\r\n\tEven though video surveillance systems have been part an integral part of the public and security sectors for decades, there is a significant interest in them outside of those industries. This interest is largely due to increased crime rates and security threats all around the globe, which are driving a continuous growth of the video surveillance market. According to a recent report, the video surveillance market was valued at $29.98 billion in 2016 and is expected to reach a value of $72.19 billion by 2022. This market potential is also propelled by recent advances in Artificial Intelligence and Computer Vision research fields—boosting the intelligence, scalability, and accuracy of intelligent video surveillance solutions.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book's goal is to provide a game-changing and cross-disciplinary forum that brings together experts from academia, industry, and government to advance the frontiers of theories, methods, systems, and applications.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-342-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-341-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-343-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"4d13a124dd9eb965b2e6958786b710cb",bookSignature:"Dr. Pier Luigi Mazzeo",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11548.jpg",keywords:"Hardware and Software Architectures, Privacy in Surveillance, Cybersecurity for Surveillance, Biometrics, Activity and Interaction Analysis, Cognitive Dynamic Systems and Bio-Inspired Methods, Human-Computer Interfaces, Visualization Algorithms, Classification and Recognition, Sensors, Communications and Networked Sensing, Distributed Camera Networks and Smart Cameras",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Artificial Intelligence and Computer Vision enthusiastic researcher at Institute of Applied Science and Intelligent Systems in Lecce (Italy) with more than one hundred publications in his referred research fields.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"17191",title:"Dr.",name:"Pier Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Mazzeo",slug:"pier-luigi-mazzeo",fullName:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/17191/images/system/17191.jpeg",biography:"Pier Luigi Mazzeo obtained an MSc in Computer Science from the University of Salento, Lecce, Italy, in 2001. Since then, he has been working on several research topics regarding artificial intelligence and computer vision. Dr. Mazzeo joined the Italian National Research Council of Italy (CNR) as a researcher\nin 2002. He is currently involved in projects for algorithms for video object tracking, face detection and recognition, facial expression recognition, deep neural networks, and machine learning. He has authored and co-authored 100 publications, including more than fifteen papers published in international journals and book chapters. He has also co-authored five national and international patents. Dr. Mazzeo acts as a reviewer for several international journals and for some book publishers. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Adult patients are seeking treatment in order to improve their facial aesthetics and to have tooth repositioning, making restoration or replacement of teeth easier. However, with this category of patients, a physiological adaptation is involved, and it is often symptom related, while with a child, we are more concerned by signs. A major reorientation of orthodontic reflection has occurred in the last decades [1]. With the change in lifestyles and increased patient awareness, demand for adult orthodontics has increased. Furthermore, dental multidisciplinary allowed better management of the most complex and unique demands of adult patients, thus considerably improving the quality of care and treatment prognosis. Besides clarifying objectives, adult patients require treatment efficacy, convenience of appointments schedules, and good communication with other health professionals. About 80% of adult patients require multidisciplinary treatment in planning and treatment performance. In adults, the opinion of another expert is not casual. There are rare cases of adult orthodontics in which cooperation is not necessary [2].
The objectives of adult orthodontics correspond to the general objectives of orthodontics, i.e., optimum occlusal function, to improve the aesthetics of the face and teeth, and to contribute to the longevity of the stomatognathic system. However, a fourth objective can be added in adults: to realize a treatment of “aid” to the prosthesis.
The purpose of this chapter is to review, through clinical cases, the scope, effectiveness, and limitations of orthodontic treatment in adult patients.
The demand for correction of malocclusion is often psychological and sociological rather than somatic. The relationship between psychology and orthodontics has been either ignored or dealt with in mechanical ways. This is an area in which speculation and given work of irresponsible kind takes place [3].
Beauty is often more than skin deep because the psychological damage to a person who feels unattentive can be extreme. Orthodontic treatment provides a person a strong sense of feeling along with awareness, that he or she is not powerless, but that through proper cooperation can change and control outcomes.
Fundamental knowledge of psychology is necessary for modern orthodontics. The study of actions and reactions of individuals in social situations and the influence of such reactions on an individual is known as “dialectic psychology” [4].
Several authors have commented on the increase in the number of adults coming for orthodontic [5, 6]. This phenomenon has been attributed to several factors, including the improving of the aspect of brackets [7], greater conscience for the possibilities of orthodontic treatment, and social integration of the fixtures. Regardless of this, there is little information about this subgroup of patients. In particular, there is a lack of research on adult motivation for orthodontic treatment. As early as 1971, Edgerton and Knorr [8] proposed that the origin of the motivation may be the most important factor in determining and forecasting patient satisfaction. This statement was made in relation to patients seeking aesthetic surgery. However, it is likely that this assumption can be considered in many types of treatments, including adult orthodontic treatment.
The orthodontic treatment of adult patients differs from that of children in that there is no further appreciable skeletal growth in adult patients and the treatment is often multidisciplinary. There are however slow skeletal changes taking place in the facial bones during adulthood, and the dentoalveolar compensation mechanism still occurs. The initially slower tissue response in adults compared with that in children does not significantly affect the total treatment time since adult patients are general more cooperative than children, which seems to compensate for the slower tissue response [9].
Cortical bone becomes denser, and the spongy bone reduces with age. Marginal bone loss is more common in adults, which leads to apical shifting of the center of resistance of the involved tooth, resulting in increased tipping moment produced by the applied force. This requires proper biomechanics utilizing adequate countermovement to achieve bodily movement of periodontally involved teeth [10].
A viable periodontal ligament is important for cell proliferation on application of mechanical force. There is a reduction in the periodontal ligament vascularity with aging and insufficient source of preosteoblasts, which may explain the delayed response to orthodontic forces described in adults. It is mandatory to employ lighter force levels in adults as heavier forces result in vascular compression and necrosis of the blood vessels of the periodontal ligament. There is high risk of iatrogenic damage to the periodontium with uncontrolled forces, and it is important to keep the periodontal status under control during treatment [11, 12].
Adults are more vulnerable to root resorption on application of orthodontic force. This is most commonly seen during intrusion of anterior and posterior teeth. Light continuous force must be employed to minimize the risk of root resorption, and the patients must be informed of the potential risk before starting the treatment. It is mandatory to take periodical intraoral periapical (IOPA) radiographs to evaluate for signs of root resorption. In case resorption is detected, active forces must be withdrawn for 7–8 weeks, and further treatment can be continued after cessation of root resorption [13].
