Speech ABR parameters.
\r\n\tOver the years, the concept of maintenance became more comprehensive, reducing fault occurrence and increasing industrial system availability. Besides, reliability, safety, and criticality requirements were associated with the system or equipment under analysis. Maintenance strategies or schemes can be classified as corrective (run-to-break), preventive (time-based), and predictive (condition-based maintenance). Corrective maintenance is only performed after an occurrence of a fault. Therefore, it involves unexpected breakdowns, high costs, changes in the production chain, and it could lead to catastrophic events. Preventive maintenance and interventions occur based on a scheduled maintenance plan or the equipment's mean time between failures. Although it is more effective than corrective maintenance, unexpected failure may still occur by preventing most failures. Additionally, the process cost is still high, especially the costs associated with labor, inventory, and unnecessary replacement of equipment or components.
\r\n\tOn the other hand, predictive maintenance analyses the equipment condition so that a possible fault can still be identified at an early stage. Predictive maintenance aims to identify a machine anomaly so that it does not result in a fault. Such maintenance involves advanced monitoring, processing, and signal analysis techniques, which are generally performed non-invasively and, in many cases, in real-time. In the case of machines or processes, these techniques can be developed based on vibration, temperature, acoustic emission, or electrical current signal monitoring. It should be noted that monitoring such signals or parameters to verify the operating condition is called condition monitoring. Condition monitoring aims to observe the machine's current operational condition and predict its future condition, keeping it under a systematic analysis during its remaining life. In this sense, a fault condition can be detected and identified from systematic machine condition monitoring. A diagnosis procedure can be established, whereby properly investigating the fault symptoms and prognosis.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book will aim to merge all these ideas in a single volume, aggregate new maintenance experiences, apply new techniques and approaches, and report field experiences to establish new maintenance processes and management paradigms.
\r\n\t
The auditory processing information can be analyzed by an assessment of the auditory evoked potentials (AEP). Among the different types of AEPs, there is the auditory brainstem response (ABR) The ABR is a clinical tool to assess the neural functionality of the auditory brainstem [1]. Until recently, assessment using clinical ABR protocols was carried out only with nonverbal stimuli, such as clicks, tone-bursts, and chirps. The ABR responses (i) permit the analysis of the integrity of the auditory pathways and (ii) can establish electrophysiological thresholds in order to identify basic neural abnormalities and to evaluate patients who did not provide reliable responses in the standard behavioral audiological assessment [2].
\nAlthough the use of the click-evoked ABR has been widely used clinically, it is still necessary to unravel how verbal sounds are coded in the brainstem. Recent technological advances have enabled the inclusion of verbal stimuli in the ABR commercial equipment. The use of verbal stimuli in ABR protocols provided important information of how the speech stimuli are processed by the brainstem structure, which actively participates in the analysis of the complex verbal stimuli [3].
\nThe verbal stimulus most widely used in speech ABR is a syllable composed of a consonant and a vowel (CV) [4]. The consonant perception is performed by the distinction between vocal production times and sound of consonant that guarantees the intelligibility in the process of human communication and the proper development of language.
\nThe perception of speech sounds seems to begin in the brainstem, which has an important role in reading process and phonological acquisition [5–7]. An effective and objective way to investigate this process will be the assessment of speech ABR that allows the identification of fine-grained auditory processing deficits associated with real-world communication, skills which do not appear in click responses, and it also can be used for early identification of auditory processing impairments in very young children [8]. Above all, speech ABR can be used as an objective measure of the hearing function. One of the great advantages of this method is that it is not influenced by environmental issues, which can disrupt the behavioral assessments [2]. Even the best behavioral tests can confound the subject by factors such as attention, motivation, alertness/fatigue, and by co-occurring disorders, such as language impairments, learning impairments, or attention deficits [9].
\nUnderstanding the neural processing of speech sounds at the brainstem level provides knowledge regarding the central auditory processes involved in normal hearing subjects and also in clinical populations [10]. Moreover, altered responses of speech ABR may be associated with impaired speech perception in noise. These changes can cause a negative impact on communication and serious consequences for academic success [8]. According to Sinha and Basavaraj [11], the major application of speech ABR can be in diagnosing and categorizing children with learning disability in different subgroups, assessing the effects of aging on central auditory processing of speech, assessing the effects of central auditory deficits in hearing aid, and cochlear implant users.
\nSpeech ABR has an important feature, that is, the specific aspects of acoustic signal are preserved and reflects the neural coding in figure [representation of 40 ms of syllable /da/ (gray) stimulus and responses (black)] [4]. Furthermore, this assessment permits to understand the neural basis of the auditory system, even if it is normal or deficient stimulus and responses (black)] [4] (Figure 1).
\nRepresentation of 40 ms of syllable /da/ (
The verbal stimulus used in the speech ABR assessment, normally, is the syllables /ba/, /da/, or /ga/. The verbal assessment provides information about how the speech syllable is encoded by auditory system. The trace of the speech ABR response can be dismembered in two parts: the onset and the frequency following response (FFR). The first part represents the consonant and the second part the vowel [10].
\nThe best-known model used is elicited with the synthesized syllable /da/ provided by a computer software. The use of synthesized speech allows acoustic parameters to be controlled and constant and ensures the quality of the stimulus that will be presented to the listener and/or the patient [12]. This stimulus modality was developed by the group of Dr. Nina Kraus at Northwestern University. The stimulus consisted of the consonant /d/ (transient portion—onset) and the short vowel /a/ (sustained portion—following frequency response). When elicited by the stimulus /da/, the subcortical response emerges as a waveform of seven peaks—V, A, C, D, E, F, and O—wherein the single wave with a positive peak is the complex of wave V. Waves V and A reflect the onset response, wave C the transition area, waves D, E, and F the periodic area (the frequency following response), and wave O the offset response (Figure 2) [4, 13, 14]. A typical response is shown in Figure 2 (electrophysiological response representation of synthesized syllable /da/. Investigator’s personal data based on the assessment of a normal hearing, performed with the BioMARKTM software) [13].
\nElectrophysiological response representation of synthesized syllable /da/. Investigator’s personal data based on the assessment of a normal hearing, performed with the BioMARKTM software [
It is important to describe that the onset component seems to be elicited around 10 ms and is considered the transient portion of sound stimulus reflecting the decoding of fast temporal changes inherent in the consonant [15]. The component FFR is called sustained portion and seems to be elicited around 18–50 ms. This component reflects the encoding of periodic and harmonic structure of vowel sound related to harmonic vowels [11] and is also related to encoding of the elements of fundamental frequency and its modulations (first and second formants) [4, 15].
\nAnother feature of speech ABR responses is that there is no variation between intra and inter subject, maintaining stable the morphological characteristics [16, 17].
\nThe speech sounds are present more frequently in the daily lives of every human being. A long-term of auditory experience can improve the performance of the whole auditory system. Therefore, a subject who has a good processing of speech sounds has better electrophysiological responses for this type of stimulus, showing that auditory experience might modify the basic sensorial coding of the whole auditory pathway [18–21]. On the other hand, a subject who has auditory deprivation may have significant electrophysiological changes in the auditory system, as can be seen in children with history of otitis media.
\nThere are several searches about the coding processing of verbal sound occurs and to insert speech ABR as part of clinical routine.
