: 241-319, 04 April 2021.\n3.\tWillson Meli, Fred Lacy, and Yasser Ismail “Video-Based Automated Pedestrians Counting Algorithms for Smart Cities” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), 2020.\n4.\tAli Al Majed, Fred Lacy, and Yasser Ismail “Smart Detection Under Different Weather Conditions” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), 2020.\n5.\tYeshak Dabels, Yasser Ismail, and Fred Lacy “CHIMES: Chemical Identification by Magneto Elastic Sensing” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 9, issue 4, July 2020.\n6.\tOpeyemi Ojajuni, Yasser Ismail and Albertha Lawson, “Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attack Detection and Mitigation for Internet of Things (IoT)” International Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD), 2020.\n7.\tChase Richardson, Ali Ghawwas, Yasser Ismail, Raynaud Henton, and Jiecai luo, " Multiple Smart Phones Inductive Charging Station System " International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 7, issue. 6, November 2018.\n8.\tSamar Ali, Ashraf Badawi, and Yasser Ismail, “Adaptive Multi-connection Scalable Video Coding for Wireless Area Networks,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS), vol. 7, issue. 3, May 2018.\n9.\tYasser Ismail, “6-DOF Robotic Arm Using Haptic Feedback Wired and Wireless Platforms,” International Journal of Computing Network Technology (IJCNT), vol. 4, issue. 2, May 2016.\n10.\tYasser Ismail, “FPGA Implementation of Fast and Efficient CODEC for H.264/AVC Real-Time Video Applications,” International Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD) - USA, vol. 7, issue. 1, March 2016.\n11.\tYasser Ismail, “A cost-effective Programmable SoC for H.265/HEVC Full Search Motion Estimation using Xilinx ZYNQ-7 ZC706 FPGA,” International Journal of Computing Network Technology (IJCNT), vol. 4, issue. 1, January 2016.\n12.\tYasser Ismail, Ahmed Abdelgawad, Sherif El-etriby, “High-speed on-chip multiple cosine transform generator,” Journal of Real-Time Image Processing, Springer, ISSN: 1861-8200, DOI 10.1007/s11554-015-0528-0, (print version), and ISSN: 1861-8219 (electronic version), September 2nd, 2015.\n13.\tYasser Ismail, “A complete Verification of a Full Search Motion Estimation Engine,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 2015. Int. J. Dig. Sys. 4, No. 4, pp. 221-232, Oct. 2015. \n14.\tYasser Ismail, “High-Speed Transform Coding on Chip for Wireless Video Surveillance Systems,” International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, 2015. Int. J. Dig. Sys. 4, No. 2, pp. 81-89, Apr. – 2015. \n15.\tYasser Ismail, Wael El-Medany, Hessa Al-Junaid, and Ahmed Abdelgawad, “High-Performance Architecture for Real-time HDTV Broadcasting”, Journal of Real-Time Image Processing, Springer, Volume 11, Issue 4, pp 633–644, ISSN: 1861-8200 (print version), and ISSN: 1861-8219 (electronic version), May 27, 2014.\n16.\tYasser Ismail, “A Fast Diamond Motion Estimation Search Algorithm for Real-Time Video Applications”, International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, Dig. Sys. 3, No. 2, pp. 101-110, May 1st, 2014.\n17.\tYasser Ismail, “A Novel Lattice Architecture for High-Speed Discrete MultiTone (DMT) Modulation”, International Journal of Computing and Digital Systems, Dig. Sys. 2, No. 2, pp. 11-18, April 2013.\n18.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “Fast Motion Estimation Algorithm Using Dynamic Models for H.264 Video Coding,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology (TCSVT), Volume 22, Issue 1, pp. 28 – 42, January 2012.\n19.\tSumeer Goel, Yasser Ismail, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " High-speed Motion Estimation Architecture for Real-time Video Transmission," Oxford Journals - The Computer Journal (2012) 55(1): 35-46 first published online April 29, 2011.\n20.\tYasser Ismail, Mohsen Shaaban, Jason McNeely, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Adaptive High-Speed Manipulation Architecture for Fast Variable Padding Frequency Domain Motion Estimation,” IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems. Volume: PP, Issue: 99, pp. 1 – 10, 2010. \n21.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy Bayoumi, “Fast Variable Padding Motion Estimation Using Smart Zero Motion Prejudgment technique for Pixel and Frequency Domains,” IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology (TCSVT), Volume 19, Issue 5, pp. 609 – 626, May 2009.\nProject Reports\nYasser Ismail “Evaluation of Counting Device for Pedestrians and Bicyclists”, Final report (2019-2020) published by – March 2021. https://www.ltrc.lsu.edu/pubs_annual_reports.html#\n\nBooks\n1.\tYasser Ismail, et al., " Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications" IntechOpen, ISBN: 978-1-78984-096-4, Website: https://www.intechopen.com/books/internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications, 2019.\n2.\tYasser Ismail and M. Bayoumi, "Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-Time Video Transmission," VDM Verlag, Saarbrucken, ISBN-NR.: 978-3-639-34323-6, Germany, 2011.\nBook Chapter\n1.\tBook title: Smart Algorithms and Architectures for Real-Time Video Transmission\nChapter title: Introductory Chapter: Internet of Things (IoT) Importance and Its Applications\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n2.\tBook title: The Future of Television - Convergence of Content and Technology \nChapter title: High-Efficient Video Transmission for HDTV Broadcasting\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n3.\tBook title: Search Algorithms (ISBN 980-953-307-672-5)\nChapter title: Fast Motion Estimation System Using Dynamic Models for H.264/AVC Video Coding \nAuthors: Yasser Ismail\n4.\tBook title: Search Algorithms and Applications (ISBN 978-953-307-483-2)\nChapter title: Enhanced Efficient Diamond Search Algorithm for Fast Block Motion Estimation\nAuthors: Yasser Ismail and Magdy A. Bayoumi\nConference papers\n1.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi “Improving Hierarchy Storage for Video Streaming in Cloud” IEEE Virtual World Forum on Internet of Things, New Orleans, 2021.\n2.\tM. Hammad, W. Elmedany and Y. Ismail, "Design and Simulation of AES S-Box Towards Data Security in Video Surveillance Using IP Core Generator," 2021 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT), 2021, pp. 469-476, doi: 10.1109/3ICT53449.2021.9581825.\n3.\tM. Hammad, W. El-medany and Y. Ismail, "Intrusion Detection System using Feature Selection With Clustering and Classification Machine Learning Algorithms on the UNSW-NB15 dataset," the 2020 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing and Technologies (3ICT), 2020, pp. 1-6, doi: 10.1109/3ICT51146.2020.9312002.\n4.\tMahmoud Darwich, Yasser Ismail, Talal Darwich, and Magdy Bayoumi “Cost-Efficient Storage for On-Demand Video Streaming on Cloud” IEEE Virtual World Forum on Internet of Things, New Orleans, 2020.\n5.\tOpeyemi Ojajuni, Yasser Ismail, and Albertha Lawson “Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attack Detection and Mitigation for Internet of Things (IoT),” 76th Joint Meeting of BKX and NIS, Beta Kappa Chi and National Institute of Science, March 28-30, 2019 - Atlanta, GA. \n6.\tY. Ismail, M. Hammad, and W. El-Medany, "Homeland Security Video Surveillance System for Smart Cities," 2018 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT), 2018, pp. 1-4, doi: 10.1109/3ICT.2018.8855732.\n7.\tMd Anam Mahmud, Ahmed Abdelgawad, Kumar Yelamarthi, and Yasser A. Ismail, " Signal Processing Techniques for IoT-based Structural Health Monitoring," 29th International Conference on Microelectronics (ICM), pp: 1-5, Beirut, Lebanon, 10-13 Dec. 2017. \n8.\tA. Abdelgawad, Y. Ismail, K. Yelamarthi, "Moving Target Tracking using a Mobile Robot," IEEE International Symposium on Monitoring & Surveillance Research, June 2015.\n9.\tYasser Ismail, Wael El-Medany, Hessa Al-Junaid, and Ahmed Abdelgawad “Fast Co-Processor for Real-Time Video Transmission,” Proc. of the IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems, ICECS, Abu Dhabi, UAE, pp. 945 – 949, December 8-11, 2013.\n10.\tWael El-Medany and Yasser Ismail “Mobile Learning Laboratory for Hardware Courses,” IEEE International Conference on e-Learning "Best Practices in Management, Design and Development of e-Courses: Standards of Excellence and Creativity", pp.51,54, 7-9 May 2013\n11.\tYasser Ismail and Sherif El-etriby “Fast diamond search algorithm for real-time video coding," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop ICNC, Maui, Hawaii, USA, pp. 729 – 733, 30 January 2012.\n12.\tYasser Ismail, Sherif El-etriby, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " Frequency Domain: Efficient and High-Speed Technology For Video Transmission," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), Beirut, Lebanon, pp. 278 – 282, October 2011.\n13.\tYasser Ismail and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " Efficient high-speed lattice-CORDIC IFFT architecture for DMT transmitter," Proc. of the IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), San Francisco, CA, USA, pp. 151 - 155, October 6-8, 2010.\n14.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “A Fast-Discrete Transform Architecture for Frequency Domain Motion Estimation,” IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), San Francisco Bay Area, California, U.S.A, pp. 1249 – 1252, September 26-29, 2010.\n15.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, " An efficient area manipulation architecture for frequency domain encoding process,” IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2010), Paris, France, pp. 2638 – 2641, 2010.