Careful diagnosis and treatment planning on a multidisciplinary approach is required to treat most adult patients. An adult, unlike a child, is usually a patient with high expectations from orthodontic treatment. He presents with minimal or no growth potential and meager accommodation to mechanics. In addition, an adult may exhibit a potential for pathological changes, such as knife-edge ridges, increased thickness of cortical plates, buried roots, impactions, gingival recession, periodontal breakdown, missing teeth, mesial tilting, extrusion of molars due to nonreplacement of extracted posterior teeth, TMJ problems, osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and diabetes mellitus. These conditions, which obtain as a result of hormonal, vitamin, or systemic disorders common to an adult, necessitate more careful and extensive diagnosis evaluations.
Orthodontic diagnosis involves the development of a comprehensive database of pertinent information. The standard diagnostic aids such as case history, clinical examination and study casts, radiographs, and photographs are mandatory [4].
Intraoral periapical (IOPA), occlusal, and TMJ films should be obtained routinely in addition to the panoramic radiograph and the cephalogram. The “problem-oriented diagnostic approach,” as described by Proffit and Ackerman, is strongly recommended to ensure that no aspect of the patient need is neglected [14].
The additional diagnostic procedures that we should consider in an adult patient are as follows:
A full series intraoral periapical radiographs and TMJ X-rays.
Diet evaluation
Requirement of multidisciplinary approach towards treatment
The diagnostic steps involved in treating adult patients are as follows:
Collect accurate history and thorough patient examination
Analyze the database
Develop a problem list and priority
Prepare tentative treatment plan according to the priorities
Interact with other specialists involved
Acquire patient acceptance for the proposed treatment plan
In the recent times, with the increasing expectations of the patients to an aesthetically and functionally stable treatment result, the practice of dentistry is changing from a single specialist or general dentist practice to that of a team approach.
This enables the best utilization of the skills and expertise of clinicians of different specialties for the best possible treatment outcome of the patient. Such joint care of a patient’s dental needs is defined as interdisciplinary treatment [15].
Interdisciplinary approach is indispensable for patients with mutilated dentition. Patients with congenital defects can be best treated with such a team work only. It is also of utmost importance in adult patients presenting with severe jaw discrepancies, abraded or worn teeth, old failing restorations, tipped teeth, multiple edentulous spaces from previous tooth extraction, periodontal breakdown, recession, and many other periodontal and restorative problems [16].
The role of orthodontist in such an interdisciplinary treatment approach can be primary or secondary. Primary as in a case wherein an orthodontic patient requires adjunctive other specialties treatment as prosthetic replacement of missing teeth, tooth buildup to match a Bolton discrepancy, periodontal rehabilitation, surgical exposure of an impacted tooth, etc. Secondary as in cases where the orthodontic treatment rendered is an adjunct to other treatment planned, like in the case of space creation or tooth uprighting to facilitate prosthetic replacement of a missing tooth, etc. [17].
The patient may have high expectations and hesitations in accepting visibility of orthodontic appliances. For aesthetic reasons, the patient may demand ceramic brackets or lingual orthodontics. The patient must be informed about the limitations of the treatment.
Closure of old extraction site may be difficult especially in molar region [18]. It may need uprighting to open the space mesially to receive prosthesis.
While bonding, special considerations may be required due to presence of restorations such as porcelains and metallic surfaces [19]. Excess adhesive around orthodontic attachments should be removed as surface roughness of adhesive attracts more plaque retention. Strict oral hygiene procedures must be reinforced as patients with periodontal problems may have various difficult areas to clean. All restorations must be properly polished to reduce the tendency of plaque retention. Stainless steel ligatures may be preferred to elastomeric modules due to less retentive to plaque [20].
Quantitative and qualitative changes in bone and compromised periodontal support and missing tooth may need special consideration to plan anchorage [21]. Headgears may not be acceptable to an adult due to aesthetic reasons. Hence, intraoral anchorage devices such as palatal arches and controlled forces are used. Microimplants can also be used to avoid dependence on teeth for anchorage.
The choice of extraction for orthodontic treatment may be affected by periorestorative problems or already extracted tooth. Occlusion achieved in adults is stable in a healthy patient but compromised periodontal status may need permanent retention [22, 23].
Patients with fine periodontal biotype that predisposes them to periodontal disease require strict supervision and control of oral hygiene against the accumulation of dental biofilm before the beginning of orthodontic treatment as our patient who consulted for mandibular crowding complicating dental hygiene measures [24–26]. In addition, orthodontic treatment allows the steady periodontal status to be maintained.
Despite no significant correlation between malocclusion and periodontal disease or between the effects of orthodontic treatment on periodontal improvement, literature describes the clear interaction between orthodontics and periodontics [27]. The likely contribution of orthodontics in the field of periodontics is related to the following (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4):
A better control of oral hygiene
A uniform distribution of forces over the dental
A rehabilitation of vertical dimension
Induced orthodontic extrusion, with no bone loss
Correction of bone vertical defects
Decreases or elimination of bruxism
Periodontal status is important and must be evaluated before contemplating orthodontic treatment in adult patients. If the periodontal disease is not treated and plaque control methods initiated before initiating orthodontic treatment, then the orthodontic tooth movement causes further periodontal destruction. This is particularly true if the teeth are moved in the direction of inflamed periodontal pockets that extend beyond the alveolar crest [28]. It is highly necessary to assess the patients’ potential for bone loss and gingival recession during orthodontic tooth movement. The patient should be screened for the risk factors of periodontal disease.
Pretreatment consultation with a periodontist should be routine and orthodontic objectives be altered according to his advice. Movement of teeth in the presence of periodontal inflammation will result in an increased loss of attachment and irreversible crestal bone loss.
A young woman aged 20 years; the reason for consultation was gingival recession and dental crowding.
Orthodontic treatment consisted of an alignment and correction crowding, the patient was sent after removal of the orthodontic appliance to the periodontist for a gingival graft to cover gingival recession.
A patient who consults for malpositions and dental extrusions.
Orthodontic treatment was aimed at correcting dental malposition and regain proper alignment will facilitate the oral hygiene.
Adult patients usually require adjunctive and comprehensive treatment involving multidisciplinary treatment approach. Correcting the malocclusion helps in improving the quality of periodontal and restorative treatment outcomes besides providing aesthetic benefits.
Adults are now more frequently referred for orthodontic treatment to improve the positioning and alignment of teeth prior to the replacement of missing teeth (Figs. 5, 7). Such tooth movements may be undertaken to achieve parallel abutments of the teeth used to hold the prosthesis, to create space for a pontic (the false tooth in a bridge), or to make space for a dental implant (usually a titanium device that integrates with the jaw bone and can be used to support a crown or dental bridge) (Figs. 6, 8).