\nThe syllable /da/ is commonly used speech for ABR assessment due to it being considered a universal syllable and allows it to be applied in different countries with good clinical assertiveness [4]. However, previous studies show that there is difference response in subjects from different culture [22] since each language has its own characteristics and peculiarities that can contribute or not to a suitable processing of speech sounds.
\nThe majority of the studies was performed with native English speakers, which is explained by the fact that Dr. Kraus, the leading researcher and creator of the speech stimulus, did her work at Northwestern University, USA [1, 4]. However, additional studies have been initiated in numerous languages such as Arabic, Brazilian Portuguese, French, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, and Persian [1, 11, 13, 22–32].
\nIn each laboratory and/or institution, researchers choose their own parameters that will be applied on clinical investigation. Below are some items that should be thought about at the time of creation of the assessment parameters.
\nSanfins and Colella-Santos analyzed which equipments and software were often used for assessment of speech ABR. Biologic Navigator Pro (Natus) is the most used equipment followed by Neuroscan equipment (Biolink). As regards the software, the
The position of the electrodes follows the traditional ABR assessment (click ABR). Neurophysiological responses can be recorded with an active electrode positioned on the vertex (Cz), the reference electrodes on the ipsilateral mastoid, and the ground on the contralateral mastoid, using one channel with surface electrodes fixed, according to the 10–20 system [33]. Automatic switching function of the reference signals and the amplifier ground based on the stimulated ear should be activated on the equipment. The electrode on the left ear can be connected to input 2/channel 1, and the electrode on the right ear can be connected to ground connection cable. During the recording session, impedance should be maintained at below 5 kΩ and inter-electrode impedance below 3 kΩ [22].
\nResearch shows that there is an asymmetry for the auditory processing of verbal sounds that occur in the brainstem and extend to auditory cortex when evaluating the differences between the responses obtained from the presentation of acoustic stimuli on the right and left ears [34, 35].
\nRegarding the stimulated ear, the great majority of studies performed the assessment of ABR with speech stimuli elicited only on the right ear, which can be explained by the advantage of right ear in encoding speech by contralateral projection to the left hemisphere [24, 26, 29, 31, 32, 36–44].
\nHowever, some researchers have written that stimulus presentation can be performed on the ear with better threshold confirmed by pure tone audiometry [45]. In a systematic review about the applicability of speech ABR [1], it was possible to see that in 14.3% of articles, stimulation was performed monaurally; however, between the left ear and right ear stimulation, there is scientific evidence that even if there is a proven right ear advantage in the processing of speech, the left ear can participate in this process, but with less intense electrophysiological responses [28, 36, 46]. Therefore, an analysis of responses from both ears could help in the diagnosis process as well as therapeutic monitoring.
\nImportantly, there is a tutorial about ABR of complex sounds that notify that the monaural stimulation is preferred for children, while the binaural stimulation is more realistic than monoaural [4].
\nAhadi et al. [25] presented the sound stimulus on three conditions: monaural right, monaural, and binaural left. They showed that the magnitude and strength of speech ABR responses depend on the stimulus presentation mode, and the binaural presentation of speech syllable enables better visualization of the response, however,
\nThe speech ABR assessment allows to apply different types of sound stimulus. The syllable /da/ is most well known and applied more often in studies [11, 13, 15, 22, 25, 28, 29, 32, 36, 39, 45, 47]. However, there are researchers who used disyllables as /baba/ [27] or even other syllables composed by consonant-vowel as /ba/ [23, 30, 31].
\nThe presentation rate parameter is related to the duration of the sound stimulus; in the case of speech ABR, it is related to the size of the sound stimulus speech. The frequent value found in the studies is 10.9/s, however, no reports of the use of 11.1/s. In a study of literature review, it is noted that in about 19% of the previous studies on the assessment of speech ABR, this parameter is not described by the researchers [1].
\nConsidering the length parameter, it is observed that the most frequently found values were 40 and 170 ms [1]. There is a relation between the presentation rate and duration, so the higher, the shorter will be the presentation rate [45, 48]. Song et al. [16] used both acoustic stimuli and concluded that short (40 ms) and long stimulus (170 ms) reflect the coding of speech in the brainstem in a reliable way, thus enabling that neural changes can be monitored through an objective electrophysiological measure.
\nThe type of polarity of the sound stimulus is one of the most consistent parameters across studies on the assessment of speech ABR. Approximately, 90.5% of the previous studies have used alternating polarity [13, 22, 23, 28, 29, 39, 45, 47, 49, 50]. The choice for this type of polarity should be the reduction of artifacts and cochlear microphonic [51].
\nRegarding the intensity used in the assessment of speech, ABR suggests the use of 60–85 dB SPL [4, 15]. It is noted that, as it is an assessment process, the sound should be applied in an audible and comfortable intensity to the patient. The majority of studies has used the intensity of 80 dB SPL [1].
\nThe speech stimulus requires approximately 4000 and 6000 sweeps in order to get a robust and replicable response, differently, the click stimulus or tone burst that needs around 2000 sweeps to get a good quality of response [4]. The number of sweeps is one of the most diverse parameters across studies [1]; however, the majority of researches used two blocks of 3000 free sweeps artifacts [13, 22, 25, 28, 36, 39–41, 47, 49]. Both trials were averaged to create a calculated wave of 6000 sweeps. The traces of both recordings were added, and the responses of the resultant waves were identified and analyzed in Figure 3 (electrophysiological response representation of two blocks of 3000 sweeps and calculated wave of 6000 sweeps. Investigator’s personal data based on a subject’s assessment performed with BioMARKTM software).
\nElectrophysiological response representation of two blocks of 3000 sweeps and calculated wave of 6000 sweeps. Investigator’s personal data based on a subject’s assessment performed with BioMARKTM software.
The literature recommends that earphones are not to be used once this device can increase the chances of artifacts. Thus, the recommendation is to use the insert earphones. In cases of insert earphones are not possible to be used, there is the possibility to do the test with loudspeakers. It is important to consider that the responses are not so reliable as ones with insert earphones. The evaluator should be very careful in positioning the patient and the loudspeakers, and these loudspeakers should be equidistant between the right and left ears [4]. In addition, previous study has presented speech stimulus through individual hearing aid with excellent results with free and high-quality artifact [23].
\nAs the traditional ABR assessment, the patients are instructed to keep their bodies relaxed with no movements in order to minimize the myogenic artifacts. [24]
\nResearchers reinforce that the attention can influence the FFR portion of speech sounds [52]. Therefore, the majority of researches has allowed the patient to watch a movie with reduced sound intensity or with subtitle [16, 23, 40, 41, 50], which seems that it keeps them quiet and relaxed during the assessment. Other researchers allow the patient to choose between watching a movie or sleep during the assessment process [24, 45].
\nDifferent parameters are being used. The parameters most cited in the literature about the assessment of speech ABR and with good clinical results are presented below in Chart 1 (Speech ABR parameters). Note that there is a well-written tutorial by Skoe and Kraus [4] with detailed, clear, and objective information about the functioning and clinical application of speech ABR. This tutorial can be a material support to those interested in unraveling this new and effective electrophysiological assessment method.
