Summary of studies investigating canine forelimb and/or elbow joint kinematics.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"147",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biosensors - Emerging Materials and Applications",title:"Biosensors",subtitle:"Emerging Materials and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"A biosensor is a detecting device that combines a transducer with a biologically sensitive and selective component. 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He received his degree as Medical Doctor at Sassari University in 1998 and studied the in vivo Neurochemistry of Parkinson’s Disease using microdialysis and voltammetry under the supervision of Dr. Maddalena Miele. Prof. Serra received his PhD in Pharmacology and in 2001 and he worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow at University College of Dublin and at National University of Maynooth (Ireland) under the direction of Prof. Robert D. O’Neill and Dr. John P. Lowry. 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An MIS gathers data from multiple online systems, analyzes the information, and reports data useful for the management and the decision-making. The main goal of this book is to bring together leading academic scientists, researchers, and research scholars to exchange and share their experiences and research results on all aspects of Information systems. We also hope to provide a premier interdisciplinary platform for researchers, practitioners, and educators to present and discuss the most recent innovations, trends, and concerns as well as practical challenges encountered and solutions adopted in the fields of Information systems. This book is intended for Computer Science students, application developers, business professionals, and researchers who seek information on Information Systems.
\r\n\tWe hope to present dozens of algorithms and implementation examples, all in pseudo-code and suitable for use in real-world, large-scale Information Systems and their applications. We also hope to address advanced topics such as mining object-relational databases, spatial databases, multimedia databases, time-series databases, text databases, the World Wide Web, and applications in several fields. The goal is to provide a comprehensive, practical look at the concepts and techniques needed to get the most out of data.
Yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) coating systems are widely used for the thermal, oxidation, and hot corrosion protection of high-temperature components in gas turbine and diesel engines [1], and, additionally, the electrolyte YSZ is the standard ionic conductor [2] used in fuel cells, being a brittle material due to its high hardness [3]. This thermal and oxidation protection must be achieved without incurring excessive thermomechanical loading of the coating system and the metal component to which it is applied.
\nFor the thermal, oxidation, and hot corrosion protection of high-temperature components, the multifunctional requirements of these coatings dictate the use of a coating system consisting of three separate layers: a porous, 7–8 wt.% yttria-stabilized zirconia (7–8YSZ) thermal barrier coating (TBC) which provides thermal insulation, a thermally grown (α-alumina) oxide (TGO) layer which inhibits oxygen transport to the component, and a low-sulfur platinum aluminide or MCrAlY (where M is Ni or Co) bond coat [4, 5]. Usually, the TBC thick layer (the thickness is typically of hundreds of microns) is deposited either by air plasma spray (APS) [6] or electron beam physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD) [7]. Low-pressure plasma spray (LPPS) [5] or pack cementation [8] is used to apply the bond coat. Oxidation of the bond coat prior to or during deposition of the TBC layer (and later during service) forms the (∼1 mm) TGO layer. However, for other applications the YSZ TBC thin films can be deposited by sputtering and pulsed laser deposition (PLD). In both cases, the typical columnar structure of sputter or pulsed laser deposited films is largely influenced, among other parameters, by pressure, temperature, thickness, and the ion-to-atom ratio incident at the substrate or substrate bias voltage [9, 10, 11]. This morphology is expected to follow the structure zone model of Thornton [12] and could be overcome by an increase of the deposition temperature.