It is often possible by orthodontic treatment to close spaces or reposition the remaining teeth following tooth loss. A good example of the usefulness of orthodontic treatment is when canines and premolars are moved posteriorly, eliminating either the need for a removable partial prosthesis to replace missing molars, or to allow insertion of a short-span fixed bridge, rather than the use a removable, partial prosthesis [9].
Adult patients have many preexisting conditions that are usually not present in adolescent patients. Hence, additional treatment objectives are established at the start of the treatment. Although acceptable aesthetics is an integral part of treatment goal, function, stability, and health of dentition are given paramount importance. Additional treatment objectives are determined to facilitate and improve effectiveness of periorestorative treatment by [29]
improving axial inclination of teeth, thereby improving root positioning with sufficient bone between roots for good vascular supply and proper contact area;
achieving parallelism of abutment teeth to minimize tooth cutting for fabrication of prosthesis;
distributing most favorable abutment teeth to receive prosthesis for better stability;
uprighting and extrusion of posterior teeth with occlusal equilibration sometimes followed by endodontic treatment to improve vertical osseous defects and crown root ratio;
forced extrusion of teeth damaged up to one third of cervical line to provide better support at the margin of the prosthesis;
restoring functional occlusion, keeping in mind existing skeletal relationship rather than aiming for Andrew’s six keys to normal occlusion;
achieving better lip support for flaccid and long upper lip by maintaining anterior teeth in slight procumbent position with correction of overjet by proclining and maintaining lower incisors in more procumbent position than normal position to avert wrinkles around the lips and by restoring vertical dimension with bite plate before placing prosthesis in bite collapse.
Clinical examination in this patient showed defective prostheses with poor periodontal status.
Orthodontic treatment was performed to correct the malocclusion. The patient also received a prosthetic rehabilitation.
A patient aged 50 years addressed for orthodontic treatment for future prosthetic rehabilitation.
Orthodontic treatment was to correct malpositions and dental rotations and creates spaces for future prostheses. A provisional prosthesis was performed until achieve dental implants
Skeletal malocclusion (dysgnathia) is defined as the congenital or acquired abnormal position or morphology of one or both jaws. Some skeletal malocclusion can be camouflaged by only an orthodontics treatment. However, when the gap is very important and that the orthodontics treatment alone cannot meet the objectives, orthognathic surgery is required. This treatment provides a stable long-term corrections in comparison with the camouflage conventional orthodontic treatment. Orthognathic surgery offers the possibility of obtaining better occlusal, skeletal and aesthetic results. Several psychological studies have shown that the aesthetic motif is the main motivation of patients requiring such treatment [30, 31].
Moderate to severe discrepancies and dentofacial deformities in adults usually require an orthodontic treatment combined with orthognathic surgery to obtain a stable, functional, and aesthetic result. The main goal of surgery is to satisfy the patient’s chief complaint. It must also restore optimal functional results and provide better facial aesthetic. For this reason, the orthodontist and the maxillofacial surgeon must be able to diagnose the skeletal and dental deformities and establish the ideal treatment plan and execute it to perfection.
While the role of the orthodontist after the end of growth is limited in the alignment of the teeth, the surgeon has the possibility to reposition the maxillary and mandibular skeletal bases and their associated structures [32, 33].
Given the relationship between facial skeletal deformities and masticatory dysfunction, as well as the limitations of nonsurgical therapies to correct these discrepancies, orthognathic surgery should be considered medically appropriate in the following circumstances.
Anteroposterior discrepancies: established norm = 2 mm
Maxillary/mandibular incisor relationship
Horizontal overjet of +5 mm or more
Horizontal overjet of zero to a negative value (Figs. 9)
Maxillary/mandibular anteroposterior molar relationship discrepancy of 4 mm or more (norm 0 to 1 mm)
Vertical discrepancies
Presence of a vertical facial skeletal deformity, which is two or more standard deviations from published norms for accepted skeletal landmarks
Open bite
No vertical overlap of anterior teeth
Unilateral or bilateral posterior open bite greater than 2 mm
Deep overbite with impingement or irritation of buccal or lingual soft tissues of the opposing arch
Supraeruption of a dentoalveolar segment due to lack of occlusion
Transverse discrepancies
Presence of a transverse skeletal discrepancy, which is two or more standard deviations from published norms.
Total bilateral maxillary palatal cusp to mandibular fossa discrepancy of 4 mm or greater, or a unilateral discrepancy of 3 mm or greater, given normal axial inclination of the posterior teeth
Asymmetries
Anteroposterior, transverse, or lateral asymmetries greater than 3 mm with concomitant occlusal asymmetry
The goals of preoperative orthodontic treatment are to allow for maximum surgical correction of the abnormality, to facilitate potential sectional surgical procedures, and to provide the possibility for creating an ideal, stable occlusion [36]. The major part of orthodontic treatment takes place before surgery and might last 1 1/2 to 2 years [30, 36, 37, 38].
The first goal of preoperative orthodontics is to align the dental arches or their parts so that they might be compatible with each other. Correcting crowding and rotations, the management of impacted teeth and arch length discrepancies is mainly a concern of preoperative orthodontics because it facilitates arch intercuspation; otherwise, the surgical result would be restricted [37].
The planning of dental arch flattening is particularly important. Dental flattening and alignment are usually a common one-step process in conventional orthodontics. This is not the case for all surgical cases. When the mandible is surgically moved forward or backward, the position of the lower incisor is what determines the lower facial height [38].
In serious skeletal discrepancies, the teeth try to maintain some contact, under the effect of external and internal forces, so as to compensate for the skeletal problem. Although this compensation improves occlusal relationships and the patient’s appearance, it restricts the extent of surgical correction. In skeletal class ΙΙΙ cases, the upper incisors are often labially inclined, while the lower ones are lingually inclined. On the contrary, in cases of skeletal class ΙΙ, the upper incisors are often upright and the lower labially inclined. A consequence of these compensatory changes is that the overjet is virtual in regard to the actual magnitude of the skeletal discrepancy. Preoperative orthodontics aims at exacerbating dental relationships, by removing the camouflage effect and placing the incisors in normal inclination for the skeletal bases, if this is feasible [39].
One of the goals of preoperative orthodontics is to achieve harmonization of dental arches at all levels during surgery. Before the end of the preoperative phase, upper and lower rigid rectangular wires need to be passively in position for 8 weeks before surgery. Some type of hooks or brackets with thick attachments should be placed on the wires Kobayashi so as to facilitate immobilization during surgery [40].
The vertical position of the maxilla is recorded by measuring the distance between the medial canthus and the orthodontic arch wire. These vertical measurements are absolutely critical. The cut should be made at least 5 mm above the apices of the teeth. If cuts are complete, the maxilla is downfractured with manual pressure. The amount the maxilla will be impacted or elongated was determined in the treatment plan.