\nParameters | \nSetting | \n
---|---|
Equipment | \nBiologic navigator pro | \n
Software | \nBioMARK | \n
Electrode montage | \nCz, M1, and M2 | \n
Stimulated ear | \nRight ear | \n
Stimulus | \nSpeech | \n
Stimulus type | \nSyllable /da/ | \n
Stimulus duration | \n40 ms | \n
Stimulus polarity | \nAlternating | \n
Stimulus intensity | \n80 dB SPL | \n
Stimulus rate | \n10.9/sec | \n
Number of sweeps | \n6000 | \n
Replicability | \nTwice for 3000 sweeps | \n
Transducer | \nInsert | \n
Assessment condition | \nWatch a movie | \n
Speech ABR parameters.
Before presenting the criteria of normality, it is important to understand the influence of the maturational process and gender in response to speech ABR.
\nThe response of ABR with nonverbal stimulus is mature around 18 months, while the speech ABR appears to be mature by the age of 5 [10]. This way a procedure can be used in young and school-age children, helping in the differential diagnosis of diseases with similar symptoms [14]. Further studies are being conducted to regulate the normal values for different age range and confirm the age of maturation of central auditory system for verbal sounds.
\nAccording to Yamamuro et al. [39], age affects the coding of sounds by a single stimulus or the complex and neural timing and auditory skills are improved over the years. The responses of speech ABR in a child of 5 years are not so different from a child’s responses in the age group of 8–12 years , whereas a child’s responses in the age group of 3–4 years are very different in morphological aspect as related to the latency time.
\nSource | \nLatency (ms) | \nAmplitude (μv) | \nVA measures | \n|||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Test | \nRetest | \nTest | \nRetest | \nTest | \nRetest | \n|||||||
Mean | \nSD | \nMean | \nSD | \nMean | \nSD | \nMean | \nSD | \n|||||
V | \n6.65 | \n0.27 | \n6.68 | \n0.27 | \n0.13 | \n0.05 | \n0.13 | \n0.04 | \n\n | \n | ||
A | \n7.62 | \n0.35 | \n7.62 | \n0.37 | \n0.20 | \n0.06 | \n0.21 | \n0.06 | \n\n | \n | ||
C | \n18.60 | \n0.68 | \n18.47 | \n0.68 | \n0.03 | \n0.06 | \n0.03 | \n0.05 | \n\n | \n | ||
D | \n22.67 | \n0.59 | \n22.67 | \n0.58 | \n0.13 | \n0.07 | \n0.14 | \n0.07 | \n\n | \n | ||
E | \n31.12 | \n0.53 | \n31.2 | \n0.57 | \n0.22 | \n0.06 | \n0.21 | \n0.07 | \n\n | \n | ||
F | \n39.70 | \n0.57 | \n39.71 | \n0.50 | \n0.14 | \n0.09 | \n0.13 | \n0.08 | \n\n | \n | ||
O | \n48.26 | \n0.43 | \n48.34 | \n0.39 | \n0.15 | \n0.06 | \n0.16 | \n0.06 | \n\n | \n | ||
Slope VA (μv/ms) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.35 | \n0.11 | \n0.37 | \n0.12 | \n
Area VA (μv × ms) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.16 | \n0.05 | \n0.15 | \n0.05 | \n
Parametric study (mean and standard deviation) by syllable /da/, 40 ms, (silence) performed in adults with normal hearing (Song et al. [16]) on the right ear in two different conditions (test and retest).
Song et al. [16] performed their study with 45 adults with normal hearing (29 females) (19–36 years old; 24.5 ± 3.0).
Note: Parametric study in normal adults.
Previous studies of literature have shown that there are differences of responses in the auditory perception between genders with better performance in female in the entire trajectory of the peripheral auditory and central nervous system [53, 54]; however, when the focus of analysis is the speech ABR, it was observed that women have better responses (higher values for amplitudes and lower values for latencies), and it was only the initial portion of the speech stimuli of the coding process when compared to men [55]. Differences in speech ABR responses between genders were explained by the premise that the synapses of the afferent and efferent systems of the auditory system are strongly influenced by the hormone estrogen activity [56].
\nThere are some studies that are used as parametric models for the analysis of speech ABR. Normative data for young adults (19–36 years old) with normal hearing and analysis of all the waves are presented in Table 1 (parametric study [mean and standard deviation] by syllable /da/, 40 ms, [silence] performed in adults with normal hearing—Song et al. [16]—on the right ear in two different conditions—test and retest [16]). Two studies for children and adolescents will be presented: (i) composed of children between 8 and 12 years of age with normal hearing and with the analysis of waves V, A, C, and F and VA complex in Table 2 (parametric study [mean and standard deviation] by syllable /da/, 40 ms, [silence] performed in children with normal hearing—Russo et al. [15]—on the right ear [15]) and (ii) composed of children and adolescents between 8 and 16 years of age with normal hearing and examination of all the waves in Table 3 (parametric study [mean and standard deviation] by syllable /da/, 40 ms [silence] performed in children and adolescent with normal hearing—Sanfins et al. [22]—on the right and left ears [22]).
\n\nSource | \nLatência (ms) | \nAmplitude (μv) | \nVA measures | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Right ear | \nRight ear | \nRight ear | \n||||
Mean | \nSD | \nMean | \nSD | \nMean | \nSD | \n|
V | \n6.61 | \n0.25 | \n0.31 | \n0.15 | \n\n | \n |
A | \n7.51 | \n0.34 | \n0.65 | \n0.19 | \n\n | \n |
C | \n17.69 | \n0.48 | \n0.36 | \n0.09 | \n\n | \n |
F | \n39.73 | \n0.61 | \n0.43 | \n0.19 | \n\n | \n |
Slope VA (μv/ms) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 0.13 | \n0.05 | \n
Area VA (μv × ms) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | 1.70 | \n1.23 | \n
Parametric study (mean and standard deviation) by syllable /da/, 40 ms (silence) performed in children with normal hearing (Russo et al. [15]) on the right ear.
Russo et al. [15] studied 36 and 38 children and adolescent (17 females) with normal hearing (8–12 years old).
Note: Parametric study in normal children.
The majority of studies about speech ABR assessment was performed with monoaural stimulus on the right ear [13, 24, 29, 39, 49, 50]. The choice for the assessment only on the right ear is related to the advantage of the left hemisphere for processing of language sounds. Associated with this fact, earlier research has shown that there are no statistically significant differences between the responses on the right and left ears in subjects with normal hearing and typical development. However, there are many conditions to be studied through the speech ABR, and it is important to consider whether there are differences in responses between the ears.
\nThereby, the responses on the right and left ears were presented in the population of children and adolescents with normal hearing and normal development so that it can be used as a comparison with the responses obtained in subjects with different pathologies.
\nIt is noted that the parametric studies provide a direction to the researchers. It is fundamental to know the parameters of collection and analysis of each reference author before the use of this data. Each research center or clinic should carry out its own normative study for the different age groups.