\n16.\tYasser Ismail, Mohsen Shaaban, Jason McNeely, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Manipulation architecture for Real-Time Video Coding in Frequency Domain,” IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), Cairo, Egypt, PP. 3281 – 3284, November 7-11, 2009.\n17.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, “Enhanced Efficient Diamond Search Algorithm for Fast Block Motion Estimation,” IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2009), Taipei International Convention Center, Taiwan, pp. 3198 – 3201, 24 - 27 May 2009.\n18.\tJason McNeely, Yasser Ismail, Magdy A. Bayoumi, and Peiyi Zhao, “Power Analysis of The Huffman Decoding Tree,” Proc. of the IEEE Int. Conference on Image Processing (ICIP), San Diego, California, U.S.A, pp. 1416 – 1419, October 12–15, 2008.\n19.\tYasser Ismail, Jason McNeely, Mohsen Shaaban, Magdy Bayoumi, "A Generalized Fast Motion Estimation Algorithm using External and Internal Stop Search Techniques for H.264 Video Coding Standard," IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS 2008), Seattle, Washington, pp. 3574 – 3577, May 18-21, 2008.\n20.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "An Adaptive Block Size Phase Correlation Motion Estimation Using Smart Multireference Frames Selection in Frequency Domain," Proc. of IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, California, pp. 239 – 242, November 4-7, 2007.\n21.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "adaptive techniques for a fast Frequency Domain Motion Estimation," Proc. of IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems (SIPS), Shanghai, China, pp. 331-336, October 17-19, 2007.\n22.\tYasser Ismail, Mohamed Elgamel, and Magdy A. Bayoumi, "A Fast Block-Based Motion Estimation Using Early Stop Search Techniques for H.264/AVC Standard," Proc. of the 48th IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Montreal, Canada, pp. 397 – 400, Aug 5-8, 2007.\n23.\tYasser Ismail, M. Shaaban, and M. Bayoumi, "An Adaptive Block Size Phase Correlation Motion Estimation Using Adaptive Early Search Termination Technique," IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS), New Orleans, pp.3423–3426, May 2007.\n24.\tJ.Luis Tecpanecatl-Xihuitl, Ruth M. Aguilar-Ponce, Yasser Ismail, and Magdy A. Bayoumi “Efficient Mutliplierless Polyphase FIR Filter based on New Distributed Arithmetic Architecture,” Proc. of IEEE Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems, and Computers, Pacific Grove, California, pp. 958 – 962, November 4-7, 2007.\n25.\tS. Goel, Yasser Ismail, P. Devulapalli, J. McNeely, and M. Bayoumi, “An Efficient Data Reuse Motion Estimation Engine,” Proc. of IEEE Signal Processing Systems Design and Implementation, 2006, SIPS, Banff. Canada, pp.383-386, Oct. 2006.\n26.\tS. Goel, Yasser Ismail, and M. Bayoumi, "Adaptive search window size algorithm for fast motion estimation in H.264/AVC standard," Proc. of the 48th IEEE Intl. Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Ohio, pp. 1557-1560, Aug. 2005. \nCourses developed at Southern University and A&M College\n•\tELEN 435: Image processing and Computer Vision. (Credit, 3 hours) (Lecture, 3 hours). This course is intended to teach students the concepts of visual information, feature extraction, Image enhancement in the spatial domain, Image enhancement in the frequency domain, Image restoration, Color image processing, Image compression, Morphological image processing, Image segmentation, and image representation.\n•\tELEN 464: Mechatronics. (Credit, 3 hours) (Lecture, 3 Hours) – Covers computer control of electromechanical systems, automatic data acquisition. Computerized instrumentation and testing. The embedded computer might be a combination of microprocessors, microcontrollers, personal computers, and /or programmable controllers. Students are required to test to design, assemble, and test actual systems.\n•\tMEEN 4xx: Additive Manufacturing Security & Security Framework. This course is designed for the purpose of the NSF Award Id: 1912397. It will provide students with the knowledge of Additive Manufacturing applications and how to make them more secure. Virtual Reality simulations will be used to demonstrate possible risks from cyberattacks and their consequences. \nProfessional development\n•\tProposing a Computer Engineering (CE) minor program under the Electrical Engineering (EE) program at Southern University.\n•\tABET accreditation of the Electrical Engineering (EE) program at Southern University (Fall 2021): I participated in many activities and committees to successfully get the EE program accredited.\n•\tABET accreditation of the Computer Engineering (CE) program at University of Bahrain (2016): I participated in many activities and committees to successfully get the CE program accredited.\n•\tSummer Fellow in the ONR sponsored Summer Faculty Research Program at the Naval Surface Warfare Center – Carderock Division, West Bethesda, MD, USA, 20817, June 1 – August 8, 2021.\n•\tNSF Panel Reviewer: Serve as a reviewer for NSF Panels 2019 – present. \n•\tSuccessfully passed eleven (11) weeks Machine Learning online course on Coursera website. https://www.coursera.org/learn/machine-learning/home/welcome, 2021.\n•\tSession chair at the IEEE 7th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT 2021), 26 – 31 July 2021, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. \n•\tExternal Assessment Moderator for the CE Department at University of Bahrain (UoB), December 2020.\n•\tSession chair at the IEEE 6th World Forum on Internet of Things, 5-9 April 2020, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA. \n•\tSession chair at the 63rd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, 2018, 2019, and 2020. \n•\tMember in the Organizing Committee of the Gulf States Math Alliance Conference held at Southern University and A&M College, February 14-16, 2020.\n•\tTrack chair at the IEEE Green Technologies Conference, April 3-6, 2019, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA.\n•\tCertificate from Quality Matters (QM) of Independent Applying the QM Rubric (APPQMR), September 20, 2019. \n•\tSupervisor of the IEEE student chapter group at Southern University and A&M College 2018 – Current.\n•\tEditorial Board Member for Frontiers of Mechatronical Engineering FME, EnPress Publisher Editorial - USA, 2018 – current.\n•\tServe on the technical program committee for MobiApps 2016 (Mobile Applications, Vienna, Austria 2016).\n•\tInvited to serve as a lead guest editor for a special issue in mobile information systems – Hindawi publishing corporation September 2016.\n•\tMember of Bahrain Society of academics 2014 – 2016. \n•\tSession chair at ICECS 2013, Abu Dhabi – UAE.\n•\tAn active member in the IEEE student chapter at the University of Louisiana (2006-2009).\n•\tMember of the Organizing Committee of ISCAS 2007 symposium, New Orleans, LA.\nSynergistic Activities \n\n•\tSchool and College Service:\no\tServe as a commencement Assistant University Marshal for the College of Sciences and Engineering (CSE) 2018 - Current\no\tElectrical Engineering Department committee member (member)\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department assessment committee (member) Spring-2018\no\tThe IEEE Student Advisory Committee (member) Spring-2018\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department Recruiting/Outreach Committee (Chair) Spring-2018\no\tThe Engineers Week Committee (Chair) Spring-2018\no\tThe Electrical Engineering Department Arduino Club (Chair) Fall-2018 - Current\n•\tJournal Reviewer:\no\tJournal of Real-Time Image Processing (JRTIP), Springer\no\tIEEE Transaction on Circuit and System for Video Technology (TCSVT)\no\tIEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems \no\tIEEE Transactions on Image Processing\no\tInternational Journal of Computing and Digital Systems (IJCDS)\no\tInternational Journal of Technology Diffusion (IJTD)\n•\tTechnical Conference Reviewer:\no\tSCS: University of Bahrain "Smart Cities Symposium" 22-23 April 2018\no\tISCAS: IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems\no\tICASSP: IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing\no\tICIP: IEEE International Conference on Image Processing\no\tSIPS: IEEE Workshop on Signal Processing Systems\no\tGCCCE: IEEE-GCC Conference and Exhibition\no\tICECS: IEEE International Conference on Electronics, Circuits, and Systems\no\tMWSCAS: IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems\n•\tConference Organizer\no\tThe IEEE 6th World Forum on the Internet of Things (IoT) - WF-IoT 2020, New Orleans, USA, June 2nd – June 16th, Chair of Edge and Fog Computing session.