\nYSZ is the currently preferred TBC layer material for gas turbine engine applications because of its low thermal conductivity, k, its relatively high (compared to other ceramics) thermal expansion coefficient, and its good erosion resistance [13]. The low thermal conductivity of bulk YSZ is a result of the low intrinsic thermal conductivity of zirconia and the addition of yttria [14]. An yttria concentration in the range of 6–8 wt.% is generally used since this composition maximizes spallation life due to the formation of the metastable t´ phase [13]. This phase yields a complex microstructure which resist crack propagation and transformation into the monoclinic phase (4% volume change) upon cooling. The result is a thermomechanically tough TBC layer with a room temperature, grain size dependent, and thermal conductivity of 2.2–2.6 W/m K in the densest (bulk) form [15]. The thermal protection and spallation lifetimes of YSZ TBC layers produced via different deposition techniques differ significantly. TBC coatings produced by APS have a thermal conductivity in the range of 0.8–1.0 W/m K at 25°C [1, 14, 16]. This is significantly lower than the 1.5–1.9 W/m K reported for EB-PVD coatings at 25°C [1, 17]. On the other hand, for YSZ thin films obtained by different techniques, the thermal conductivity values depend on the grain size, and these are in the range between 0.6 and 1.8 W/m K for grain sizes between 10 and 100 nm [18, 19].
\nUsually, there are two ways to reduce the thermal conductivity of YSZ TBC obtained by physical vapor deposition (PVD). The first one is the addition of dopants, in this case the addition of rare earth oxides (REO). Klemens et al. [20] conclude that co-doping with REO can solve the problems concerning the high-temperature (tetragonal) phase stability of ZrO2 and important decreases in thermal conductivity can be achieved by approaching values obtained by APS (k = 0.8 W/mK). The second way is to manipulate the microstructure of the coating, which basically involves including fields of stresses and interfaces to the interior of the material, in such a way that they act as centers of dispersion of the phonons. In the study conducted by Soyez et al. [21] on YSZ nanocrystalline, the dependence of the thermal conductivity with the grain size in nanocrystals of YSZ, for films with thicknesses of 0.5 and 1.2 μm and yttria compositions between 8 and 15 mol.%, was observed. Another approach to the effect of the structure variation to micro- and nanoscale is to use multilayers, since the value of the coating thermal resistance in the form of multilayers is the sum in a series of the thermal resistances of the interfaces where the interaction between the phonon and the scattering centers that are in them occurs. For applications at high temperatures, coatings can be designed in nanostructured multilayer sequences. For example, studies have been conducted on multilayer systems of Al2O3/YSZ obtained via EB-PVD and multilayer YSZ/SiO2 [22] obtained via ion beam-PVD, but the thermal conductivity measurements obtained show no significant decreases, regardless of the materials, the technique, and the number of layers used [23]. In addition to the grain size and the generation of interfaces using multilayer systems, the effect of the thickness of the coating on its thermal conductivity must be taken into account. In the model proposed by Nicholls [24], two characteristic zones of the ceramic coatings obtained by the EB-PVD technique are presented: the internal zone of fine grain and the external zone of coarse grain. The thermal conductivity of the internal zone of fine grain is much lower than the thermal conductivity of the external zone, due to a greater density of grain boundaries as well as to numerous oblique columnar limits in the internal zone, since there is a multiple nucleation and subsequent growth of the columnar microstructure. Thus, the thermal conductivity in this area is dominated by the dispersion of phonons with defects and grain boundaries in this part of the coating, resulting in a low thermal conductivity of around 1.0 W/m K at room temperature. In this way, the total thermal conductivity of the coating will be the result of the combined effect of these two zones, so if the total thickness of the coating is equal to the thickness of the internal zone, the total thermal conductivity will be equal to that of this area; therefore, it will be lower. Obtaining this type of TBC microstructure can be achieved using the “shuttering” method, which consists in the periodic interruption of the vapor flow of atoms. Using this technique Wolfe et al. [25] reported a ∼10% decrease in the thermal conductivity of 8YSZ coatings deposited by EB-PVD. Summarized, creating imperfections within the network, the phonons free path could change producing a greater dispersion and decreasing the thermal conductivity.