Correction of transverse maxillary constriction can be corrected in adolescence with nonsurgical orthodontic appliances. As the sutures begin to close during late adolescence, relapse increases. A multipiece LeFort osteotomy can be performed to provide simultaneous maxillary expansion, but the degree of relapse is high. In the young adult, the preferred procedure is the surgically assisted rapid palatal expansion (SARPE). The orthodontist places a palatal expander prior to the procedure.
The cut is made with electrocautery about 1 cm from the lateral aspect of the molars and extends from midramus to the region of the second molar. If insufficient tissue is left on the dental side of the incision, closure is more difficult. A periosteal elevator is used to expose the lateral mandible and the anterior coronoid process in a subperiosteal plane.
Moving the maxilla and the mandible in one procedure requires osteotomizing both jaws and precisely securing them into the position determined by the treatment plan. If proper treatment planning, model surgery, and splint fabrication are performed, each jaw should be able to be placed into its desired position with precision. The mandibular bony cuts are made first but terminated prior to osteotomy completion. The maxillary osteotomy is made, and the maxilla is placed into its new position using the intermediate splint. The splint is used to wire the teeth into intermaxillary fixation. The intermediate splint indexes the new position of the maxilla to the preoperative (uncorrected) position of the mandible.
The aim of postoperative orthodontics is to bring the teeth to their final positions and secure balanced occlusion; finally, retention planning should be achieved. This phase of the treatment starts 2 to 4 weeks later, after a satisfactory range of mandibular movement has been achieved and there is good bone healing [42] (Figs. 13).
A patient aged 23 years presented to an aesthetic pattern with a skeletal class III with facial asymmetry. Clinical examination revealed anterior crossbite with a deviation of the median incisors on the right side.
We opted for orthognathic surgery. Orthodontic treatment aimed to raise dental compensations with extraction of four premolars (14, 24 and 35, 45)
Orthognathic surgery consisted of a LeFort 1 osteotomy for maxillary advanced and sagittal mandibular osteotomy to go back and refocus the mandible.
Some months after the surgery, orthodontic treatment is to install a good occlusion.
After 26 months, we were able to obtain a satisfactory aesthetic and functional result.
The treatment of adult gives us the opportunity to make the biggest service possible in orthodontics. There is a great need for orthodontic treatment for adult patients. Adult treatment remains all the same a rewarding clinically and personally experience [43]. Treatment in adults remains easier because they are cleaner, careful, more punctual, and have less pain than adolescents, and the processing time remains the same as in youth. The continuation of education of the general population will result in an increasing demand for this type of treatment [43].
Problems that can occur are minimal compared to the huge results that the practitioner can get by rehabilitating the function, aesthetics, and psychological prospect of an adult patient. While the diagnosis in adults is easier to establish that in adolescents, treatment for its part remains difficult and complicated necessitating in the majority of cases a multidisciplinary approach.
Cardiorespiratory fitness presents individuals’ ability to transport oxygen from the atmosphere to the mitochondria to perform physical work and therefore reflects the overall capacity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems to perform prolonged exercise [1]. Cardiovascular fitness is therefore reflected in the ability of physical activity, which is critical in childhood as it lays the foundations for later physical activity – the base on which children can build more specific motor skills or develop movement patterns [2].
Epidemiologically, physical activity has been decreasing in the last decades [2], even more before the year of 2000, after which the trend stabilised with negligible changes [3] apart from COVID-19 epidemics, where cardiorespiratory fitness declined significantly [4, 5]. The decline in the last decades was more pronounced in children over the school-age years. Boys were usually more fit than girls [6]. Cardiorespiratory fitness was found to be higher in socially advantaged children [7].
Lower cardiorespiratory fitness is associated with low physical activity and increased fat mass. Increasing obesity in children is therefore strongly inversely associated with cardiorespiratory fitness and indicates reduced physical activity in the paediatric population in recent decades. Interestingly, fitness scores also decreased among lean children [8]. Association between low cardiorespiratory fitness and metabolic risk factors might therefore be only partially mediated through obesity [9]. Sedentary time also negatively affects cardiorespiratory fitness [10], which is independently linked to poor metabolic health [10]. Physical activity and sedentary time are clearly interrelated but a reciprocal relationship between them cannot be assumed [11]. Physical activity and training undoubtedly improve cardiovascular fitness with high-intensity interval training being more successful in enhancing cardiovascular fitness compared to moderate-intensity continuous training [12].
Cardiorespiratory fitness has been also associated with inflammatory biomarkers in children with a positive association with body fat. Similarly, the association between lifestyle behaviours, such as diet, physical activity and sedentary behaviour, and inflammation were found in the paediatric population [13].
Improved cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with the reduced inflammatory profile, independently of body composition and lifestyle behaviours [13]. Cardiorespiratory fitness and sports-related physical activity were also inversely associated with arterial stiffness in young adults [14].
Low cardiorespiratory fitness is strongly associated with the clustering of cardiovascular risk factors in children [15]. Evaluation and improvement of cardiorespiratory fitness in children with cardiovascular risk factors might be associated with improved health parameters in later life [1]. In this review, we present methods on how to evaluate cardiovascular fitness in children along with available data on cardiovascular fitness in children with some traditional and novel cardiovascular risk factors. Some specific strategies to improve cardiovascular fitness in children are also added.
Cardiorespiratory fitness was clearly associated with body mass index, fat mass, and metabolic syndrome development, however, other cardiovascular risk factors are not always convincing in the literature. Partly, this might be the result of the different evaluation of cardiovascular fitness in different studies [16]. The barriers to cardiovascular fitness assessment include the lack of standardisation in the test protocols, the health outcome being evaluated as well as the absence of evidence-based clinical cut points at these ages [17].
The most widely used indicator of cardiorespiratory fitness is the volume of oxygen that is consumed at maximal physical exertion (VO2max), measured from the respiratory gas exchange by indirect calorimetry [18]. It can be objectively and accurately measured through laboratory tests such as progressive run or cycle, however, these protocols require sophisticated equipment (run/cycle ergometer tests with respiratory gas analysis), the availability of trained technicians, making these tests expensive and time-consuming. Alternatively, field tests are more appropriate for universal screening and include a 550-m timed run/walk or “Maximal Multistage 20-m Shuttle Run Test” [18]. The latter was identified as the most scalable and reliable field test, where VO2max can be predicted by special equations [19, 20]. For a field test to be valid it is required to accurately and reliably measure what it claims to measure, however, field-based tests usually suffer from low relative validity when compared to VO2max measurement and are producing conflicting results [18, 21]. Other similar screening tests are being developed, such as the 3-minute Kasch Pulse Recovery Test, where a reference range for the classification of cardiorespiratory fitness was developed on the basis of the age-specific percentile distribution of heart rate after exercise in 6- to 9- and 10- to 12-year-old children. The value of heart rate after exercise is considered an indicator of cardiorespiratory fitness [22].