\no\tThe 63rd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, August 9 -12, 2020, , MA, USA \no\tThe Gulf States Math Alliance Conference held at Southern University and A&M College, February 14-16, 2020\no\t62nd IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Dallas, TX, USA, Aug. 4-7, 2019, Chair of Control Systems, Mechatronics, and Robotics session. \no\tThe IEEE Green Technologies Conference, 3-6 April, Lafayette, LA, 2019\no\tThe 9th International Conference on Ambient Systems, Networks and Technologies (ANT 2018), Porto, Portugal May 8-11, 2018\no\tM.Sc./Ph.D. students forum Chair: IEEE International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems, Windsor, ON, Canada August 5th-8th, 2018\no\tServe on the technical program committee for DPNoC\'17 (International Workshop on Design and Performance of Networks on Chip 2017). August 15-18, 2016, Montreal, Quebec, Canada\no\tOrganizing Committee for IEEE ICECS 2013, Abu Dhabi, UAE\no\t Organizing Committee for IEEE ISCAS 2007, New Orleans, LA, USA\n•\tCollaborators & Other Affiliations\no\tAshok Srivastava, Louisiana State University, USA\no\tJesmin Khan, Tuskegee University, USA\no\tMagdy Bayoum, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA\no\tAhmed Abdelgawad, Central Michigan University, USA\no\tJason McNeely, University of Alaska Fairbanks, USA\no\tAhmed Khattab, Cairo University, Egypt\no\tWael El-Medany, Bahrain University, Bahrain\no\tMahmoud Darwich, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, USA',institutionString:"Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Southern University and Agricultural and Mechanical College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"453624",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Scerbe",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/453624/images/20399_n.jpg",email:"martina.s@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7602",title:"Internet of Things (IoT) for Automated and Smart Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"55ad7d0965cba5aebe448cb43766c45e",slug:"internet-of-things-iot-for-automated-and-smart-applications",bookSignature:"Yasser Ismail",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7602.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255636",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasser",surname:"Ismail",slug:"yasser-ismail",fullName:"Yasser Ismail"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Nigeria has population of 34.5million goats, 22.1million sheep and 13.9million cattle. The larger proportion of these animals’ population are however largely concentrated in the northern region of the country than the southern region. Specifically about 90 percent of the country’s cattle population and 70 percent of the sheep and goat populations are concentrated in northern region of the country. Concentration of Nigeria’s livestock-base in the northern region is most likely to have been influenced by the ecological condition of the region which is characterised by low rainfall duration, lighter sandy soils and longer dry season. This submission is predicated by the fact that drier tropics or semi-arid regions are more favourable to the ruminants, Notwithstanding this situation, certain breeds of sheep and goats, particularly the West African Dwarf (WAD) species, are peculiarly adapted to the southern (humid) region of the country and are commonly reared by rural households in the region. Although, no breed of cattle is peculiar to the southern humid region of Nigeria, the available cattle in the region was largely due to settlement of the Hausa/Fulani pastoralists, who constitute the main cattle rearers, in the region.
The option of settled lifestyle of the Fualani pastoralists in the southern region of Nigeria was largely informed by a number of changes in the ecological condition of the region. One of the changing conditions that made the southern/humid region of the country habitable for cattle rearing was the drastic reduction in the incidence of tsetse fly (
With the changing ecological condition of the southern Nigeria and its conduciveness to cattle survival, the animal have become common in the region, though with the Fulani and Hausa tribes that have chosen to settle in the southern region with their herds of cattle. Based on this cattle, sheep and goats, as commonly found in the northern region of Nigeria, are as well found in the southern part of the country, though in less proportion to that of the northern region. Most of the available ruminants in the country are however of indigenous breeds.
Although, there are varying estimations of cattle population in Nigeria ranging between 10 and 15million [2,3,14] the mean average of the nation’s cattle population was put at 13.9 million as at 1990 [12]. While about 11.5 million of the cattle population was kept in pastoral systems, the remaining 2.4 million were kept in villages. Country-wide distribution of the cattle population however showed that the sub-humid region of Nigeria has about 4.5million heads Based the use of low-level systematic aerial surveys (Bourn, Milligan & Wint, 1986)
Production characteristics of surveyed cattle in the Kaduna plain of Nigeria, entails an average of 45.9 head, out of which 64.4% were females; 60months (5years) as first age of calving, 25months (about 2years) of calving intervals and calving percentage of 48%. Calf life-weight and mortality to 1 year of age averaged 103 kg and 22.4% respectively. Milk production by the cattle, after adjusting for length of calving intervals, for humans and calves averaged 112 and 169 litres/cow/year respectively.
Exchange rate at N160 to US$1 as at March 2012
However, live goats and sheep are much more easily acquired by individuals in relation to cattle owing to market price differentials between the small and large ruminants. For instance, a sizeable cow or bull sells for about N70, 000 (US$437.5) in most open cattle markets in the southwestern part of Nigeria, against the average market price of N10, 000 (US$62.5) for WAD sheep and goats, N18, 000 (US$112.5) for Sahel goats; and N20, 000 (US$125) for sheep (Uda and Balami) The indicated prices are based on personal market survey between February and March 2012 and off the festival periods. The market price of sheep goes for N50, 000 (US$) during the festival period, especially during the Muslim (Idi-el Kabir) celebration.
The market value of the ruminants not only creates employment and generates income for those that directly owned the animals, but indirectly for the butchers, foragers and government. For instance, cattle slaughtering and dressing cost N3, 000 per head per cow and the same services on sheep and goat cost N1, 000 per head per the animal. And to a lesser extent, the animals indirectly generate income for the Nigerian Government through licensing of abattoirs and taxation on every slaughtered animal at the registered abattoirs. Although, ruminants are generally kept on free range management system, conscientious feeding is provided the farm animals primarily kept for commercial purpose. Based on this, forages, either fresh or dry, are sought from the foragers for feeding the commercially-oriented farm animals. In the light of this, crop debris such as dried cowpea shafts and ground vines and husks becomes additional source of income for farmers that cultivate cowpea and groundnuts. Valuation of the Nigerian livestock resources [23] puts the total livestock value at N60billion, based on mid-1991 market prices and as indicated by [22], account for as much as one third of the country\'s agricultural gross domestic product (GDP).
Unlike the devalued state of the socio-cultural value of the small ruminants in southwest Nigeria, cattle, sheep and goats remained relevant as measuring tools of social status and economic strength among the rural households in the northern region of the country. The size of cattle herds and flock of sheep owned by a particular individual or household determines the economic strength of such ones. In addition, a herder’s stock of animals constitutes his financial base thereby disposing the animals for income generation whenever it is necessary [24]. Cattle also serve as good means of transportation and animal traction among the livestock farmers in the northern region of the country, whereby the animals are used for land cultivation in preparation for crop cultivation, transportation of farm families to and from the farms and transportation of farm produce between farms and storage points. Given the volume and nature of excreta produce by cattle, the large ruminant have served as valuable source for manure for soil fertility and development of organic agriculture. [22] cattle produces manure outputs of 1368 kg DM/head/year and 248 kg DM/head/year by sheep for soil fertility.
In general, farm animals are poorly managed in Nigeria’s agricultural system owing to the fact that the animals are mostly managed on free range/extensive system and semi-intensive system. These management systems are basically influenced by cheap means of feeding the stock all year round. Based on this, the animals are thus allowed to roam the streets and neighbourhood to fend for themselves with little or no special or conscientious provision of supplements for the animals. Although, commonly raised farm animals under the free range and semi-intensive systems include the monogastrics and ruminants, sheep and goats, alongside chicken constitutes the major farm animals largely raised in these systems of livestock management by the Nigerian rural households or livestock farmers.
Some households or livestock keepers on the other hand maintain semi-intensive management system whereby the animals are provided shelter and kept indoors for security purpose. The animals somehow have their movements regulated and as such are released to fend for themselves in the early and late hours of the day, after which they are kept indoors over the night. As it were in the extensive or free range system, the animals feed on natural pasture and kitchen wastes or by-products of processed foods/farm produce, especially during the rainy season. Although, hardly are the animals under semi-intensive management provided supplements or essential ration for consumption, efforts are made by their keepers to feed them with by-products from farm produce, especially during dry season when pasture are hardly available for free grazing.