\nIn the same way, another important experimental parameter used to modify the micro- and nanostructure is to change the direction of the incident flux of the depositing species respecting the substrate surface. Most of films produced by PVD techniques use normal incidence and lead to the columnar growth normal to the substrate. Depositions at oblique angles or sculptured thin films were first reported in 1959 [26] and later by others [27, 28, 29] and are often referred to as glancing angle deposition (GLAD). The structure is achieved when the substrate is tilted and forms a high angle between the material flux and substrate surface. In this way, in the microstructure, the column growth direction follows the orientation of the material flux, typically performed by directional deposition techniques, such as PVD. Several studies have been conducted to elucidate the influence of the thin-film microstructure grown by PVD under GLAD technique on the morphology and structure [30, 31] of different thin-film materials, as well as on their mechanical, [3] electrical [31], and optical properties [33, 34]. On the other hand, previously Hass et al. [35] conducted a study with a TBC layer deposited by electron beam evaporation technique (EB-PVD), but placing the substrate inclined with respect to the vapor flux, to obtain a zigzag-shaped pore microstructure that greatly reduced the thermal conductivity.
\nIn this chapter we present the sculpturing of YSZ thin films using radio-frequency (r.f.) magnetron sputtering under oblique incidence with respect to the normal substrate surface.
\nIn the last decades, the physical deposition in vapor phase (PVD) of films and coatings at different incident angles of the steam flow has arisen as an alternative for the control of the morphology, distribution, and shape of the pores present throughout the thickness of the coating as a result of a “shading” effect which is influenced by the angle of incidence of the atoms arriving on the substrate. All this leads to a challenge from the technological point of view focused on obtaining an oblique angle deposit in situ, with sufficient versatility and reproducibility that allows obtaining coatings with “customized” microstructures for various applications. This approach is commonly referred to as glancing angle deposition (GLAD) or oblique angle deposition (OAD), which in this case results in YSZ coatings with an inclined columnar microstructure. In order to obtain this microstructure, the substrate is inclined at an angle (α) with respect to the vapor incident flow on the substrate plane, as it can be seen schematically in Figure 1.
\nGeometry of oblique angle deposition.
When the coatings are deposited on substrates of low roughness, the films obtained by OAD consist of randomly distributed columns with strong competition between the growing columns, where some grow at the expense of the adjacent ones. The randomness of the columns results in inhomogeneous properties of the film in the plane parallel to the substrate, while the competition between the growing columns makes the films nonuniform in the direction along the normal to the substrate. Since the shading effect is the main mechanism, the higher values of α lead to a more pronounced porosity. This occurs because the shading effect generates areas where the vapor flow cannot directly reach the nuclei of atoms on the surface and, therefore, the shadow effect is widely favored [36] leading to a porous columnar microstructure of isolated grains and inclined toward the vapor source. Therefore, the columns do not grow parallel to the direction of the incident vapor flow, and the microstructure tilt can be generated by changing the substrate inclination angle. Figure 2 shows a schematic illustration of the growth mechanism of micro-columnar structures.
\nSchematic illustrations of the growth mechanism of micro-columnar structures by OAD: (a) nucleation, (b) onset of self-shadowing, and (c) micro-columnar growth.
To achieve a glancing angle deposition, the geometry of a conventional sputtering setup was modified similar to some studies reported by others [31]. For this study, the deposition angle of the substrate was fixed at 45o with respect to the incident flux. Additionally, in-plane rotations of 180o were performed to obtain a “zigzag”-like morphology and stop the deposition when the rotation was completed. Figure 3(a) and (b) shows the experimental setup used in the present study for the in-plane rotations of 180o to obtain “zigzag”-like growth morphology and the SEM cross-sectional view of YSZ thin film grown under this configuration at a period of n = 1, respectively.
\n(a) Experimental setup used for the in-plane 180o rotations to obtain “zigzag”-like growth morphology. (b) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) cross-sectional view of YSZ thin film grown under this configuration at a period of n = 1.