\nSource | \nLatency (ms) | \nAmplitude (μv) | \nVA measures | \n|||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Right ear | \nLeft ear | \nRight ear | \nLeft ear | \nRight ear | \nLeft ear | \n|||||||
Mean | \nSD | \nMean | \nSD | \nMean | \nSD | \nMean | \nSD | \n|||||
V | \n6.50 | \n0.21 | \n6.51 | \n0.21 | \n0.12 | \n0.06 | \n0.11 | \n0.06 | \n\n | \n | ||
A | \n7.46 | \n0.33 | \n7.48 | \n0.36 | \n0.22 | \n0.09 | \n0.21 | \n0.07 | \n\n | \n | ||
C | \n18.33 | \n0.42 | \n18.41 | \n0.46 | \n0.10 | \n0.08 | \n0.11 | \n0.10 | \n\n | \n | ||
D | \n22.21 | \n0.66 | \n22.36 | \n0.44 | \n0.14 | \n0.09 | \n0.13 | \n0.08 | \n\n | \n | ||
E | \n30.89 | \n0.50 | \n30.78 | \n0.61 | \n0.30 | \n0.39 | \n0.23 | \n0.09 | \n\n | \n | ||
F | \n39.37 | \n0.55 | \n39.20 | \n0.47 | \n0.24 | \n0.29 | \n0.19 | \n0.09 | \n\n | \n | ||
O | \n48.00 | \n0.75 | \n47.95 | \n0.54 | \n0.21 | \n0.30 | \n0.16 | \n0.12 | \n\n | \n | ||
Slope VA (μv/ms) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.37 | \n0.14 | \n0.35 | \n0.13 | \n
Area VA (μv × ms) | \n\n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | \n | 0.33 | \n0.13 | \n0.31 | \n0.13 | \n
Parametric study (mean and standard deviation) by syllable /da/, 40 ms (silence) performed in children and adolescent with normal hearing (Sanfins et al. [22]) on the right and left ears.
Sanfins et al. [22] studied 40 children and adolescent (25 females) with normal hearing (8–16 years old; 10.95 ± 2.0).
Note: Parametric study in normal children and adolescent.
Auditory training is able to induce neurophysiological changes that can be observed by an evaluation of speech ABR. According to Killion et al. [57], an auditory training program promotes gains in both speech perception in quiet environments such as in noisy environments and improves short-term memory skills and attentional processes.
\nAccording to Hayes et al. [58] children with learning problems can benefit from an auditory rehabilitation program through auditory training. Research has shown that these children have a delay in responses of speech ABR, more specifically, the values of onset portion—wave A, and the assessment of speech ABR may be able to ascertain whether the auditory training program was effective, monitoring the benefits of rehabilitation in children and in young adults [15, 16].
\nFurther studies are needed in the elderly population to determine if this type of assessment can be effective in monitoring this population. Anderson et al. [49] reported that the elderly usually have a hearing loss, thus an auditory training program should be recommended along the selection and adaptation of hearing aid suitable for need each elderly.
\nAuditory training and amplification are ideal to improve the auditory function and, especially, to improve the process of speech perception. In this context, the assessment of speech ABR could have an important role to demonstrate quickly, clearly, and objectively what are the real gains of interventions. Researchers have emphasized that the assessment of speech ABR is considered a biological marker of auditory training, being able to identify subjects who will have the benefit of an auditory training program [58, 59].
\nThe elderly has a reduced neural synchrony in the encoding of speech sounds, especially when the speech sounds are produced in the presence of background noise. The assessment of speech ABR is able to monitor the difficulty in understanding speech in noise reported by the elderly. The fitting process allows speech sounds to be heard more clearly. Thus there has been a change of morphology and the latency values of the speech responses ABR [24, 36, 45].
\nResearch shows that the literacy process depends on an efficient functioning of the auditory processing in the brainstem. The assessment of speech ABR could accurately predict early and possible changes in the processes of reading, writing, and literacy in preschool children [41, 60, 61].
\nChildren with learning, speech, and hearing impairments not only suffer from background noise and competitive sounds but also have some difficulty in the perception of speech sounds in quiet environments [62]. This difficulty can be arising from changes in temporal processing that can impact the perception of speech. In this context, the speech ABR is a biological marker of auditory processing disorder, being able to identify children with predisposition to these changes [4].
\nChildren with dyslexia often have impairments in the perception of speech sounds that can affect their reading skills [63]. According Hornickel and Kraus [64] good readers have a stable neural representation of sound and that children who have inconsistent neural responses are likely at a disadvantage when learning to read. Thus, the speech ABR can help identify and separate these children, enabling a more appropriate intervention.
\nBesides that, another application of speech ABR can be in diagnosing and categorizing children with learning disability in different subgroups, assessing the effects of aging on central auditory processing of speech, and assessing the effects of central auditory deficits in hearing aid and cochlear implant users [11].
\nUnderstanding the neural processing of speech sounds at the brainstem level may provide knowledge regarding the central auditory processes involved in normal hearing subjects and also in clinical populations [10]. Moreover, altered responses of speech ABR may be associated with impaired speech perception in noise. These changes might have a negative impact on communication and have serious consequences for academic success [8].
\nCurrently, there is an increasing interest in the influence of musical experience related to language processing. The intense musical training in the long term seems to cause an anatomical and physiological change and improves the working memory in cognitive processes, the control of emotions, and perception of sound stimuli [65].
\nThe brain stem has an important role in the encoding of speech sound stimuli and temporal processing [66]. Temporal processing contributes to the perception of duration of the consonants and the identification of notes and musical scales [66, 67]. The literacy process, including the process of reading, writing, and language, is also influenced by the temporal processing [68]. The detection of small and rapid changes of the sound stimulus is associated with the rhythm, the frequency of the sound stimulus, phonemic discrimination, duration, and discrimination of pitch [69]. Understanding how music influences the encoding of speech sounds can be used for more information about the learning process [64]. One way to analyze this is through the responses of speech ABR.
\nOtitis media is one of the most common childhood diseases, affecting about two-third of children in the first 5 years of life [70, 71]. This period is important for the development of oral and written language. Otitis media can cause functional sequelae of the middle ear structures and can induce a temporary mild-to-moderate hearing loss. The latter can remain for a few days or for several weeks [72, 73]. Concomitantly, the accumulation of fluid in the middle ear interferes the speech perception, causing a distortion in the perception of acoustic signals and reduces the speed and accuracy of verbal decoding [74]. When hearing fluctuation occurs early in life, that is the critical period for linguistic development, a limited acquisition of speech and language occurs. As a result communication problems may appear, such as language developing impairment, auditory processing deficits, cognitive impairment, and psychosocial development and impairment in the acquisition of literacy skills [75, 76].
\nInadequate auditory stimulation in childhood can lead to long-term alterations of the auditory structures in the central auditory nervous system [73]. Research shows that children suffering from secretory otitis media in their first 6 years of age and underwent a surgery for bilateral ventilation tubes placement demonstrates neurophysiological modifications of speech perception when compared with typically developing children and adolescents.
\nThe assessment of speech ABR could accurately predict early and possible changes in the processes of reading, writing, and literacy in preschool children.
\nThe speech ABR is objective, fast, and can be applied from early childhood. It is equally effective in different languages and can provide differential diagnoses of diseases with similar symptoms, as an effective biomarker of auditory processing disorders that may be present in various diseases, such as dyslexia, specific language impairment, hearing loss, auditory processing disorders, otitis media, and scholastic difficulties.
\nIt is a science with great possibility of research with different approaches to assist in detection, treatment, and monitoring of various diseases.