The extensive management system is however largely applied for the WAD sheep and goats than for other breeds such as Balami, Uda and Yakansa breeds of sheep; and Sokoto Red goats in southwest Nigeria. This may not be unconnected with economic value of these breeds of small ruminants arising from their bigger body size and better market prices than the WAD breeds. In addition, these breeds of small ruminants are highly prized for social ceremonies and prestige; and are more tempting to be stolen than the WADs. The Balami, Uda, Yankasa; and Sokoto Red breeds of the small ruminants are thus kept on a ‘modified intensive management system’ whereby the animals are mostly tethered or kept in a guarded enclosure and fed on cut-and-feed forages and by-products of farm produce.
Although, the incidence and intensity of pests and diseases infestation in the ruminant farm animals may vary between the rainy and dry seasons, and Across Nigeria’s ecological zones, the infestation portends a great danger for healthiness and productivity of the animals. According to Dipeolu (2010), livestock farmers may experience total loss of stock in death, or partial losses (through morbidity) in which the productivity of the animals becomes greatly reduced. Disease such as pneumonia, especially PPR, as the major causes of deaths in of ruminants; diarrhoea is mostly caused by parasitic gastroenteritis and PPR; and abortions and neonatal deaths are associated with starvation. In order to overcome these gruesome effects of pests and diseases on the ruminants, it becomes essential for the livestock farmers to either prevent or control the incidence of the diseases.
On another note, ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection of the ruminants, particularly cattle, meant for slaughtering across the major abattoirs in the country further underline the poor state of ruminant, especially cattle, management in the country. The ante-mortem inspection of cattle to be slaughtered at a major abattoir in Ibadan, southwest Nigeria, between 1990 and 1994 showed that between 2.4% and 6.3% of the slaughtered cattle were pregnant (Dipeolu (2010). The implication of this, [37], was a tremendous loss of potential cattle offspring that would have contributed to the cattle population growth and meat supply profile of the country. A post-mortem study of another major abattoir based in Lagos, Nigeria, between 2004 and 2007 showed that the slaughtered cattle portends a health risk to beef consumers as about 1.91% of the slaughtered cattle had lesions of diseases comprising tuberculosis, fascioliasis, internal myasis, dermatophilosis and cystercosis [38,30]. Laboratory examination of some of the meat-borne diseases showed that the meats are tainted with bacteria pathogens such as
The commonly adopted extensive and semi-intensive management systems for the farm animals may however make it difficult for the livestock farmers to consciously and conscientiously prevent the incidence of pest and disease infestation on their animals. This is based on the fact that, as the animals are allowed to freely roam the neighbourhood they readily contact infectious diseases or pests from other infected animals they mixed with in the course of fending for themselves, and may as well sustain injuries which in turn may eventually impair their health status and probably lead to their deaths (Lawal-Adebowale & Alarima, 2011).
Given the distinct nature of the ruminant’s stomach, the farm animals heavily depend on forage or raoughage as major feeds. The commonly available herbage in the Nigeria’s ecological zones for ruminant’s consumption include the
Cost of supplementary feeding and non-availability of forage during the dry season greatly challenged efficient livestock feeding and management in Nigeria. Based on the need for adequate feeding, it is believed that about 85% of cost of livestock production is feeding, and given the poverty status of most livestock farmers and poor marketing system of farm animals, hardly could they take up supplementary feeding. This accounted for preference of extensive and semi-intensive systems of management. Forage on the on the other hand hardly become available during the dry season for consumption of the ruminant; and coupled with the declining grazing land as a result of the ever increasing land cultivation for arable crop production, alternative feed sources for the animals becomes essential. Utilisation of fodder from crop residues compensates for non-availability of grasses during the off-season. Other alternative to mitigate the effect of dry season feeding was the establishment of fodder bank whereby legumes are established and properly managed in a concentrated unit [41]. In order to optimise the potentials of the fodder bank, combine sowing of series of legumes and grains are manipulated by, for instance, cropping sorghum with
The fodder bank alternative however mainly benefits selected animals as not all animals are allowed to graze the bank. Fodder banks are designed not to supply forage year-round for an entire herd but rather to be used strategically for limited periods with selected animals, thus only pregnant and lactating animals are allowed to graze the bank. This suggests that, only a few ruminants had access to grazing or foraging during the dry season, and thus portends that dry season feeding constitutes a major challenge to livestock production in Nigeria. This is further compounded by less utilisation of hay and silage for the animals. Since the reared animals cannot survive without food, the implications of dry season feed problem include straying or deliberate guiding of the animals into farms for grazing thus leading to conflicts and violent clash between the crop and livestock farmers.
Although, ecological categorisation of the Nigeria has varied over time arising from changing trends of the commonly used natural factors [12], critical examination of the country’s ecozones in relation to livestock distribution revealed that the ruminants are distributed throughout the three major ecozones in the country, namely the semi-arid, sub-humid and humid zones. The semi-arid region, characterised by average rainfall of 500 – 1000mm, prolonged dry season and sparsely distributed vegetations, is known to have greatly favoured livestock management in the country over the years. But with the changing climatic trends in the country, the sub-humid zone and its characteristics rainfall distribution range of 1000 – 1500mm, vegetative cover and moderately dry periods, now enclaves about 45% of the cattle in the country. In the same vein, studies have affirmed that the changing situation of tsetse flies infestation in the region, coupled with the prolonged rainfall period and good rainfall distribution range of more than 1500; has equally made the environment favourable to cattle and other small ruminants’ management. This observation suggests that Nigeria’s agro-ecologies have the potentials to favourably support livestock development in the country. This notwithstanding, there is need to consciously harness the environment to enhance the country’s livestock development through the following:
Over 90 percent of the ruminant livestock lies in the hands of rural livestock farmers, especially the pastoralists, in Nigeria. The animals though, are of considerable economic importance in Nigeria’s economy, poor management system of the stock has greatly hindered the development of the livestock. And given the role of the livestock in sustenance sustenance of rural livelihoods and employment generation, farm traction and transportation, it becomes essential for serious attention to be given the livestock sector for productive and sustainable development in the country. In this regard, the livestock research institutes, comprising National Animal Production Research Institute (NAPRI), National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI), and Nigerian Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (NITR), need to be strengthened in terms of qualified and adequate research personnel and equipment for quality research on livestock related issues. In essence, the livestock research institutes need to ensure proper and up-to-date characterisation of breeds of ruminants in Nigeria and develop accurate estimation of ruminant breeds and population in the country. In essence, the livestock research institutes need to ensure proper and up-to-date characterisation of breeds of ruminants occurring pests and diseases in livestock, and the lethal effects of ill-health causative agents on the animals.
To effectively achieve this, research in livestock development should go beyond the traditional field visit to animal sheds for physical livestock condition monitoring and data collection. The country needs to harness the emerging information and communication technology (ICT) devices that allow for remote and continuous monitoring of livestock conditions and collection of data on the animals without physically being in the animals’ sheds. With this, efficient data and information on farm animals’ health status, productivity, feeding regime and feed conversion could be readily monitored. Similarly, documentation of particular livestock pedigree, characterisation of breeds of farm animals and simulation of the animals’ characteristics and production performance could be enhanced for effective management and transformational development of the livestock sector. In addition to this is need for better development of better grazing system and management practices in the country’s livestock sector. Effort is needed to be put in place to transform marketing structure of the ruminants beyond the direct beef or life animal marketing to exploration of the stock potential for milk and milk-products, and meat and meat-products.
Map of Nigeria showing the natural division into three regions by rivers Niger and Benue
Map of Nigeria showing the six geopolitical zones in the country for political administration
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a significant health issue, with a global prevalence approaching 10% [1]. It is a condition associated with long-term morbidity and mortality linked to its severe impact on the cardiovascular system. In the healthcare setting, many resources are allocated toward the monitoring and treatment of CKD. These can be in the form of medical practitioner consults, allied health input, medications, dialysis, and biochemical monitoring of progression and complications.
Biochemical tests are pivotal to the diagnosis, monitoring, and management of CKD. Increased understanding of the array of methods for individual tests and the ways best to interpret result for each test can be critical in optimizing decisions for patient care. Additionally, understanding the deficiencies or pitfalls of each test with preanalytical collection and handling processes and analytical performance, including interferences, may be very useful in better understanding the accuracy of results and empowering clinical staff to interact with pathology experts and subsequently deliver improved patient care decisions.