However, in practice the substrate rotation must be controlled by a mechanism that allows the transmission of movement inside the vacuum chamber and at the same time be operative for the deposit conditions such as pressure, temperature, bias voltage, etc. To achieve this goal, it was necessary to design a mechanism that would allow to transmit this movement but without modifying the location of the substrate surface with respect to the flow of evaporated material, since if this occurs, the substrate would be in an area that would be outside of the material flow affecting the deposition rate and the shading effect. To solve this problem, a device was designed [37] based on a cylinder with three axes and two bearings that can withstand high temperatures. On the other hand, to provide greater stability during the substrate holder movement, a tie is added consisting of a threaded rod which passes through axis 3 and is coupled to a sheet on the upper part of the device, which is not in contact with axis 1 (see Figure 4a). Figure 4b illustrates the device inside the vacuum deposition chamber, indicating the arrangement that allows the application of a polarizing voltage to the substrate (bias voltage).
\n(a) 3D model of the designed device. (b) Illustrative diagram of the device inside the vacuum deposition chamber.
A detailed description of the experimental procedure and deposition parameters used for 8 mol.% YSZ TBC film growth was previously reported by Amaya et al. [19]. To obtain the “zigzag” structure, initially the period
High thermal conductivity materials are widely used in heat dissipation applications, and materials with low thermal conductivity are used as thermal insulators, for example, the YSZ material studied in this work. In general, the thermal conductivity of a material may depend on the temperature; however, in this work, all measurements of the thermal conductivity in YSZ were made at room temperature.
\nAmong the techniques used for the determination of thermal transport, parameters are the techniques in steady-state and transient or frequency-dependent techniques. In the first case, the thermal conductivity is directly determined, and in the second case, the thermal diffusivity (α) is measured, through which the thermal conductivity (k) can be estimated if the density (ρ) and the specific heat (cp) of the sample under study are known, by means of the expression α = k/ρcp.
\nWithin the transient and frequency-dependent techniques are the laser-flash technique [38], thermal lens spectroscopy [39], photoacoustic spectroscopy in its different modalities of open cell [40], closed cell [41], two-beam cell [42], etc.; as well as the photoelectric spectroscopy [43]. These techniques are very appropriate in the case of bulk samples, but they have their instrumental complication and limitations in the case of thin coatings. The techniques of 3w [44] and thermoreflectance [45] are the most used in the determination of the thermal conductivity of coatings and thin films, for which a sophisticated instrumentation is required in the case of thermoreflectance and additionally adequate preparation of the small metallic elements deposited on the material to be studied to heat and temperature monitoring in the case of the 3w technique.
\nIn order to find the thin film’s thermal conductivity value, a hot plate technique as an appropriate thermal conductivity measurement system was used [46]. In this technique, it was assumed that the transfer of heat is by conduction through the YSZ film; the thermal conductivity measurement experimental setup is shown in Figure 5. The sample is placed on the heater, which increases the temperature to 373 K, where it remains stable, until that the heat reservoir comes into contact with the sample and then the heat is transferred from the heater to the heat reservoir through the sample; this variation is sensed using solid-state sensors.
\nThermal conductivity measurement experimental setup [
Considering the heat energy conservation law in the thermal system as presented in Figure 5, it is possible to obtain the thermal power differences between heater and heat reservoir as following:
where these thermal powers are given by:
where TC and T are the heater temperature and the variation of temperature, respectively; K is the thermal conductivity of the material; \n
Equating these thermal powers and solving the first-order differential expression, the temperature evolution of the process can be described, given by
where \n
The effective thermal conductivity in the samples as film growth over substrates can be obtained by using the double-layer method [47, 48]. In this method, the total thermal resistance is the sum of the film and substrate thermal resistances, and knowing the sample geometry and thermal conductivity of the substrate, it is possible to calculate the effective value of the thermal conductivity in the film as was proposed by Mansanares et al. [47, 48].
\nThe thermal conductivity of YSZ over glass substrates can be determined by considering the double-layer model as follows.