\nThis work was supported by the Project “Integrated system of tools for diagnostics and telerehabilitation of sensory organs disorders (hearing, vision, speech, balance, taste, smell)” acr. INNOSENSE, co-financed by the National Centre for Research and Development (Poland), within the STRATEGMED program.
\nDesertification is at the forefront of the environmental crises currently facing the international community. In sensitive and fragile desert-adapted ecosystems, degradation processes can easily be converted into an irreversible trend. Desertification reduces access to ecosystem services, increases food insecurity and poverty, and affects communities’ well-being [1]. Desertification is land degradation or the impoverishment of arid, semi-arid (drylands), and some subhumid ecosystems, resulting from many factors including human activities and climatic change. The assessment of global scale desertification vulnerability to climate change and human activity is important to help decision-makers formulate the best strategies for land rehabilitation and combat global desertification in sensitive areas [2]. The range and intensity of desertification have increased in some dryland areas over the past several decades [3].
Drought and unreliable and variable rains are recurrent problems. Even without climate change, drylands face a daunting array of threats including population pressure, social changes (e.g. settlement of traditionally nomadic peoples), and exploitive agricultural and grazing practices that increase deforestation, soil erosion, salinization, and water depletion. Many political and institutional problems have conspired to degrade 20% of the world’s drylands, including 22% of Asia’s and 25% of Africa’s susceptible drylands [4].
Regions like Africa are particularly vulnerable to desertification since two-thirds of the continent is made up of either deserts or drylands, while 73% of its agricultural drylands are already degraded. More than two-thirds of its population is composed of subsistence farmers, and, therefore, the impact of land degradation is immediate and devastating [5].
Desertification may occur as a result of one process or the interaction of several functions. For example, wind erosion is one of the essential desertification processes in arid regions of the world, which alone or combined with other processes leads to desertification. The main desertification processes refer to the destruction of plant resources, soil resources, soil erosion, and water erosion, which are further explored below. In addition to natural factors, policies in Greece or Europe in recent decades have been reported to contribute to intensive land cultivation, overgrazing, rural–urban migration, etc., which directly affect desertification [6].
Degradation of vegetation through harvesting and destruction is the dominant desertification process. Ma et al. [7] cited vegetation degradation as an essential factor in southwest China’s socio-economic development. The researchers also identified nutrients in the soil, especially N, P, and K, as the main factors influencing plant species composition in rocky desert areas. Vegetation conservation in Greece has been introduced as an influential factor in reducing water and wind erosion [6]. Vegetation cover and vegetation composition are the most common characteristics of many terrestrial ecosystems. These characteristics are associated with many ecosystem services, including biodiversity, soil and water conservation, food production, and fiber. It is also common to use these two indicators to assess land degradation and rehabilitation and rehabilitation project success. Deforestation contributes to about 17% of annual human greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [8]. Humans resort to deforestation to meet their wood and energy needs. Deforestation for fuelwood is much more significant in developing countries with high populations and less access to commercial energy sources. Forests are also being destroyed to provide more land for agriculture [9]. Desertification risk scenarios in northeastern Brazil predict that 75% of forest areas will decline from 2010 to 2040. In this scenario, most forest areas will be replaced by agricultural lands [1]. Therefore, lands with more suitable vegetation are more resistant to degradation. In contrast, poor vegetation areas are fragile and accelerate desertification over time due to adverse environmental factors.
Land degradation in recent years has become a primary global concern due to increased waste disposal and demand for food production. Soil flexibility is limited, and soil degradation can never be easily reversed. In this century, the focus of land degradation has been on soil erosion, since forests, grasslands, and wetlands have been destroyed for crop production.
Severe land use without proper soil management, especially in fragile ecosystems, can accelerate desertification [10]. Human activities or climate change negatively affecting vegetation can lead to irreversible soil degradation in semi-arid regions [11]. Soil degradation in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil is driven by a limited set of variables, the most important of which are climatic, economic, and population growth variables. These factors lead to the expansion of agricultural lands and overgrazing, which increase the rate of deforestation [12].
Soil degradation processes:
These refer to drastic changes in the soil’s physical properties, including reduced permeability and porosity, reduced stability of the soil structure, and loosening and compaction of the soil [13]. Root zone compaction is the main form of physical degradation in arable lands and pastures, reducing soil fertility and reducing the amount of soil organic matter. Low structural stability of compacted soils leads to high vulnerability to mechanical stresses from agricultural operations. Therefore, reducing soil permeability, increasing runoff, increasing erosion, reducing soil aeration, and reducing biomass production are side effects of soil compaction and tuber formation that should be considered an indicator to assess the intensity of desertification.
A change in the soil’s chemical properties in such a way that it interferes with nutrient uptake is called soil chemical degradation. Soil salinization, soil acidity imbalance, soil leaching, and ultimately reduced soil fertility are the most critical consequences of chemical soil degradation. Chemical degradation of soil can also occur due to increased concentrations of some toxic components such as aluminum.
Microorganisms in agricultural soils play a crucial role in soil fertility. The reduction of soil organic matter and living microorganisms in soil is called biodegradation. Humus is an essential soil substance that increases soil porosity, soil stability, soil water holding capacity, and micronutrients. Organic matter depletion is the first state of biodegradation that leads to changes in other soil properties. In arid regions, depletion of soil organic matter leads to a decrease in soil moisture-holding capacity, a reduction in crops, and an increase in soil erosion [14]. Land-use change affects the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. The conversion of pastures into agricultural lands in some areas of Iran has reduced the soil quality and increased soil degradation. It has been reported that the transformation of ranges to agricultural fields in three regions in Isfahan province has reduced soil organic matter by about 26% in agricultural lands, which is probably due to poor vegetation density (Figure 1) [15].
Percentage of soil organic matter in the lands of three regions. The same letters for the regions indicate no statistical difference at the 5% level with the LSD test [
In the last century, the significant destruction of land has been through soil erosion, as the areas of forests, grasslands, and wetlands have been removed for crop production. Soil erosion is one of the essential desertification processes during which soil particles are separated, transported, and deposited. Moreover, the soil decays and its organic matter decreases in the process of erosion. Humans obtain more than 99.7% of their food (calories) from land and less than 0.3% from the oceans and other aquatic ecosystems. About 10 Mha of crops are lost each year due to soil erosion, thus reducing the amount of arable land available for food production [16]. Water erosion means the removal, transport, and deposition of soil particles by rain, runoff, and gravity Figure 2 [18] shows the mechanism of water erosion. Rain erosion is one of the most critical water erosion types, which occurs more widely than other types. As rainfall occurs, the raindrops onto the soil surface and makes the first contact with the soil [19]. The loosening of soil particles or the detachment process takes place when soil particles disengage as the rain touches down on the soil. Afterward, soil particles are transported by rolling, splashing, or dragging and translocate to another place. Finally, soil particles are deposited at some other place at a lower elevation [17].
Erosion stages by water [
The process of land degradation in arid areas is called desertification, which affects the land capacity to provide ecosystem services, such as food production or biodiversity hosting, to name a few. It is stimulated by both human activity and climate and depends on the specific context. More than 1 billion people in about 100 countries face some of the risks associated with the effects of desertification [20]. The risk of desertification can increase in parts of the world that may become arid due to climate change.