Biochemical testing and monitoring can be used for assessing renal dysfunction, the progression of CKD staging, biochemical and endocrine sequelae of CKD, and optimizing therapy and dialysis. This chapter will endeavor to provide an overview of the biochemical analytes employed in CKD monitoring and provide laboratory considerations in the understanding of each.
Creatinine is the end metabolic product of creatine in muscle, and the amount of creatinine in the serum and urine is related to muscle mass and renal excretion. It is consistently converted into creatinine at ~2% per day by an irreversible process, freely filtered at the glomerulus, and not reabsorbed by the renal tubules, which makes it a good endogenous marker for kidney impairment detection. Its use in kidney function evaluation has limitations, which include age, sex, race, and body weight. Hence, the development of the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and the measured glomerular filtration rate (mGFR) has been adopted. GFR estimation or measurement is utilized to determine the amount of blood passing through the kidneys per minute, and its amount can be indicative of kidney function from the clearance of endogenous biomarkers (creatinine and cystatin C) or exogenous substances, which include urine isotope collections, such as inulin, iotalamat, and iohexol, used for measuring the GFR more accurately. Although they may provide superior accuracy, they are invasive, impractical, time consuming, and expensive, including the need for specialized chromatographic test methods. The eGFR minimizes the effect of age and sex compared to a solitary creatinine level and, thus, is one of the best indicators of renal function in CKD. There are also formulas that adjust for race. Most of the formulas utilize creatinine or cystatin C, and any potential errors with both the analytes will also be propagated by the eGFR calculation. The limitations of these formulas include that they can only be used in adults greater than 18 years old, and an alternative formula, e.g., Schwarz formula, is a potential eGFR calculator that can be used in a pediatric population, although care may be needed in its application to certain ethnic groups [2]. The KDIGO guideline for CKD based on the GFR is <60 mL/min per 1.73 m2 (Table 1) [3].
GFR categories | GFR result |
---|---|
Normal to increased | ≥90 mL/min per 1.73 m2 |
Mildly reduced | 68–89 mL/min per 1.73 m2 |
Moderately reduced | 30–59 mL/min per 1.73 m2 |
Severely reduced | 15–29 mL/min per 1.73 m2 |
Kidney failure | <15 mL/min per 1.73 m2 |
KDIGO-suggested GFR categories [3].
In an effort to standardize a creatinine result in a patient with a known gender and age, the laboratory will provide an eGFR, which provides an estimated GFR based on formulas derived from experimental models. This eGFR is mostly calculated currently using the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI), which has the advantage over its predecessor (the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) formula) in that it can be used across the whole range of GFR, while the MDRD formula is applicable to patients with established kidney disease. This is important, as it allows for more accurate stratification of the stage of early kidney disease (stages 1 and 2). Both the formulas have inherent limitations, such as being unable to be applied to pediatric patients (less than 18-year-old) and being inaccurate at the extremes of body size and age, but the CKD-EPI has been shown to be a superior formula for estimating eGFR [4].
The measuring methods are divided into chemical and enzymatic. The chemical methods are primarily based on alkaline picrate, which was first described by Jaffe in 1886; hence, the methods are commonly referred to as Jaffe methods. Creatinine reacts with picrate in an alkaline solution to form the picrate-creatinine complex and has an orange-red color, which is measured at 490–520 nm.
This reaction is not specific for creatinine; hence, many method variations have been introduced over time. The chemical methods started as end point, which are now almost nonexistent, and they have been superseded by kinetic assays in order to minimize noncreatinine chromogens causing interferences. These noncreatinine chromogens have a different rate of color development, allowing for the separation of the rate of color development from creatinine from the interferents. Additionally, the reaction incubation temperature has influence on the reaction of the interferents, and temperatures of 25--41°C have been used to minimize interferences [5]. They are relatively inexpensive and the most widely used, but they are liable to a number of interferents, including: a) positive interferents: ascorbic acid, pyruvate, protein, glucose, creatine, various cephalosporins, acetoacetate, and fluorescein and b) negative interferents: bilirubin, hemoglobin F, and dopamine [6]. The bacterial contamination of urine samples can cause the production of substances that inhibit the Jaffe reaction.
The enzymatic methods are increasingly used in laboratories as they become more economical to improve accuracy, but they are not immune to interferences. Enzymatic methods are typically used in point-of-care (POC) devices [7]. There are three commonly used enzymatic methods: a) creatininase (creatinine amidohydrolase), which is the least used due to poor kinetics, reduced sensitivity, and poor precision; b) creatininase and creatinase are far more frequently used, and to overcome ascorbic acid interference, ascorbate oxidase is included in the reagent; and c) creatinine deaminase (creatinine iminohydrolase) that can be affected by endogenous ammonia in small amounts, for example, from protein deamination and release red cell chromogens when blood is left uncentrifuged at room or higher temperature. The bacterial contamination of urine samples can cause protein deamination.
Isotope dilution-mass spectrometry (IDMS) is the reference method of creatinine measurement. All the Jaffe and enzyme methods are standardized against the IDMS method. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods exist, and more recently, a combination of IDMS and HPLC methods has been reported to improve turnaround time and accuracy. These methods are not practical for routine and rapid turnaround usage.
The differences between methods, calibrators, and patient samples (noncommutability) limit the transference of results between analytical methods; thus, it is important that result interpretation is based on the reference ranges provided for the method. This includes not only creatinine results but eGFR results as well.
The measurement of urine protein leak in urine is pivotal to the detection, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of kidney disease. Albumin is an abundant protein in urine; hence, either total protein or albumin along with creatinine is routinely used as biochemical diagnostic markers. Proteinuria/albuminuria due to diabetes and/or hypertension is an early marker of kidney disease and is a leading cause of chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular incidents. In general, current guidelines recommend the measurement of an early morning random urine collection for albumin-creatinine ratio (ACR). It is calculated by dividing the albumin concentration in milligrams by creatinine concentration in millimoles. Persistent increased albumin in the urine (two positive tests over 3 or more months) is the principal marker of kidney damage.
Although the 24-hour collections have been the “gold standard,” alternative methods for detecting protein excretion, such as urinary ACR, correct for variations in urinary concentration due to hydration as well as provide more convenience than that of timed urine collections. The spot specimen correlates well with 24-hour collections in adults. Australian recommendations were published [8] (Table 2) as part of the standardization process for primary care by a consensus working group, and these recommendations were adopted by Kidney Australia in 2013 on the limits for urinary albumin-creatinine ratio alone. The study estimated that about six million individuals (~25%) have one or more of the major risk factors for CKD and that about 1.4 million (6%) Australian adults have CKD [8]. Soon after this the KDIGO recommendations were adopted.
Sex | ACR for males (mg/mmol) | ACR for females (mg/mmol) | 24-hour urinary albumin (mg/day) |
---|---|---|---|
Normal | <2.5 | <3.5 | |
Microalbuminuria | 2.5–25 | 3.5–35 | 30–300 |
Macroalbuminuria | >25 | >35 | >300 |
Categories of albuminuria in Australia in 2012.
The most recent KDIGO guideline for CKD based on the markers of kidney damage is that the disease duration must be >3 months, which also suggested new terminology. The suggested limits of albumin and protein excretion rates AER and PER and ACR and PCR values are presented in Table 3 [3].
Albuminuria and proteinuria categories | AER, PER, ACR, and PCR results |
---|---|
Normal | AER <10 mg/d; ACR <10 mg/g (<1 mg/mmol) |
Mild | AER 10–29 mg/d; ACR <10 mg/g (1.0–2.9 mg/mmol) |
Normal to mild | AER <30 mg/d; ACR <30 mg/g (<3 mg/mmol) PER <150 mg/d; PCR <150 mg/g (<15 mg/mmol) |
Moderate | AER 30–300 mg/d; ACR 30–300 mg/g (3–30 mg/mmol) PER 150–500 mg/d; PCR 150–500 mg/g (15–50 mg/mmol) |
Severe | AER >300 mg/d; ACR >300 mg/g (>30 mg/mmol) PER >500 mg/d; PCR >500 mg/g (>50 mg/mmol) |
Nephrotic syndrome | AER >2200 mg/d; ACR >2200 mg/g (>220 mg/mmol) PER >3500 mg/d; PCR >3500 mg/g (>350 mg/mmol) |
KDIGO suggested albuminuria and proteinuria categories.
In our tertiary hospital from 2010 to 2020, there has been 62% reduction in timed protein, 40% reduction in random protein requests, and 72% reduction in timed albumins requests, while there has been 22% increase in random urine requests. Time urine advantage is that it accounts for day night variations as well as positional or exercise variations.