Another obstacle in the cardiorespiratory fitness evaluation is the lack of age-specific cut-off points for increased cardiovascular risk. They were attempted to be set by a systematic review in children aged 8–19 years that determined that fitness levels below 42 and 35 mL/kg/min (VO2max measurement) for boys and girls, respectively, should raise a red flag. These cut-points identify children and adolescents who may benefit from primary and secondary cardiovascular prevention programming [17]. Similarly, a study using a 20-m Shuttle Run Test with VO2max prediction by estimation revealed cut-off points in 8- to 12-year-olds for obesity identified as 39 mL/kg/min and 41 mL/kg/min for girls and boys, respectively [23].
Recommendations for future research must include standardised measurements with standardised outcome assessments of cardiorespiratory fitness. For universal screening, a field test approach might be more appropriate, however, in children with cardiovascular risk, or suboptimal results in the field test, a more accurate approach might be more appropriate with cut-off points determined for gender and age.
Children with obesity have lower cardiorespiratory fitness than normal-weight children [24], which is more pronounced in girls [25] and is commonly associated with reduced physical activity [26]. Body mass index also mediates the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and metabolic syndrome in schoolchildren. Higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with lower cardiometabolic risk, particularly, when accompanied by weight reduction [27]. Lower cardiorespiratory fitness in children with obesity was associated with overall and abdominal fat mass, whereas both central and total obesity were lower in overweight and obese children with high cardiorespiratory fitness [28, 29, 30]. There is extensive evidence to support the fat-but-fit paradigm, which shows that cardiorespiratory fitness can counteract the adverse effects of obesity on cardiovascular risk factors. Unfit children with obesity had exaggerated systolic blood pressure at rest and during sympathetic activation, presumably coupled with higher cardiac output and cardiac oxygen demand [31]. Even from the molecular point of view, fit children with obesity or overweight had a distinct pattern of whole-blood gene expression [32]. Concerning the autonomic nervous system’s role, greater parasympathetic cardiac activity was associated with higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness in both girls and boys, while the sympathetic-vagal balance was negatively related to maximal oxygen uptake in girls [33].
Additionally, in obesity, low-grade chronic inflammation and homeostatic stress produced mainly in adipocytes can result in abnormal adipokine secretion, which could be involved in the pathogenesis of lowered cardiorespiratory fitness. The secretion of adipokines is also influenced by physical fitness. It has been demonstrated that in children with obesity, VO2max can be predicted from haematological parameters, such as leptin and fibrinogen [34].
Obesity-related hypertension is a problem on the rise with obesity epidemics. Cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with total and central obesity as well as hypertension [35, 36]. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure showed curvilinear relation with cardiorespiratory fitness along with waist circumference and the sum of skinfolds [37]. However, regardless of obesity, cardiorespiratory fitness in children has been associated with other metabolic risk factors and future health. Teenagers with low cardiorespiratory fitness were more likely to develop hypertension in adulthood, even among participants with a normal body mass index [24]. Children who are fit and participate regularly in sports outside school hours are less likely to be hypertensive [38]. Long-term low levels of cardiorespiratory fitness exhibited the highest levels of systolic blood pressure [39]. The combination of a family history of hypertension and cardiorespiratory fitness also showed a clear association with the increased risk of hypertension [40]. Interestingly, some studies set a different perspective on cardiorespiratory fitness and hypertension, somehow contradicting the above-mentioned associations. In one of them, physical activity was not associated with systolic blood pressure independently of adiposity, but there was a small independent association only with diastolic blood pressure [41]. Another study demonstrated that adolescents with overweight or obesity have a higher prevalence of higher blood pressure, regardless of cardiorespiratory fitness, suggesting that maintaining a normal body mass index protects against less favourable blood pressure [42]. Anyway, a study published two decades ago demonstrated that the level of cardiorespiratory fitness did not seem to be an important correlate of blood pressure variation across age groups and gender in schoolchildren [43].
Abnormal lipid profile is commonly known as a cardiovascular risk factor, sometimes associated with obesity, but in children, it can be the consequence of genetic defect leading to familial hypercholesterolemia also in lean children [44]. However, specific studies regarding familial hypercholesterolemia and cardiorespiratory fitness are lacking in the paediatric population. Overall, evidence supports an inverse association between cardiorespiratory fitness and dyslipidaemia with expected improvements in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol with exercise, which is the most consistent finding. The findings regarding the effects of exercise training on other lipid components have been variable, with both positive and null results, but in general demonstrate a reduction of total cholesterol and triglycerides with exercise training [45, 46]. Future studies in the paediatric population are needed to clarify the association between cardiorespiratory fitness change and dyslipidaemia [45].
Lower cardiorespiratory fitness, strength, and higher central adiposity were also highly predictive of higher levels of insulin resistance in children and adolescents without diabetes mellitus [47], however, at least in part, are mediated through obesity [48]. Nevertheless, increased muscle strength and cardiorespiratory fitness were associated with decreased insulin resistance and improved 𝛽-cell function among young in population studies [49, 50]. Cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular fitness in children are not only important in childhood but it was proven that they were inversely associated with measures of fasting insulin, insulin resistance, and 𝛽-cell function in adulthood [51].
In children with already developed diabetes mellitus, cardiorespiratory fitness might play an even more pivotal role. Independently of obesity, there was a significant inverse relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and lipid profile components and systolic blood pressure in children with poorly controlled type 1 diabetes mellitus, indicating a favourable effect of increased cardiorespiratory fitness [52]. Additionally, youth with diabetes mellitus type 1 who are physically active, tend to have lower glycated haemoglobin and reduced insulin needs. Also, activity in adolescents at-risk for diabetes mellitus type 2 improves various measures of metabolism and body composition [53]. In children with diabetes mellitus type 2, lower levels of cardiorespiratory fitness were observed mostly due to physical inactivity [54]. People with diabetes mellitus type 2 have reduced cardiorespiratory fitness compared to healthy controls, with an association to increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The mechanisms of lower cardiorespiratory fitness in children with diabetes mellitus type 2 are multifaceted and involve interrelated defects in insulin action, mitochondrial dysfunction, skeletal muscle microvasculature, and cardiac dysfunction [55]. In youth with diabetes mellitus type 2, left ventricular size is clearly related to physical fitness, which might counteract adverse effects of poor glycaemic control and, at least according to the study, right ventricular function [56]. Regular physical activity is an important component in the management of both diabetes mellitus type 1 and type 2, as it has the potential to improve glycaemic control, delay cardiovascular complications, and increase overall well-being [57].