According to the United Nations (UN), about 2.1 billion people worldwide (25–30%) living in arid and semi-arid regions [21] are among the poorest people. Approximately 70% of rainfed areas are located in Africa and Asia (Figure 3) [3]. Asia, followed by Africa and South America, have the largest populations in arid regions [23]. The global population growth rates are very high, especially in dry areas. The rapid population growth increases the pressure on land and natural resources that have already been oppressed and leads to poverty by degrading land and increasing desertification [24].
Dryland categories across geographical areas (continents and Pacific region). Data: TerraClimate precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (1980–2015) [
Parivar et al. [25] comparisons of open, green, and impervious surface areas (ha) in Yazd, Iran for 1991 and 2018 (Figure 4). The continuum, impermeable levels (built area) increased strongly during the period under study. From 1991 to 2018, there was an 80% decrease in open space, 63% decrease in green space, and a 90% increase in built-up area. In this way, population growth and urban development reduce green space, which leads to desertification.
Land areas (ha) in Yazd categorized as open, green, and built-up space (1991–2018) [
Numerous factors affect the intensification and advancement of desertification, which can be classified into two categories, anthropogenic and climatic factors.
Human factors play an intensifying role in the development of desertification in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. These factors have a significant contribution to the process of land degradation. The annual plants are destroyed and the soil dries out when rainfall is low, thereby providing water and wind erosion and forming deserts and desertification globally. Some researchers have identified humans as a significant cause of desertification [4]. The shares of human factors and natural elements involved in desertification were 87 and 13%, respectively [26]. Changes in the use and destruction of forests and pastures, overgrazing, salinization of water and soil resources, burning of crop residues, improper use of groundwater, irregular plowing, and failure to observe proper crop rotation in agriculture, fire, sediment settlement, development of urban areas, and industrial activities are among the most important factors influencing desertification by humans. Deserts are divided into two general categories—natural deserts of environmental origin and human deserts. Natural deserts are commonly found in arid and hyper-arid regions of the world, and humans have a minor role in their formation, making bare natural landscapes without vegetation. In addition to arid and hyper-arid regions, human deserts can be seen in other climatic zones, including semi-arid to humid regions.
Climate change can further increase the risk of desertification for those regions of the world that may change into drylands for climatic reasons. Because arid areas are used for various purposes, such as agriculture, grazing, and gathering wood for fuel, the multiple activities performed in them can exacerbate the problem of desertification and bring about lasting changes in rainfed ecosystems. In this regard, drought, irregularity in rainfall, topographic factors, and radiation angle are the most critical environmental factors affecting desertification.
Although the effects of climate change can be seen in all activities, its impact on agricultural production seems to be more pronounced; annual damage from the adverse impacts of climate change due to rising temperatures, long periods of drought and desertification has been reported to be far greater than other activities affected by this change. For example, climate change has directly reduced crop productivity by reducing crop yields [27]. Barren ecosystems have low and variable rainfall, so climate change and other factors that lead to prolonged drought can rapidly reduce these ecosystems biological productivity. These changes may be temporary and last only one season, or they may last for years and decades [3].
One of the most important causes of desertification, especially in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, is improper activities in agriculture. Dense and improper cultivation of crops reduce soil structure stability and lead to soil degradation and erosion [28]. When the soil’s pressure increases due to agricultural operations and land clearing, soil fertility decreases, resulting in soil degradation and erosion.
Irrigation systems have developed over time as an agricultural technique in arid areas with low rainfall. If irrigation methods are misapplied, water loss and lowering of groundwater aquifers will lead to salinization and alkalinization of lands. Therefore, one of the most critical factors in desertification in agriculture is improper irrigation, which will ultimately lead to the destructive effects of drought, the phenomenon of soil and water salinization due to improper management of agricultural land [28]. Salinity is caused by improper irrigation in soils of arid and semi-arid regions. The leading cause of salinity and alkalinity in some parts of the world is the entry of low-quality water. Improper irrigation and lack of proper drainage raise the groundwater level and form a surface saline aquifer. With soil degradation, vegetation decreases and the soil is exposed to water and wind erosion, and its fertility is severely reduced. Therefore, knowing the main reasons for the salinization of soil and water in the world’s regions and proper management of such lands can help reduce the process of desertification.
Changes in the soil’s chemical composition with the use of fertilizers or chemical pesticides lead to changes in the soil’s physical condition, which increases soil erosion. On the other hand, nitrogen released from chemical fertilizers and its mixing with groundwater lead to pollution of groundwater resources, which is recognized as a severe problem in some parts of the world [29].
Effects of fire on vegetation cover change and expedite the process of desertification by humans is proven. The severity of the fire damage depends on the conditions of the area. In arid lands, severe fires lead to the extinction of plant, animal, and soil species, which in some cases alter ecosystems and contribute to intensified desertification. Frequent burning of straw and crop residues and reducing land fertility are also influential factors in desertification.
There is an important concern about the conversion of agricultural land to barren desert, exacerbated by desertification in countries such as Iran. Accordingly, desertification is one of the most important factors in Iran, which has been exacerbated by drought. The result of drought and desertification is a reduction in Iran’s land suitable for agriculture. Mesgaran et al. [30] classified Iran’s land suitability for cropping as (million ha): very good 0.4% (0.6), good 2.2% (3.6), medium 7.9% (12.8), poor 11.4% (18.5), very poor 6.3% (10.2), unsuitable 60.0% (97.4), and excluded areas 11.9% (19.3) (Figure 5). Hence, reducing suitable land for agriculture means reducing food production, which threatens food security.
Classification of Iran’s land suitability for agriculture based on soil properties, terrain, and climate conditions [
The most critical role of the agricultural sector is to ensure sustainable food security. So food security is, by definition, a situation where everyone has access to adequate, healthy, and nutritious food [31]. Therefore, desertification can be considered one of the most important factors limiting agricultural product production and, ultimately, the challenge of food security. According to Figure 6, if the population grows at a fixed exponential rate, the amount of food required will increase exponentially. But Malthus held that the output of food could increase only by a constant amount each period. Given these two different growth processes, food requirements would eventually catch up with food production. The population hits the subsistence level of food production at the Malthusian trap, shown here at point T [32].
The Malthusian growth model [
Drought stress in arid and semi-arid regions such as Iran has posed a serious challenge to sustainable production to provide food for the growing population. Concerns about the vulnerability of agricultural production become more pronounced when there is a proper understanding of the impact of climate change. If desertification leads to degradation and degradation of water, soil, and vegetation resources as three factors of survival in vulnerable ecosystems, food security will face serious problems. Thelma [33] reported that desertification has exacerbated the problem of food security in eleven states in northern Nigeria and its effect is very glaring on the agricultural sector.
In 1977, at the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) in Nairobi, Kenya, representatives, and delegates first contemplated desertification’s worldwide effects. The conference explored the causes and contributing factors and also possible local and regional solutions to the phenomenon. Also, the delegates considered the varied consequences of desertification, such as crop failures or decreased yields in rain-fed farmland, the loss of perennial plant cover and thus loss of forage for livestock, reduced woody biomass, and therefore scarcity of fuelwood and building materials, a decrease in potable water stocks from reductions in surface water and groundwater flow, increased dune intrusion onto croplands and settlements, increased flooding due to rising sedimentation in rivers and lakes, and amplified air and water pollution from dust and sedimentation [34].