Patients need to be provided with clear instruction for sample collections to mitigate any preanalytical problems, such as avoid collection if there is any bleeding (menstrual or urine), and other physiological contaminations intended (e.g., topping up with water) or unintended.
Albumin in the urine is present in variable structural forms, and it is not always as a single intact polypeptide molecule, but there is fragmented form, and it may include highly carbonylated form. The modification is by proteolysis during passage through the urinary tract, and chemical modification during specimen storage leads to the formation of albumin fragments [9]. The different molecular forms of albumin are not observed in the samples of healthy individuals or from all the patients, but these changes reflect the kidney diseases processes. These patient-specific albumin differences can lead to differences in results between assays based on the technology type of the assay and the specificity of the immunoassay. Albumin methods for urinary albumin can be: a) immunonephelometric using a specialized equipment (nephelometer) and primarily and infrequently used in large specialized laboratories; b) immunoturbidimetric assays are the most commonly used and can be set up on all the general chemistry high-throughput automated analyzers; c) point-of-care assays, where rapid turnaround of results or no laboratory exists; d) HPLC assays; and e) sensor or emerging assays. A review of the Royal Colleague of Pathologist Australasia Quality Assurance programs for 2021 showed that for albumin, 92% of the participating laboratories utilize immunoturbidimetric methods, 4.9% immunonephelometric, and only 3% other methods. For total protein, 49% utilize benzathonium chloride and 49% the pyrogallol red-molybdate methods. Almost all of the testing for urinary proteins and albumin is performed by automated methods on general chemistry analyzers.
Measuring albumin is the preferred method for defining and staging CKD. The urine of a healthy individual contains up to 150 mg of protein in total per day of which approximately 20 mg is albumin.
The immunoassay-based methods use either monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies. Currently, the methods are not standardized. The antibodies target specific epitopes on the albumin molecule or fragments. The target antibody epitopes can vary from method to method, and combined with the molecular complexity of urine albumin, this can lead to diminished correlation in results between methods. It is, therefore, of fundamental importance that results should be interpreted with caution if the patient is using more than one pathology service; ideally, the same method is suggested for the best management outcomes. This will minimize misclassifications of the albuminuria category for CKD. The methods are sufficiently sensitive and specific to measure concentration levels down to or below 5 mg/L and total precision of <5% (correlation coefficient), which allows for identifying patients with increased albumin excretion. Immunoturbidimetric methods measure only immunoreactive albumin and are unable to detect fragmented albumin; thus, they can underestimate albumin in biological samples. Most of the pathology laboratories will provide albumin results in less than 3 hours from the receipt of samples.
In contrast, the immunonephelometric assay has showed a marked reduction of 53 ± 4% when carbamylated and glycated albumin was present [10]. Very high albumin concentration in the sample can lead to an underestimation of albumin concentration because it exceeds the antialbumin antibody concentration, a large amount of albumin cannot bind its antibody, and the obtained value is low, which is known as the “hook effect.”
ELISA provides faster results and uses a small amount of antialbumin antibodies; however, competitive ELISA uses only one antibody and is less specific for albumin compared with sandwich ELISA. In sandwich ELISA, two antialbumin antibodies are required, offering better specificity but making the method expensive. ELISA methods are semiautomated and, therefore, not completely free from human analytical error [11].
There are numerous POC strip-based methods now available using different technologies and methodologies such as:
Use of immunoturbidimetric reaction.
Use of dye reagents on strips for detecting albuminuria (or proteinuria) at the POC.
Reagent strip-based methods can also be applied for the quantitative estimation of protein or albumin by reflectance spectrophotometry. Result accuracy can be influenced due to interferences from, e.g., high urine protein hematuria, soaps, dyes, and some drugs. In a study, Pugia
Immunochemical methods applied on the strip using monoclonal enzyme-labeled antialbumin antibodies or gold-nanoparticle-labeled antialbumin antibodies. Alternatively, polyclonal antialbumin antibodies may be used to detect the presence of albumin in the urine sample by the latex agglutination inhibition test [11].
Dye-binding assay reports albumin result greater than 20 mg/L as positive, whereas immunologically immunoturbidimetry assays report results from 5 to 150 mg/L. Increasingly, the ones that provide quantitative albumin also measure creatinine to allow for the calculation of the albumin-creatinine ratio. If the POC methodology is of high quality and provides accurate quantitative results, it is unlikely that there would be a need to refer positive tests to a laboratory.
Currently, there is a considerable interest in developing immunosensors, which detect microalbuminuria without sample dilution. Carboxyl-enriched porous screen-printed carbon electrode is used in an immunosensor-based method to measure the microalbuminuria. It is based on the principle that the voltage gradient of the electrode decreases when antialbumin antibody immobilized on detector surface interacts with albumin in the sample. The quantitative detection is done with chronoamperometry. Its detection limit is 9.7 mg/mL. This method is rapid, sensitive, and highly reproducible [13].
Newer systems use a dye-binding-based albumin test strip assay in combination with a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensor technology (Sysmex UFC 3500 reader + CMOS). It showed a strong correlation (r = 0.92) compared with immunonephelometric assay with a limit of detection limit being as low as 5 mg/L. The effect of urinary pH on test results was negligible. Carbamylated, glycated, and partially hydrolyzed isoforms of albumin were detected [10].
Unlike immunoassay-based methods, high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) can detect both the fragmented and immunounreactive albumin present in the urine sample, which produces higher results particularly in samples with low concentrations leading to higher rates of patients with microalbuminuria. The transition to use of tandem mass spectrometry and combined with HPLC provides ability to detect very low concentrations of albumin as it takes into account all its physicochemical properties. This provides the ability to establish standards, which will significantly improve the traceability and standardization of methods. Although they are more precise and accurate, however, instrumentation is specialized and costly, which limits their use for routine use. The human serum albumin standard ERM-DA470, which is serum matrix, is the most frequently used standard by manufacturers.
There is no recognized reference method for measuring total urine proteins. The mix of different proteins in urine makes it impossible to optimize the current methodologies to provide consistent comparative response to the concentrations of different proteins. The two methods that are equally used are either pyrogallol red molybdate (colourimetric method) or benzethonium chloride (turbidimetric method). Both of these methods are easily adoptable on high-throughput general chemistry analyzers and have similar performance characteristics. The variability in protein composition and other compounds and concentration plus choice of standards has been found to be the factor in comparability between the two methods. Additionally, the concentration of protein in urine taken from patients can vary widely depending on dieting, exercising, and time of the day a patient urinated. In healthy individuals, Tamm-Horsfall (TH) protein (also known as uromodulin) is the most abundant protein in urine (50%), followed by albumin (20%) and immunoglobulin (5%) [14]. Tamm-Horsfall (TH) protein is apparently not significantly detected by these automated assays. Either human or bovine albumin, e.g., NIST SRM 927, is used as standard by manufacturers.
In the pyrogallol method, proteins form colored complexes, and these are spectrophotometrically measured. The presence of Bence-Jones protein can cause negative interference. Positive interference has been reported in patient receiving colloidal-based fillers, but this can be minimized if the reagent has added sodium dodecyl sulfate.
The benzethonium chloride method causes the precipitation of the proteins; turbidity and absorbance are directly related to the concentration of the urine proteins. Positive interferences have been observed in patients taking drugs, e.g., levodopa and methyldopa, while negative interference has been reported with gelatin-based plasma substitutes and one method in patients receiving contrast agent, povidone-iodine (PVP-iodine) solution.
POCT methods use a dye that changes in color. It is recommended that strips should be used to measure albumin not total proteins due to the increased accuracy. Alkaline urine (e.g., infection) can lead to false-positive results. The presence of highly colored urine (e.g., high bilirubin, other colored compounds) can make the reading of the strip more difficult. These strips may not be reactive to Bence-Jones proteins. The use of urine dipstick protein may help in CKD screening, staging, and prognosis.
Routinely, in laboratories, only turbid urines (e.g., urinary infection) are centrifugated to remove insoluble material before sample analysis. Centrifugation is recommended with all the samples for protein analysis [15]. The effect is greater at low protein concentration and the benzethonium (turbidimetric) methods being more affected due to turbidity being removed during centrifugation; hence, protein values near the cutoff ~140 mg/L without centrifugation can lead to false-positive results and subsequently impact on diagnosis [16].
Results must be interpreted against reference or cutoff limits provided in the report. The differences in results among urine protein and albumin methods can be significant and alter risk classification and treatment decisions for individuals with kidney disease.