\nFigure 6 shows a schematic representation of the total thermal resistance by the superposition of thermal resistances between YSZ film and glass substrate. This representation can be written as the sum of thermal resistances [46, 47, 48]:
Schematic representation of the heat flow through the YSZ/glass double-layer sample.
Here, RT, RYSZ, and RGlass are the total, YSZ film, and glass thermal resistances, respectively. Each thermal resistance depends on geometry (its thickness and area
where \n
Then, expression (7) can be written as
Here, \n
\n
Expression (9) requires knowing the thermal conductivity value of glass substrate, previously measured by using expression (4).
\nTo determine the thermal conductivity of the 8YSZ coatings, these were deposited on glass substrates of known thermal conductivity values by using the procedure described by expression (9).
\nCross-sectional images were carried out in a JEOL JSM-6490LV™ scanning electron microscopy. To show the effect of the oblique angle deposition on the microstructure of the thin films, a series of cross-sectional SEM images (Figure 7) were obtained by cleaving the samples parallel to the grown “zigzag” structure. Due to YSZ non-conductive nature, a 5-nm gold layer was deposited to avoid charge accumulation during the measurements. A cross-sectional SEM image of an 8YSZ thin film grown with the conventional PVD geometry is shown as a reference in Figure 7(a), where we can identify the parallel columnar structure normal to the surface, according to the Thornton diagram [12].
\nSEM cross-sectional views of YSZ thin films grown under (a) perpendicular incidence of the vapor flow to the substrate and (b)–(d) 45o of incidence [
By applying an inclination of 45° between the vapor flow and the surface normal, the microstructure depicted in Figure 7(b) was obtained. The columnar structure is preserved but tilted toward the direction of the plasma plume with a column width similar to the reference sample. By turning the sample by 180° after half of the deposition, the column growth direction was also turned in-plane by 180° (Figure 7(c)). This “zigzag” structure is repeated without any degradation of the well-aligned columnar structure, as seen in Figure 7(d). In Figures 7(c) and 7(d), we observe that the thicknesses of the column growth to the left are larger than to the right. This is because the thickness of the column growth depends greatly on the sample position in the sample holder (see Figure 3a).
\nHowever, when the number of repetitions increased to 10 (n = 10) and more (n = 30), then the “zigzag” structure appears within the columns, but the columns itself practically are not inclined, as we see in Figure 8(a–d). In our case, the total coating thickness for all repetitions remains approximately constant (close to 3.5 μm), and for this reason, the time between repetitions is very short when n increases, for hence the columns do not reach to tilt as a whole.
\nSEM cross-sectional views of YSZ thin films grown for (a) n = 10 and (b) n = 30; (c) and (d) provide details of the nanostructure within the columns [
In order to analyze the samples further, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images recorded in cross-sectional lamellae of an 8YSZ thin film were carried out. Lamellae were prepared by focused ion beam (FIB) technique using a FEI Helios NanoLab 600i. TEM images were taken in a dedicated Hitachi HF-3300 (I2TEM-Toulouse) microscope operated at 300 kV. This microscope is equipped with a cold field emission gun and an image-aberration corrector (B-COR from CEOS), achieving a spatial resolution of 80 pm, in high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) mode [50].
\nFigure 9(a) displays an overview image for an 8YSZ multilayer with n = 10. We can see the substrate-multilayer interface and the zigzag microstructure. The total thickness of the multilayer is around 3.5 μm. In Figure 9(b), we show a magnified area of the TEM image of Figure 9(a) around the kink (dashed lines) of the zigzag structure. Apparently, all columns continue to grow through the kink without any evidence of a discontinuous crystal structure as we can see in the high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) micrographs (Figure 9(c) and (d)) corresponding to the zones labeled with red numbers 1 and 2 in Figure 9(b). In addition, the contrast diffraction observed in such TEM images reveals that the oblique growth method induces the inclination of the crystallographic planes at α = 45° and α = −45° in the “thin” and “thick” layers of the zigzag structure, respectively. Moreover, crystal diffraction patterns (Figure 9(e) and (f)) obtained by applying a fast Fourier transform (FFT) on Figures 9(c) and 5(d), respectively, show that the microstructure of the YSZ films has a textured crystalline structure where some crystal planes are well defined in the HRTEM image. The angle that forms the twin can be determined from the angles that form the pyramidal faces to each other, in the images of TEM micrographs. From the TEM image in Figure 9b, this angle was calculated as 75.94° for the +45° orientation.