Non-desertification means preventing desertification of areas exposed to desertification due to destructive human actions, not destroying existing natural deserts. Climate, as the two main climatic factors that have many changes and fluctuations, plays an essential role in forming arid and desert areas. Since arid and semi-arid regions occupy a large part of the world area, identifying the potentials in these areas and discovering resources to provide management solutions to take advantage of existing potentials and prevent desertification from Is of particular importance [3].
The priority in combating this phenomenon is to prevent the destruction of lands that have not yet been destroyed or where the descent rate is low. In contrast, for the conquered lands, remedial plans should be considered. According to international experts, including the following in the medium and long-term goals can significantly improve desert management activities.
Strengthen awareness and development of information and care systems for areas exposed to desertification and drought, including the economic and social dimensions of these ecosystems
Development of comprehensive desertification plans and their inclusion in national development plans and programs and national environmental plans.
Combating land degradation through soil conservation, afforestation, and reforestation.
Develop comprehensive compensation and mobilization programs to combat drought, including self-help arrangements for drought-prone areas and programs for environmental refugees.
Develop coordinated development programs to eradicate poverty and improve living standards in areas prone to desertification.
Encourage and improve the level of public cooperation and environmental education with a focus on desertification control and drought management
Because rainfed environments are used for a variety of human purposes (such as agriculture, livestock grazing, and timber collection), the various activities performed in them can exacerbate desertification problems and bring about lasting changes in rainfed ecosystems. Desertification is a phenomenon that occurs as a result of natural or human factors. In recent decades, Desertification has intensified with the loss of fertile lands, destruction of pastures and agricultural lands, salinization and erosion of lands, and quantitative and qualitative reduction of surface and groundwater. This phenomenon poses a serious threat to most of the world’s ecosystems, mainly arid and semi-arid regions.
In recent years, due to the overexploitation of natural resources, this process has become more intense and severe, and comprehensive management is needed to deal with it. Implementing and implementing projects appropriate to this challenge and benefiting from successful practical programs in the world can effectively reduce the desertification process, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. In general, correct knowledge and assessment of the state of the world’s deserts will help manage these areas.
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\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Kyzas and Athanasios C. Mitropoulos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6229.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"152296",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:"Z.",surname:"Kyzas",slug:"george-kyzas",fullName:"George Kyzas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56964",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70748",title:"Discrete Boltzmann Modeling of Compressible Flows",slug:"discrete-boltzmann-modeling-of-compressible-flows",totalDownloads:1336,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Mathematically, the typical difference of discrete Boltzmann model (DBM) from the traditional hydrodynamic one is that the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations are replaced by a discrete Boltzmann equation. But physically, this replacement has a significant gain: a DBM is roughly equivalent to a hydrodynamic model supplemented by a coarse-grained model of the thermodynamic non-equilibrium (TNE) effects, where the hydrodynamic model can be and can also be beyond the NS. Via the DBM, it is convenient to perform simulations on systems with flexible Knudsen number. The observations on TNE are being obtaining more applications with time.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Aiguo Xu, Guangcai Zhang and Yudong Zhang",authors:[{id:"42273",title:"Prof.",name:"Aiguo",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"aiguo-xu",fullName:"Aiguo Xu"},{id:"110958",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangcai",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"guangcai-zhang",fullName:"Guangcai Zhang"},{id:"209189",title:"Dr.",name:"Yudong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yudong-zhang",fullName:"Yudong Zhang"}]},{id:"66493",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85224",title:"Modeling and Design of Flexure Hinge-Based Compliant Mechanisms",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-flexure-hinge-based-compliant-mechanisms",totalDownloads:3587,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"A compliant mechanism gains its mobility fully or partially from the compliance of its elastically deformable parts rather than from conventional joints. Due to many advantages, in particular the smooth and repeatable motion, monolithic mechanisms with notch flexure hinges are state of the art in numerous precision engineering applications with required positioning accuracies in the low micrometer range. However, the deformation and especially motion behavior are complex and depend on the notch geometry. This complicates both the accurate modeling and purposeful design. Therefore, the chapter provides a survey of different methods for the general and simplified modeling of the elasto-kinematic properties of flexure hinges and compliant mechanisms for four hinge contours. Based on nonlinear analytical calculations and FEM simulations, several guidelines like design graphs, design equations, design tools, or a geometric scaling approach are presented. The obtained results are analytically and simulatively verified and show a good correlation. Using the example of a path-generating mechanism, it will be demonstrated that the suggested angle-based method for synthesizing a compliant mechanism with individually shaped hinges can be used to design high-precise and large-stroke compliant mechanisms. The approaches can be used for the accelerated synthesis of planar and spatial flexure hinge-based compliant mechanisms.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Sebastian Linß, Stefan Henning and Lena Zentner",authors:null},{id:"57137",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70768",title:"Kinetic Theory of Creep and Long-Term Strength of Metals",slug:"kinetic-theory-of-creep-and-long-term-strength-of-metals",totalDownloads:1195,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter deals with the simulation of the creep process and the effect of long-term strength of metals, notably, in both uniaxial and complex stress states. A description of a creep experiment and the simplest creep models are presented, that is, the theory of steady creep, the theory of ageing, the theory of flow and the theory of hardening. In creep process simulation, a kinetic theory based on the introduction of structural parameters characterising the state of the metal at a given time is widely used. Among such parameters, metal damage in the creep process, work of stresses on creep deformations (energy version) and concentration of an aggressive medium in the metal were studied. The coupled problem of creep and long tensile strength is also considered taking into account the mutual influence of damage accumulation and one-dimensional diffusion of the aggressive medium. The times to fracture are determined both in the presence of an aggressive medium and in the absence of one. A significant contribution of Soviet (Russian), European, American and Japanese scientists to the development of continuum damage mechanics is highlighted.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Alexander Lokoshchenko and Leonid Fomin",authors:[{id:"215612",title:"Prof.",name:"Leonid",middleName:null,surname:"Fomin",slug:"leonid-fomin",fullName:"Leonid Fomin"},{id:"215613",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Lokoshchenko",slug:"alexander-lokoshchenko",fullName:"Alexander Lokoshchenko"}]},{id:"67535",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86682",title:"The General Kinematic Pair of a Cam Mechanism",slug:"the-general-kinematic-pair-of-a-cam-mechanism",totalDownloads:1274,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"At present, there are still increasing demands on the performance parameters of machinery equipment as well as cam mechanisms that belong to it. For this reason, the operating speeds and hence inertial effects of moving bodies, which limit the utilizable working frequency of machines, are increasing. These facts are the cause of higher wear and a decrease of the overall lifetime and reliability of machines. The force ratios in the general kinematic pair created by contact between the cam and the follower cause the contact stress. The generated stresses are transient and have a pulse shape. Fatigue damage of the cam working surface or the follower working surface may occur after exceeding a certain limit value of these stresses during the cam mechanisms running. This damage is in the form of cavities (pitting), which develop from cracks on the working surface. The chapter aim is to outline the issues of the dynamic stress of a general kinematic pair of a cam mechanism. One of the possible methods of the complex solution of the stress of the general kinematic pair is to use the possibilities of the finite element method in combination with the knowledge and conclusions of the contact mechanics.