Cystatin C is an alternative to the widely available creatinine in determining renal function with the eGFR. It is a small protein produced by all the nucleated cells, which is freely filtered at the glomerulus. The production rate is relatively constant from 4 months to 70 years and is proportional to the GFR. Its clearance is predominantly renal, and since it is not reabsorbed from the renal tubular lumen, its level is directly proportional to the glomerular infiltrate. The concentration levels are not greatly influenced by height, weight, sex, race, and changes in muscle mass or nutrition [17].
Since creatinine is so widely available, has a lot of guidelines and data reinforcing its use, and is very cheap to run in laboratories, cystatin C has not been widely implemented in most commercial laboratory test catalogs. Its use is mostly confined to confirming renal function in situations where creatinined use is contraindicated, such as reduced skeletal muscle mass or to confirm the presence of a creatinine interferent as an alternative test. In the context of CKD, no clinical advantage has been found in using cystatin C over creatinine except in very exceptional situations [18]. However, some studies do note that cystatin C may be more sensitive in early CKD, where the eGFR is between 60 and 90 mL/min/1.73 m2 [19]. In cases where there is suspected renal dysfunction, the cystatin-C-based eGFR should be calculated, since it gives more accurate and less biased estimates than the creatinine-based eGFR, and should be confirmed by the mGFR (iohexol) to reduce systematic or random variation.
Analytically, cystatin C levels are determined with immunoassays, so they are liable to all the same theoretical interferences, such as heterophilic antibodies. The immunoassay technique utilizes turbidimetric or nephelometric principles, and the analytical error can also be caused by analytes causing turbidity, such as hypertriglyceridemia.
Urea (blood urea nitrogen) is a marker of renal function. It is the body’s primary marker of nitrogenous excretion. It is produced by the liver during protein catabolism through the urea cycle, and > 90% is excreted via the kidneys. It is less utilized than creatinine though as a marker of direct renal function, because it cannot be used to accurately estimate the glomerular filtration rate. To be a marker of glomerular filtration, the analyte has to be completely filtered at the glomerulus and not reabsorbed or secreted by the tubules. While urea is completely filtered at the glomerulus, it is able to be excreted, and 40–50% is reabsorbed through the tubules by passive diffusion, limiting its utility as a specific glomerular filtration marker [22]. Furthermore, its excretion in urine can be affected by the urine flow rate, which explains why plasma levels are increased in dehydration, since the reduced urine flow rate allows for more urea to be reabsorbed from the tubular lumen to the interstitial space and ultimately back into the blood. A number of other factors influence urea levels, including protein loading, gut bleeds, catabolism, malignancy (increase urea), starvation, and urea cycle defects (decrease urea) [23].
Urea is analyzed in the laboratory using either a chemical method or an enzymatic method. The chemical method involves the reaction of the urea present in the specimen with diacetyl to form diazine, which absorbs light at 540 nm, which is detected using a spectrophotometer. Chemical methods are no longer in use. The enzymatic method utilizes the specificity of urease for urea, which produces ammonia. The ammonia, then, reacts in an indicator reaction with α-ketoglutarate and the enzyme glutamate dehydrogenase (GLDH), with this reaction oxidizing NADH to NAD+, which produces a change in light absorbance at 340 nm [24]. The enzymatic method can be affected by endogenous ammonia, which can be increased in urine specimens with aged specimens and patients with metabolic diseases, including urea cycle defects. CKD is associated with significant elevations in urea; however, its utility in determining renal function has been largely superseded by creatinine and the eGFR.
FGF23 is a phosphatonin that reduces the level of phosphate in the medium-to-long term. Hyperphosphatemia is a significant problem in chronic kidney disease, and it can be very resistant to treatment. It is postulated that FGF23 is an excellent marker in predicting deterioration in CKD [25]. It acts by binding to α-Klotho, a transmembrane FGF receptor predominantly expressed by the proximal tubules. The effect of FGF23 binding to the α-Klotho transmembrane complex is reduction in the insertion in sodium proximal tubular transporter 2a into the renal tubular membrane, which is involved in renal phosphate reabsorption. In the kidneys, it also reduces calcitriol (1, 25-dihydroxy vitamin D) production by suppressing 1a-hydroxylase and stimulating 24 hydroxylase. This results in less active vitamin D, which limits phosphate absorption from the gut and phosphate reabsorption from the kidney [26]. This would result in a reduced phosphate level in normal physiology.
CKD results in an elevation in FGF23. FGF23 production is stimulated by calcitriol, phosphate, and parathyroid hormone (PTH) [27], the latter two of which are already raised in CKD. Elevations in FGF23 are not specific for CKD, with elevations also occurring in genetic forms of rickets (X-linked, autosomal dominant, and autosomal recessive rickets), oncogenic osteomalacia, and fibrous dysplasia, but these tend to be readily differentiated clinically from CKD and are associated with hypophosphatemia. FGF23 looks to be a particularly useful marker in predicting refractory hyperparathyroidism, with its predictive ability superior to that of the PTH [28]. CKD begins to increase very early in kidney dysfunction, with end-stage renal failure associated with 1000fold increases. In CKD, FGF23 is correlated with endothelial dysfunction, CKD progression, and mortality [29].
FGF23 levels are typically done using immunoassay techniques and, as such, can be affected by the various causes of analytical issues of immunoassays, such as heterophile antibodies and high-molecular-weight interferents that can cause nonspecific binding to a molecularly similar epitope, as well as the theoretical risk of hook effects at very high levels. An FGF23 specific analytical issue is related to the availability of different assays. Some detect the C-terminal peptide (cFGF23), while others detect the whole or intact FGF23 molecule. The difference between these molecules means that results between different assays are not interchangeable and must be interpreted in the context of the quoted reference interval. This difference in molecular FGF23 can be important to consider in renal failure, as iron deficiency, which is also common in relatively common in CKD, can falsely elevate cFGF23, while iFGF23 is unaffected [26].
Parathyroid hormone is a principal mediator in calcium and phosphate biochemistry. It is a hormone that is secreted by the parathyroid glands on the back of the thyroid and responds to ionized calcium through the calcium sensing receptor. Hence, clinical units frequently request the estimation of the ionized calcium. The PTH performs a number of actions, including increased bone resorption of calcium and phosphate, increased renal calcium reabsorption, and decreased phosphate renal reabsorption and indirectly increases calcium and phosphate absorption from the small intestine by inducing active vitamin D production (calcitriol, 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D) through the induction of 1alpha hydroxylase in the kidneys [26].
In CKD, the regulation of calcium and phosphate is deranged due to the central role of the kidney in the homeostasis of these compounds. The kidneys play a pivotal role in the maintenance of calcium levels by eliminating and regulating solutes that can precipitate calcium out of solution, such as oxalate and phosphate, as well as contributing to the control of the acid–base status. This can lead to calcification throughout the body termed CKD-mineral and bone disorder, renal osteodystrophy, and adynamic bone disease [30]. It is in this setting that the PTH can prove useful in CKD. As the GFR deteriorates, the PTH levels also increase exponentially [31]. This is to compensate for the declining ionized calcium that results because of the reduced loss of oxalate and phosphate. The more the PTH goes up and the longer it does, the more likely of developing tertiary hyperparathyroidism, which is essentially a secondary hyperparathyroidism that has transitioned to autonomous PTH production. However, if the PTH is kept too low, patients are then at risk of developing adynamic bone disease [32]. Thus, CKD patients who are not on dialysis should have their PTH regularly monitored, and vitamin D status assessed and replaced if deficient. If the patient is on dialysis, the PTH should be maintained within two to nine times the upper limit of normal for the assay [33].
PTH is performed in the laboratory using immunoassays. Historically, many PTH immunoassays were susceptible to cross interference with the inactive PTH C-terminal metabolite, which would accumulate in CKD. Current assays are more specific for the intact, biologically active PTH molecule, with the immunoassay antibodies recognizing the biologically active N-terminus [26]. Being an immunoassay, it is liable to all the same interference types common to all immunoassays, such as heterophile antibody interference. Hook effect is rare in modern day immunoassays, but warrants theoretical consideration if a much lower PTH result than expected is produced. Care must be taken to ensure that the specimen is promptly separated from cells and analyzed to avoid
Biochemical analysis is essential to the diagnosis, management, and monitoring of CKD. This chapter has served as a primer to such testing, looking at the analytes and laboratory techniques that commonly make up renal function testing. It has not gone into depth in the hematological testing, endocrine testing, or dynamic function testing commonly employed in CKD management. However, even routine renal function testing warrants vigilance in interpretation. The laboratory is a suitable place to assist in these matters.