\nTEM micrographs for FIB lamella of a “zigzag”-structured YSZ thin film. (a) Low-magnification TEM image of the “zigzag” structure for n = 10. (b) Zoom around the dashed line in the low-magnification micrograph (a). HRTEM micrographs for the thickest region (c) labeled 1 in (b) and the thinnest (d) for the region labeled 2 in (b). Fast Fourier transform (FFT) pattern for thick (e) and thin (f) layers [
For the microstructural analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements were performed using a powder diffractometer Panalytical X’Pert PRO™ with a Cu Kα radiation source (λ = 1.54184 Å). Figure 10a and 11a present the 8YSZ XRD patterns recorded in Bragg–Brentano geometry, for thin films deposited at a normal incident angle (α = 0°) and at different repetition numbers of the “zigzag” structure (from n = 1 to n = 70), respectively. The XRD pattern of the 8YSZ film deposited at a normal incident angle (α = 0°) shows a mixture of two phases: tetragonal zirconium yttrium oxide (Zr0.94Y0.06O1.88) and monoclinic baddeleyite (ZrO2) (JCPDF #01–089-9068 and #01–070-8739 cards, respectively). The preferred orientation on (002) plane of tetragonal phase is detected when n = 1, and its relative diffracted intensity increases gradually with n (Figure 10a). Moreover, (211) also shows a significantly preferred orientation of samples with n = 1, 2, and 10 “zigzag” arrays. The presence of silicon reflections of the substrate is very clear in the XRD pattern of the film growth at a normal incident angle and those with n = 1, 2, and 70. Samples with a great number of n (i.e., n = 30, 50, and 70) evolve toward a mono-axial preferential orientation on (002) plane; there is then a concomitant loss of orientation from pyramidal facets of {112} form. This latter behavior is a probable consequence of the increment of structural defects—disordered vacancies on Zr sites that affect directly the intensity of (211) reflection—as well as the profusion of both nano-porous and microstructural dislocations; thus, subsequent vertical columnar arrangement in the stacking arises, with the corresponding enhancement of the intensity on (002) diffraction peak.
\n(a) XRD patterns of 8YSZ thin films deposited at a normal incident angle (α = 0) and at different repetition numbers of the “zigzag” structure. (b) Schematic crystallographic simulation of the “zigzag” structure [
(a) XRD experimental data for films deposited at a normal incident angle (α = 0), n = 1 and n = 2 repetition numbers of the “zigzag” structure. (b) The schematic simulated crystallographic structure obtained from the experimental data [
Taking into account the predominance of the tetragonal structure and the multiaxial model of preferred orientations, as well as the “zigzag” features observed in SEM and TEM microphotographs for samples obtained from inclined experiments, a crystallographic simulation of the “zigzag” structure is proposed and graphically shown in Figure 10b and 11b. The proposed microstructural model is based on the key role of a specific substrate tilt (e.g., ±α = 45°) in promoting the growth of the tetragonal {211} bipyramidal facets on one side of the {001} planes, for example, (002) plane. The (002) is the twin plane in a contact twin where individual crystals are related by an inversion (i.e., 1). The growing direction is [001], and the surface of the twinned crystals is formed by {211} facets. In accordance with this scheme, when the tilt angle of the substrate is changed by 90° (from +45° to −45°), the {001} planes act as twin boundaries, with the subsequent growth of the pyramidal faces in a parallel but opposite direction. It is worth to note that a difference in length between both arms of twinned crystals is due to a different time of deposition.