Children with chronic kidney disease have lower cardiorespiratory fitness due to various reasons, one of the most important is reduced physical activity and increased sedentary lifestyle mainly due to the renal replacement therapy requirements (e.g. haemodialysis) [58]. Additionally, chronic kidney disease is associated with anaemia, effects of chronic uraemia, and metabolic acidosis on the heart and skeletal muscle, all contributing significantly to reduce physical activity [59]. Paediatric patients with chronic kidney disease are therefore significantly physically inactive, with less than 10% of the non-school time being physically active [60]. Additionally, children after kidney transplantation significantly gained fat weight [60, 61]. One of the reasons after transplantation might also be related to sirolimus effects on skeletal muscle [61]. Reduced cardiorespiratory fitness was strongly associated with the clustering of cardiovascular risk factors in these children [62].
Studies suggest that regular and early implementation of both aerobic and resistance exercise programs in persons with chronic kidney disease have positive effects on muscle function, exercise tolerance, and quality of life [59]. In children with a successful renal transplant, a weekly physical exercise of 3−5 hours significantly improved cardiorespiratory fitness and left ventricular mass [63].
In children with a congenital single kidney, physical activity improved aerobic capacity and exercise tolerance without increasing the risks of cardiovascular accidents [64], however, in the patients contact sports might be discouraged due to the increased risk of sport-related injury.
Children and also later adults, born prematurely, are likely to have poorer cardiorespiratory fitness, however, according to some studies, the poor cardiorespiratory outcome of a child born prematurely is not firmly established [65, 66]. In adults, exercise capacity was only modestly reduced and frequently with values within a normal range and was consistent with self-reported exercise capacity [67]. In addition, in children with abnormal lung function and structure, this did not impact the aerobic exercise capacity of preterm children at school age [68]. On the contrary, Welsh et al. demonstrated a significant reduction in peak oxygen consumption among prematurely born children but with no difference in physical activity [69]. Some subgroups of premature-born individuals might be at increased risk for reduced cardiorespiratory fitness, especially those with lower muscular fitness, which was more common among premature-born young adults [70]. Lowered muscle strength is associated also with neuromotor sequelae of premature birth [71]. Another risk factor for reduced exercise capacity is also a decreased ventricular size and mass that might be a consequence of prematurity [72]. Impaired heart rate recovery after maximal exercise might also play a role in poor cardiorespiratory fitness in some suggesting an impaired development of autonomic nervous function after preterm labour [73].
Babies, born prematurely, are a diverse group of patients with complications that depend on several factors, such as gestational age, associated comorbidities, prenatal factors, postnatal care, etc. Therefore, the studies are diverse and might contradict each other because the effect of premature birth depends on so many other factors. Anyway, children born prematurely do have a risk for lowered cardiorespiratory fitness and regular physical intervention is believed to produce better outcomes [65, 71].
Congenital heart disease may in a variety of ways adversely affect hemodynamic responses, usually produced during exercises, such as increased heart rate, preload, and heart contractility with decreased systemic vascular resistance and pulmonary vascular resistance [74]. Therefore, the consequences of cardiorespiratory fitness depend on the congenital defect itself and a proper evaluation is of pivotal importance to evaluate cardiac rehabilitation. Historically, children with congenital heart disease have been restricted from exercise, contributing to a sedentary lifestyle as well as increased cardiovascular risk factors. Given the large benefits and small risks of exercise in this population, guidelines have recently shifted towards exercise promotion [75]. In children, several tests to evaluate cardiorespiratory fitness might be used [74], however, the 6-minute walk test is quite common and was found to be a useful and reliable tool in the assessment and follow-up of functional capacity during rehabilitation programs [76]. Furthermore, exercise training is safe and beneficial for the vast majority of adults with congenital heart disease following appropriate screening [77, 78].
Exercise recommendations should be individualised based on functional parameters using a structured methodology to approach the evaluation, risk classification, and prescriptions of exercise and physical activity [75]. Participation in aerobic exercise significantly increased the quality of life in children with congenital heart disease [79].
Sleeping quality was also associated with cardiorespiratory fitness, not necessarily in children with high body mass index, as might be expected. Girls who were classified as fit were more likely to report better sleep quality compared to their unfit peers. Poor sleep quality was associated with lower cardiorespiratory fitness with no significant association with body mass index [80].
Not only obesity reduction, but improved cardiorespiratory fitness also positively affects psychosocial well-being, leading to improved self-esteem and reduced stress, further reducing cardiovascular risk. Cognitive function and cardiorespiratory fitness correlate significantly and are predictors of psychological well-being among school-aged children. In addition, students with a higher level of psychological well-being showed a higher cardiorespiratory fitness, concentration performance, and attention accuracy [81]. Cardiorespiratory fitness also had a small protective effect against developing depression [82]. Similarly, it was found that stress and depression can affect an individual’s level of physical activity and fitness, which may place them at risk of developing cardiovascular disease, confirming the role of increased physical activity in improving depression and reducing depression-related stress to improve cardiovascular risk [83].
Addressing cardiovascular fitness in children and adolescents could reduce future adiposity, improve other cardiovascular risk factors and thus be an important factor in improving health [16]. The main strategies for reducing cardiovascular risk and obesity remain physical exercise with a reduced sedentary lifestyle and an appropriate diet. Promoting health-related cardiorespiratory fitness in physical education proved to be an important contributor to improving cardiorespiratory fitness in children. Intensity, age, and weight status importantly affect cardiorespiratory fitness [84]. In children with obesity, regular exercise is even more important, and may not need to be vigorous; recreational programs are also effective and may encourage children to participate in physical activity and limit initial dropout. Three-month training programs in children with obesity led to decreased body mass index, waist circumference, decreased fat mass, blood glucose, homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance, triglycerides, and systolic pressure before and after exercise [85].
A healthier diet in preschool and schoolchildren also led to lower adiposity levels, lower waist circumference, and increased cardiorespiratory fitness, making it a relevant modifiable factor in obesity management [86, 87].
The management of the whole family is of utmost importance because a parent\'s effect can have a significant impact on children\'s willingness and motivation to change their lifestyle [88]. Breastfeeding has also been positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness, where breastfeeding for more than 6 months proved to have positive effects on cardiorespiratory fitness. Therefore, early nutrition may be a predictor for adolescence physical health and is of special importance to promoting healthier lifestyle in children as it is associated with higher cardiorespiratory fitness [89].