The primary biochemical markers for the diagnosing and evaluating stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD) are serum creatinine and the estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR). For diagnosing CKD, the GFR needs to be <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 for more than 3 months. Less frequently used endogenous marker for estimating the GFR is cystatin C. Alternatively, exogenous markers that can be used include inulin, iotalamat, and iohexol if clarity is not achieved with creatinine or cystatin C. Globally, urinary albumin and albumin-creatinine ratio are the recommended tests from a spot collection to estimate the kidney damage. Urinary protein estimate’s use is declining, especially 24-hour collections. There are several other markers discussed in brief that may be a useful adjunct in identifying causes and likely management strategies for CKD. Finally, pitfalls of the primary methodologies for the above tests are provided to guide readers in better understanding the results and their use in patient care decisions.
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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12448,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10168,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:77,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4720,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. 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These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9257,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7313,totalCrossrefCites:42,totalDimensionsCites:89,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4414,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5418,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6205,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"13",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82972",title:"Actinomycosis: Diagnosis, Clinical Features and Treatment",slug:"actinomycosis-diagnosis-clinical-features-and-treatment",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104698",abstract:"Actinomycosis is a filamentous bacterium that forms part of the normal human flora of the gastrointestinal, oropharynx and female genitalia. This indolent infection is characterized by abscess formation, widespread granulomatous disease, fibrosis, cavitary lung lesions and mass-like consolidations, simulating an active malignancy or systemic inflammatory diseases. It is subacute, chronic and variable presentation may delay diagnosis due to its capability to simulate other conditions. An accurate diagnostic timeline is relevant. Early diagnosis of pulmonary actinomycosis decreases the risk of indolent complications. Proper treatment reduces the need for invasive surgical methods. Actinomycosis can virtually involve any organ system, the infection spread without respecting anatomical variables as metastatic disease does, making malignancy an important part of the differential diagnosis. As it is normal gastrointestinal florae, it is difficult to cultivate, and share similar morphology to other organisms such as Nocardia and fungus. It is often difficult to be identified as the culprit of disease. Its true imitator capability makes this infectious agent a remarkable organism within the spectra of localized and disseminated disease. In this chapter, we will discuss different peculiarities of actinomycosis as an infectious agent, most common presentation in different organ systems, and challenging scenarios.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Onix J. Cantres-Fonseca, Vanessa Vando-Rivera, Vanessa Fonseca-Ferrer, Christian Castillo Latorre and Francisco J. Del Olmo-Arroyo"},{id:"82412",title:"Potential of Native Microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon on the Removal of Pollutants",slug:"potential-of-native-microalgae-from-the-peruvian-amazon-on-the-removal-of-pollutants",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105686",abstract:"Environmental pollution is a severe and common problem in all the countries worldwide. Various physicochemical technologies and organisms (e.g., plants, microorganisms, etc.) are used to address these environmental issues, but low-cost, practical, efficient, and effective approaches have not been available yet. Microalgae offer an attractive, novel, and little-explored bioremediation alternative because these photosynthetic organisms can eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and remove heavy metals and toxic organic compounds through processes still under study. Our research team has conducted some experiments to determine the bioremediation potential of native microalgae on some pollutant sources (i.e., leachate and wastewater) and its ability to remove hazardous chemical compounds. Therefore, in this chapter, we provide the results of our research and updated information about this exciting topic. Experiments were conducted under controlled culture conditions using several native microalgae species, variable time periods, different pollutant sources, and hazardous chemicals such as ethidium bromide. The results indicated that native microalgae can remove pollutants (i.e., phosphorus, ammonia, etc.) of wastewater, leachate, and some hazardous chemical compounds such as ethidium bromide. In conclusion, native microalgae have an excellent potential for removing several pollutants and, consequently, could be used to develop bioremediation technologies based on native microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon.",book:{id:"11366",title:"Microalgae",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11366.jpg"},signatures:"Marianela Cobos, Segundo L. Estela, Carlos G. Castro, Miguel A. Grandez, Alvaro B. Tresierra, Corayma L. Cabezudo, Santiago Galindo, Sheyla L. Pérez, Angélica V. Rios, Jhon A. Vargas, Roger Ruiz, Pedro M. Adrianzén, Jorge L. Marapara and Juan C. Castro"},{id:"81859",title:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus",slug:"respiratory-syncytial-virus",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104771",abstract:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)-driven bronchiolitis is one of the most common causes of pediatric hospitalization. Every year, we face 33.1 million episodes of RSV-driven lower respiratory tract infection without any available vaccine or cost-effective therapeutics since the discovery of RSV eighty years before. RSV is an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the pneumoviridae family of viruses. This chapter aims to elucidate the structure and functions of the RSV genome and proteins and the mechanism of RSV infection in host cells from entry to budding, which will provide current insight into the RSV-host relationship. In addition, this book chapter summarizes the recent research outcomes regarding the structure of RSV and the functions of all viral proteins along with the RSV life cycle and cell-to-cell spread.",book:{id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses Infection",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg"},signatures:"Sattya Narayan Talukdar and Masfique Mehedi"},{id:"82148",title:"Mosquito Population Modification for Malaria Control",slug:"mosquito-population-modification-for-malaria-control",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104907",abstract:"Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that kills millions of people every year. Existing control tools have been insufficient to eliminate the disease in many endemic regions and additional approaches are needed. Novel vector-control strategies using genetic engineering to create malaria-resistant mosquitoes (population modification) can potentially contribute a new set of tools for mosquito control. Here we review the current mosquito control strategies and the development of transgenic mosquitoes expressing anti-parasite effector genes, highlighting the recent improvements in mosquito genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9 as an efficient and adaptable tool for gene-drive systems to effectively spread these genes into mosquito populations.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Rebeca Carballar-Lejarazú, Taylor Tushar, Thai Binh Pham and Anthony James"},{id:"81934",title:"Lactobacillus Use for Plant Fermentation: New Ways for Plant-Based Product Valorization",slug:"lactobacillus-use-for-plant-fermentation-new-ways-for-plant-based-product-valorization",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104958",abstract:"Today, plant production is increasing, but most industrial processes generate a lot of waste and by-products for which, in the current context, it is a priority to recycle or valorize them. One of the cheapest valorization routes is fermentation, in particular lactic fermentation by Lactobacillus species, which produces lactic acid and other molecules of industrial interest such as bioactive compounds such as anthocyanin, organic acid, peptides, or phenol, which are widely found in the plant matrix, mainly in cereals, grass, fruits, and vegetables. Bioactive compounds may exert beneficial health effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, or prebiotic activities. In addition, lactic acid fermentation can improve existing products and lead to new applications in food, livestock feeding and biotechnology, such as the production of lactic acid, protein, or silage. This chapter reviews the use of Lactobacillus strains in the fermentation process of many plant bioresources or by-products through their different bioactivities, active molecules, and applications.",book:{id:"11372",title:"Lactobacillus - A Multifunctional Genus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11372.jpg"},signatures:"Morgan Le Rouzic, Pauline Bruniaux, Cyril Raveschot, François Krier, Vincent Phalip, Rozenn Ravallec, Benoit Cudennec and François Coutte"},{id:"82672",title:"Removal of Microcystins from Drinking Water by Electrocoagulation: Upscaling, Challenges, and Prospects",slug:"removal-of-microcystins-from-drinking-water-by-electrocoagulation-upscaling-challenges-and-prospects",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105751",abstract:"Microcystins (MCs) belong to a family of stable monocyclic heptapeptide compounds responsible for hazardous toxins in drinking water. Although several methods have been applied to remove MCs from drinking water (e.g., activated carbon filtration, ion exchange resins, high-pressure membranes, and electrochemistry), upscaling laboratory experiments to benefit municipal water treatment is still a major challenge. This chapter is a follow-up study designed to test three electrocoagulation (EC) techniques for decomposing MC by UV-ozone purification (laboratory), electrocoagulation (field unit), and coupled UV-ozone-electrocoagulation (municipal treatment). The chemistry and efficiency of the treatments were first examined followed by comparison with activated carbon filtration. Electrocoagulation outperformed activated carbon filtration by nearly 40%. When the laboratory treatments were evaluated at the municipal scale, effectiveness of the technique deteriorated by 10–20% because of UV pulse dissipation, vapor-ion plasma under-functioning, and limitations of polymer fiber filters. We confirmed previously published studies that pollutant coagulation and MC decomposition are affected by physicochemical factors such as radiation pulse density, electrical polarity, pH, and temperature dynamics. The results have relevant applications in wastewater treatment and chemical recycling.",book:{id:"11800",title:"Cyanobacteria - Recent Advances and New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11800.jpg"},signatures:"Stephen Opoku-Duah, Dennis Johnson, Dan Blair and Jeff Dimick"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:101},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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