\nThe arrangement of the “zigzag” structures within the same level or, in other words, along with the direction [010], consists of a stacking of contiguous {211} facets. That is to say, the elbows are inter grooved along the direction of the bisector of the angle between two facets of the {211} form, for example, (−2–11) ^ (211) in Figure 11b, where complete bipyramidal morphologies are represented. The elbow angle results in 145.44o and the (002) ^ (211) is 72.72°. When the stacking of columnar twinned crystals is broken by profusion of defects as nano-porous, the relative intensity of (211) diminishes. This packing efficiency loss is clearly related to the occurrence of Si peaks in n = 70 XRD pattern. On the other hand, the enhancement of the intensity of twin plane (002) is a function of the number of tilt changes or “zigzag” structures. Accordingly, patterns show a dependence on the number of twin planes present in the film.
\nThus, in our experiment, we obtain a polysynthetic twin. When α = 0°, neither preferred orientation nor silicon-dependent 8YSZ epitaxial growth has been observed.
\nTo determine the thermal conductivity of the 8YSZ coatings, these were deposited on glass substrates of known thermal conductivity values by using the procedure described in paragraph 3. Figure 12(a) and (b) present the typical temperature evolution curves for the films deposited at a normal incident angle (α = 0) and at n = 10 number repetition of “zigzag” structure. In these curves, we see excellent agreement between the experimental data (black circles) and the fit to Eq. (3) (red curves). For the temperature evolution curves, three measurements for each sample were carried out, and the tolerance temperature of the measurements was 1 K.
\nTypical temperature evolution curves for the films deposited at (a) normal incident angle (α = 0) and (b) n = 10 number repetition of “zigzag” structure. (c) Thermal conductivity evolution for α (0) (normal incident angle), α1 (45°), α2 (−45°), and n ranging from 1 to 70 repetitions of the “zigzag” structure [
From this fit, it is possible to obtain τ, which is directly related to the thermal conductivity (K) of the sample through Eq. (4) via procedure established by expression (9). Then, the effective thermal conductivity in the samples as film growth over glass substrates is obtained by using the double-layer method according to Eq. (9) [47, 48].
\nIn Figure 12(c) summary of thermal conductivity behavior in all 8YSZ samples, for different values of α and n, is presented. For α = 0, the thermal conductivity (K) presents a value of 0.74 ± 0.05 W/mK, similar to that reported by Amaya et al. [19] of 0.57 ± 0.06 W/mK. Both values are for 8YSZ coatings grown via r.f. sputtering at equal deposition conditions with density, thermal diffusivity, and specific heat separately determined. As shown in Figure 12(c), for 8YSZ coatings deposited with “zigzag” structure, the thermal conductivity (κ) drastically decreases in an order of magnitude when the number of bilayers n increases. However, for n = 70, the thermal conductivity starts to increase.
\nThis thermal conductivity behavior of YSZ TBC is consistent with that obtained by Hass et al. [35], placing the substrate inclined with respect to the vapor flux to obtain a similar “zigzag” microstructure.
\nHeat thermal transport at nanometric scale is produced by phonons. Phonons have a wide variation in frequency and an even larger variation in their mean free paths (mfps). However, the bulk of the heat is often carried by phonons of a large wave vector, and they have mfps of 1–100 nm at room temperature.
\nThereby, in many systems similar to those studied here, the scale of the phonon scattering centers has the same scale as the mfps of phonons, sometimes comparable to phonon wavelength. Due to this, either the interfaces or twist boundaries of the same material can play a critical role in nanoscale thermal transport [51, 52]. In this sense, we propose a phenomenological interpretation to explain the reduction in thermal conductivity when the value of (n) for the “zigzag” columns increases, with respect to the thermal conductivity of the coating deposited with a growth of columns normal to the substrate surface.