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Jiří Ondrášek",authors:null},{id:"57376",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70843",title:"Plasma Kinetic Theory",slug:"plasma-kinetic-theory",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The description of plasma using fluid model is mostly insufficient and requires the consideration of velocity distribution which leads to kinetic theory. Kinetic theory of plasma describes and predicts the condition of plasma from microscopic interactions and motions of its constituents. It provides an essential basis for an introductory course on plasma physics as well as for advanced kinetic theory. Plasma kinetics deals with the relationship between velocity and forces and the study of continua in velocity space. Plasma kinetics mathematical equations provide aid to the readers in understanding simple tools to determine the plasma dynamics and kinetics as described in this chapter. Kinetic theory provides the basics and essential introduction to plasma physics and subsequently advanced kinetic theory. Plasma waves, oscillations, frequencies, and applications are the subjects of kinetic theory. In this chapter, mathematical formulations essential for exploring plasma kinetics are compiled and described simplistically along with a precise discussion on basic plasma parameters in simple language with illustrations in some cases.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Auwal Mustapha Imam, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi\nand Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57376",title:"Plasma Kinetic Theory",slug:"plasma-kinetic-theory",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The description of plasma using fluid model is mostly insufficient and requires the consideration of velocity distribution which leads to kinetic theory. Kinetic theory of plasma describes and predicts the condition of plasma from microscopic interactions and motions of its constituents. It provides an essential basis for an introductory course on plasma physics as well as for advanced kinetic theory. Plasma kinetics deals with the relationship between velocity and forces and the study of continua in velocity space. Plasma kinetics mathematical equations provide aid to the readers in understanding simple tools to determine the plasma dynamics and kinetics as described in this chapter. Kinetic theory provides the basics and essential introduction to plasma physics and subsequently advanced kinetic theory. Plasma waves, oscillations, frequencies, and applications are the subjects of kinetic theory. In this chapter, mathematical formulations essential for exploring plasma kinetics are compiled and described simplistically along with a precise discussion on basic plasma parameters in simple language with illustrations in some cases.",book:{id:"6229",slug:"kinetic-theory",title:"Kinetic Theory",fullTitle:"Kinetic Theory"},signatures:"Kashif Chaudhary, Auwal Mustapha Imam, Syed Zuhaib Haider Rizvi\nand Jalil Ali",authors:[{id:"176684",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif Tufail",middleName:null,surname:"Chaudhary",slug:"kashif-tufail-chaudhary",fullName:"Kashif Tufail Chaudhary"}]},{id:"66493",title:"Modeling and Design of Flexure Hinge-Based Compliant Mechanisms",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-flexure-hinge-based-compliant-mechanisms",totalDownloads:3588,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"A compliant mechanism gains its mobility fully or partially from the compliance of its elastically deformable parts rather than from conventional joints. Due to many advantages, in particular the smooth and repeatable motion, monolithic mechanisms with notch flexure hinges are state of the art in numerous precision engineering applications with required positioning accuracies in the low micrometer range. However, the deformation and especially motion behavior are complex and depend on the notch geometry. This complicates both the accurate modeling and purposeful design. Therefore, the chapter provides a survey of different methods for the general and simplified modeling of the elasto-kinematic properties of flexure hinges and compliant mechanisms for four hinge contours. Based on nonlinear analytical calculations and FEM simulations, several guidelines like design graphs, design equations, design tools, or a geometric scaling approach are presented. The obtained results are analytically and simulatively verified and show a good correlation. Using the example of a path-generating mechanism, it will be demonstrated that the suggested angle-based method for synthesizing a compliant mechanism with individually shaped hinges can be used to design high-precise and large-stroke compliant mechanisms. The approaches can be used for the accelerated synthesis of planar and spatial flexure hinge-based compliant mechanisms.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Sebastian Linß, Stefan Henning and Lena Zentner",authors:null},{id:"67535",title:"The General Kinematic Pair of a Cam Mechanism",slug:"the-general-kinematic-pair-of-a-cam-mechanism",totalDownloads:1274,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"At present, there are still increasing demands on the performance parameters of machinery equipment as well as cam mechanisms that belong to it. For this reason, the operating speeds and hence inertial effects of moving bodies, which limit the utilizable working frequency of machines, are increasing. These facts are the cause of higher wear and a decrease of the overall lifetime and reliability of machines. The force ratios in the general kinematic pair created by contact between the cam and the follower cause the contact stress. The generated stresses are transient and have a pulse shape. Fatigue damage of the cam working surface or the follower working surface may occur after exceeding a certain limit value of these stresses during the cam mechanisms running. This damage is in the form of cavities (pitting), which develop from cracks on the working surface. The chapter aim is to outline the issues of the dynamic stress of a general kinematic pair of a cam mechanism. One of the possible methods of the complex solution of the stress of the general kinematic pair is to use the possibilities of the finite element method in combination with the knowledge and conclusions of the contact mechanics.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Jiří Ondrášek",authors:null},{id:"66017",title:"Kinetostatic Nonlinear Stiffness Characteristic Generation Using the Kinematic Singularity of Planar Linkages",slug:"kinetostatic-nonlinear-stiffness-characteristic-generation-using-the-kinematic-singularity-of-planar",totalDownloads:854,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The theory of nonlinear stiffness characteristic by employing the kinematic limb-singularity of planar mechanisms with attached springs is proposed. After constructing the position formula with closed-loop form of the mechanism, the kinematic limb-singularity can be identified. The kinetostatic model can be obtained based on the principle of virtual work. The influences of spring stiffness on the force-displacement or torque-angle curve are analysed. Different spring stiffness results in one of four types of stiffness characteristic, which can be used to design an expected stiffness characteristic. After replacing corresponding joints with flexures, the pseudo-rigid-body model of the linkage with springs is obtained. The compliant mechanisms with nonlinear stiffness characteristic can further be synthesised based on the pseudo-rigid-body model.",book:{id:"7794",slug:"kinematics-analysis-and-applications",title:"Kinematics",fullTitle:"Kinematics - Analysis and Applications"},signatures:"Baokun Li and Guangbo Hao",authors:null},{id:"67222",title:"Kinematic Absolute Positioning with Quad-Constellation GNSS",slug:"kinematic-absolute-positioning-with-quad-constellation-gnss",totalDownloads:1027,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The absolute positioning technique is based on a point positioning mode with a single Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receiver, which has been widely used in many fields such as vehicle navigation and kinematic surveying. For a long period, this positioning technique mainly relies on a single GPS system. With the revitalization of Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) constellation and two newly emerging constellations of BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) and Galileo, it is now feasible to carry out the absolute positioning with quad-constellation of GPS, GLONASS, BDS, and Galileo. A combination of multi-constellation observations can offer improved reliability, availability, and accuracy for position solutions. In this chapter, combined GPS/GLONASS/BDS/Galileo point positioning models for both traditional single point positioning (SPP) and precise point positioning (PPP) are presented, including their functional and stochastic components. The traditional SPP technique has a positioning accuracy at a meter level, whereas the PPP technique can reach an accuracy of a centimeter level. However, the later relies on the availability of precise ephemeris and needs a long convergence time. Experiments were carried out to assess the kinematic positioning performance in the two different modes. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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