Intervention strategies aiming to reduce obesity and improve cardiorespiratory fitness in childhood might contribute to the prevention of metabolic syndrome in adulthood [90]. The process is schematically presented in Figure 1.
From regular physical activity and diet to decreased morbidity and mortality due to the cardiovascular diseases.
Cardiorespiratory fitness is declining in the paediatric population and is closely associated with increased cardiovascular risk. In children already having a cardiovascular risk factor present, it is important to determine cardiorespiratory fitness and if it is decreased, prompt physical intervention is warranted. Further research is needed to establish a standardised protocol of its measurement. Interventions include increased and customized physical activity along with a healthy diet. In children, breastfeeding could present an additional preventive factor.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are triggered by synthetic nucleases that later induce DNA repair mechanisms known as nonhomologous-end joining (NHEJ) or homology-directed repair (HDR) in the presence of a donor DNA. Gene targeting (GT) was earlier demonstrated in rice and maize genomes by exploiting several genes (Acetohydroxyacid synthase, waxy, ALS, OS11N3 etc.), while zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) were used to modify IPK1 gene in maize. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR-CAS) system has been shown to be efficient for targeted mutagenesis in wheat that has a hexaploid complex genome, rice, maize, and recently in barley. 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It has been used extensively in the context of cardiovascular diseases; however, its role in the context of metabolic diseases, such as diabetes and obesity, has remained largely unexplored. In this chapter, we will review the use of adult stem cells, focusing on endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), in the context of diabetes. We have highlighted the use of viral vectors, particularly DNA viruses, as a tool for genetic modification to help stem cells survive and resist apoptosis in a hyperglycemic environment. We then discuss genetic modification of EPCs and MSCs to treat complications of diabetes and obesity. Although there are several unanswered questions in the field of metabolic diseases, the future application of gene transfer technology along with genetic modification of stem cells prior to the therapy holds significant therapeutic promise.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Cleyton C. Domingues, Nabanita Kundu, Fiona J. 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A. tumefaciens naturally infects the wound sites in dicotyledonous plants and induces diseases known as crown gall. The bacterium has a large plasmid that induces tumor induction, and for this reason, it was named tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid. The expression of T-DNA genes of Ti-plasmid in plant cells causes the formation of tumors at the infection site. The molecular basis of Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is the stable integration of a DNA sequence (T-DNA) from Ti (tumor-inducing) plasmid of A. tumefaciens into the plant genome. A. tumefaciens-mediated transformation has some advantages compared with direct gene transfer methods such as integration of low copy number of T-DNA into plant genome, stable gene expression, and transformation of large size DNA segments. That is why manipulations of the plant, bacteria and physical conditions have been applied to increase the virulence of bacteria and to increase the transformation efficiency. Preculturing explants before inoculation, modification of temperature and medium pH, addition chemicals to inoculation medium such as acetosyringone, changing bacterial density, and co-cultivation period, and vacuum infiltration have been reported to increase transformation. In this chapter, four new transformation protocols that can be used to increase the transformation efficiency via A. tumefaciens in most plant species are described.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Mustafa Yildiz, Murat Aycan and Sunjung Park",authors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"},{id:"188656",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Aycan",slug:"murat-aycan",fullName:"Murat Aycan"}]},{id:"53149",doi:"10.5772/65876",title:"Gene Revolution in Agriculture: 20 Years of Controversy",slug:"gene-revolution-in-agriculture-20-years-of-controversy",totalDownloads:1871,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the spirit of the general debate over genetically modified (GM) food which is not slowing down, we wanted to answer some questions, such as: Is Gene Revolution an answer to world hunger? Do GM crops with more complex transformation contribute to the enrichment of multinationals? Why U.S. increases food aids? To this end, we firstly describe the diffusion of GM crops around the world during the previous 20 years. Starting from 1996, we present global progress with adoption of biotech crops, its distribution in developed and developing countries, global area by trait, adoption rate and global value of biotech crops. The findings reveal 10 countries, four crops, and two traits domination. The findings of this study clarify the failure of transgenic technology to eradicate hunger. In addition, the results have shown statistically significant correlation between stacked trait and global market value of biotech crops as well as between raising production of biotech crops in U.S. and an increase in U.S. food aid through World Food Program (WFP).",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Tatjana Brankov, Koviljko Lovre, Bozidar Popovic and Vladimir\nBozovic",authors:[{id:"188943",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:"Papic",surname:"Brankov",slug:"tatjana-brankov",fullName:"Tatjana Brankov"},{id:"194370",title:"Prof.",name:"Koviljko",middleName:null,surname:"Lovre",slug:"koviljko-lovre",fullName:"Koviljko Lovre"},{id:"194371",title:"Prof.",name:"Bozidar",middleName:null,surname:"Popovic",slug:"bozidar-popovic",fullName:"Bozidar Popovic"},{id:"194372",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Bozovic",slug:"vladimir-bozovic",fullName:"Vladimir Bozovic"}]},{id:"52786",doi:"10.5772/66059",title:"A New Plant Breeding Technique Using ALSV Vectors to Shorten the Breeding Periods of Fruit Trees",slug:"a-new-plant-breeding-technique-using-alsv-vectors-to-shorten-the-breeding-periods-of-fruit-trees",totalDownloads:2128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Fruit trees have a long juvenile phase. For example, the juvenile phase of apple lasts for 6–12 years and is a serious constraint for creating new varieties by breeding based on crossing and selection. In this chapter, we report a novel technology using the apple latent spherical virus (ALSV) vector to accelerate flowering time and life cycle in apple and pear seedlings. Inoculation of apple and pear cotyledons immediately after germination with ALSV-AtFT/MdTFL1 concurrently expressing Arabidopsis FLOWERING LOCUS T (AtFT) gene and suppressing apple TERMINAL FLOWER 1-1 (MdTFL1-1) gene can shorten the period from seeding to flowering to 1.5–3 months after germination and generation times in order to obtain next-generation seeds in 1 year or less. Most next-generation seedlings obtained from ALSV vector–infected plants were free of the virus. We also developed a method for eliminating ALSV vectors from infected apple and pear plants by only high-temperature treatment. A method combining the promotion of flowering in apple and pear by ALSV vector with an ALSV elimination technique is expected to see future application as a new plant breeding technique that can significantly shorten the breeding periods of apple and pear.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Noriko Yamagishi and Nobuyuki Yoshikawa",authors:[{id:"18191",title:"Dr.",name:"Nobuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshikawa",slug:"nobuyuki-yoshikawa",fullName:"Nobuyuki Yoshikawa"},{id:"195533",title:"Dr.",name:"Norioko",middleName:null,surname:"Yamagishi",slug:"norioko-yamagishi",fullName:"Norioko Yamagishi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53149",title:"Gene Revolution in Agriculture: 20 Years of Controversy",slug:"gene-revolution-in-agriculture-20-years-of-controversy",totalDownloads:1871,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the spirit of the general debate over genetically modified (GM) food which is not slowing down, we wanted to answer some questions, such as: Is Gene Revolution an answer to world hunger? Do GM crops with more complex transformation contribute to the enrichment of multinationals? Why U.S. increases food aids? To this end, we firstly describe the diffusion of GM crops around the world during the previous 20 years. Starting from 1996, we present global progress with adoption of biotech crops, its distribution in developed and developing countries, global area by trait, adoption rate and global value of biotech crops. The findings reveal 10 countries, four crops, and two traits domination. The findings of this study clarify the failure of transgenic technology to eradicate hunger. In addition, the results have shown statistically significant correlation between stacked trait and global market value of biotech crops as well as between raising production of biotech crops in U.S. and an increase in U.S. food aid through World Food Program (WFP).",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Tatjana Brankov, Koviljko Lovre, Bozidar Popovic and Vladimir\nBozovic",authors:[{id:"188943",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:"Papic",surname:"Brankov",slug:"tatjana-brankov",fullName:"Tatjana Brankov"},{id:"194370",title:"Prof.",name:"Koviljko",middleName:null,surname:"Lovre",slug:"koviljko-lovre",fullName:"Koviljko Lovre"},{id:"194371",title:"Prof.",name:"Bozidar",middleName:null,surname:"Popovic",slug:"bozidar-popovic",fullName:"Bozidar Popovic"},{id:"194372",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Bozovic",slug:"vladimir-bozovic",fullName:"Vladimir Bozovic"}]},{id:"53371",title:"New Approaches to Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Gene Transfer to Plants",slug:"new-approaches-to-agrobacterium-tumefaciens-mediated-gene-transfer-to-plants",totalDownloads:3252,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a plant pathogen, is commonly used as a vector for the introduction of foreign genes into plants and consequent regeneration of transgenic plants. A. tumefaciens naturally infects the wound sites in dicotyledonous plants and induces diseases known as crown gall. The bacterium has a large plasmid that induces tumor induction, and for this reason, it was named tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid. The expression of T-DNA genes of Ti-plasmid in plant cells causes the formation of tumors at the infection site. The molecular basis of Agrobacterium-mediated transformation is the stable integration of a DNA sequence (T-DNA) from Ti (tumor-inducing) plasmid of A. tumefaciens into the plant genome. A. tumefaciens-mediated transformation has some advantages compared with direct gene transfer methods such as integration of low copy number of T-DNA into plant genome, stable gene expression, and transformation of large size DNA segments. That is why manipulations of the plant, bacteria and physical conditions have been applied to increase the virulence of bacteria and to increase the transformation efficiency. Preculturing explants before inoculation, modification of temperature and medium pH, addition chemicals to inoculation medium such as acetosyringone, changing bacterial density, and co-cultivation period, and vacuum infiltration have been reported to increase transformation. In this chapter, four new transformation protocols that can be used to increase the transformation efficiency via A. tumefaciens in most plant species are described.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Mustafa Yildiz, Murat Aycan and Sunjung Park",authors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"},{id:"188656",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Aycan",slug:"murat-aycan",fullName:"Murat Aycan"}]},{id:"53234",title:"Plant Genome Editing and its Applications in Cereals",slug:"plant-genome-editing-and-its-applications-in-cereals",totalDownloads:2256,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Recently developed methods for genome editing, representing a major breakthrough in the field of genetic engineering, will enable researchers to produce transgenic plants in a more convenient and safer way. Double-strand breaks (DSBs) are triggered by synthetic nucleases that later induce DNA repair mechanisms known as nonhomologous-end joining (NHEJ) or homology-directed repair (HDR) in the presence of a donor DNA. Gene targeting (GT) was earlier demonstrated in rice and maize genomes by exploiting several genes (Acetohydroxyacid synthase, waxy, ALS, OS11N3 etc.), while zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) were used to modify IPK1 gene in maize. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR-CAS) system has been shown to be efficient for targeted mutagenesis in wheat that has a hexaploid complex genome, rice, maize, and recently in barley. The CRISPR system is considered as advantageous over previous approaches due to its easy use and efficiency, however, needs to be improved for high off-target effects.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Dan M. Weinthal and Filiz Gürel",authors:[{id:"186029",title:"Prof.",name:"Filiz",middleName:null,surname:"Gürel",slug:"filiz-gurel",fullName:"Filiz Gürel"},{id:"189301",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",middleName:null,surname:"Weinthal",slug:"dan-weinthal",fullName:"Dan Weinthal"}]},{id:"52786",title:"A New Plant Breeding Technique Using ALSV Vectors to Shorten the Breeding Periods of Fruit Trees",slug:"a-new-plant-breeding-technique-using-alsv-vectors-to-shorten-the-breeding-periods-of-fruit-trees",totalDownloads:2128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Fruit trees have a long juvenile phase. 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A method combining the promotion of flowering in apple and pear by ALSV vector with an ALSV elimination technique is expected to see future application as a new plant breeding technique that can significantly shorten the breeding periods of apple and pear.",book:{id:"5445",slug:"genetic-engineering-an-insight-into-the-strategies-and-applications",title:"Genetic Engineering",fullTitle:"Genetic Engineering - An Insight into the Strategies and Applications"},signatures:"Noriko Yamagishi and Nobuyuki Yoshikawa",authors:[{id:"18191",title:"Dr.",name:"Nobuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshikawa",slug:"nobuyuki-yoshikawa",fullName:"Nobuyuki Yoshikawa"},{id:"195533",title:"Dr.",name:"Norioko",middleName:null,surname:"Yamagishi",slug:"norioko-yamagishi",fullName:"Norioko Yamagishi"}]},{id:"53330",title:"Genetic Modification of Stem Cells in Diabetes and Obesity",slug:"genetic-modification-of-stem-cells-in-diabetes-and-obesity",totalDownloads:1735,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Genetic modification, or gene transfer, represents a method of treatment for several diseases. It has been used extensively in the context of cardiovascular diseases; however, its role in the context of metabolic diseases, such as diabetes and obesity, has remained largely unexplored. In this chapter, we will review the use of adult stem cells, focusing on endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), in the context of diabetes. We have highlighted the use of viral vectors, particularly DNA viruses, as a tool for genetic modification to help stem cells survive and resist apoptosis in a hyperglycemic environment. We then discuss genetic modification of EPCs and MSCs to treat complications of diabetes and obesity. 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"14",type:"subseries",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). 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Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. 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