\nFigure 13-I shows the parallel thermal flux incidence with respect to the growth of columns for the 8YSZ coatings deposited with the normal direction of the incident flux of the species, with respect to the substrate surface. In contrast, Figure 13-II(A) at n < 10 samples indicates that when coatings are deposited under an oblique angle, a “zigzag” structure appears creating inclined crystallographic interfaces. Taking the column as an individual element, (α = 0), the heat flow is distributed in a longitudinal direction due to the growth direction that is normal to the substrate; therefore, the phonon scattering is due to the presence of the oxygen vacancies. When the oblique angle deposition takes place (n = 1), there is a change in the growth direction of the column, and as a result of this, an interface is generated, with which the heat carriers interact, scattering the heat flow into two components, a vertical component and a lateral component, due to the inclusion of the zigzag microstructure. This makes the mean free path of phonons to diminish due to the interaction of heat carriers with these interfaces, thus decreasing the thermal conductivity of the sample.
\nSchematic illustrations of (I) microstructure and porosity of PVD coatings and (II) influence of the “zigzag” microstructure on the YSZ coating thermal conductivity [
However, at n ≥ 10 (Figure 13-II(B)), the zigzag structure appears within the columns, which are practically not inclined but emerge the formation of nanopores between columns, and crystallographic interfaces contribute to greater phonon dispersion. Finally, increased thermal conductivity for n = 70 may be related to the fact that the total coating thickness for all repetitions remains approximately constant (close to 3.5 μm). For this reason, the time between repetitions is quite short, and the columns do not reach tilt as a whole, increasing the nanopore size; therefore, the mfp of phonons begins to increase again.
\nThe oblique angle deposition is a powerful technique to modify the microstructure of PVD coatings deposited by sputtering in the micro- and nanometer scale, with high reproducibility and repeatability as the period (n) varied. For low values of repetition number (n = 10), the “zigzag” structure of 8YSZ coatings can be repeated without any degradation. However, when
This research was supported by funds for internal calls for projects at the Universidad del Valle 2013 (CI 7923) and by the Center of Excellence for Novel Materials (CENM) and ASTIN-SENA, Colombia. The authors would like to thank Dr. Pedro Prieto from the CENM and Dr. Luis Yate, Platform Manager of CIC biomaGUNE at Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain, for the AFM analysis.
\nThe canine elbow joint is a complex joint, whose musculoskeletal anatomy is well investigated. However, the in vivo function of the elbow joint, the individual movement of the humerus, radius and ulna relative to each other and the load distribution within the joint is still subject of present and future research. Especially pathophysiological motion of the elbow joint, leading to a mechanical overload of certain joint compartments, is not well understood and an interesting field of present veterinary research. Canine developmental elbow disease (DED), in particular medial coronoid disease (MCD), is one of the most common reasons for forelimb lameness in the dog and therefore this topic has not only academic, but also clinical relevance.
The canine elbow joint is composed of the humerus proximally and the radius and ulna distally, and can be divided into three joint compartments: the humero-ulnar, humero-radial and proximal radio-ulnar joint [1, 2]. The humero-ulnar joint is formed by the humeral trochlea and intercondylar region of the condyle and the ulnar trochlear notch, which extends from the anconeal process to the radial incisure, and continues to the medial coronoid process of the ulna. The humero-radial joint is formed by the capitulum of the humeral condyle and the radial head. The radial incisure and the medial aspect of the radial head form the proximal radio-ulnar joint. Altogether the elbow joint acts as a hinge joint (ginglymus) with extension and flexion being the main motion pattern and some amount of pronation and supination, mainly taken over by the radio-ulnar joint [1].
In healthy canine elbows the radio-ulnar joint shows a congruent shape without any step formation between the ulnar and radial joint surface, at least under static conditions. However, the humero-ulnar joint is not perfectly congruent even in healthy dogs [3, 4, 5, 6]. The radii of curvature of the humeral condyle and ulnar trochlear notch show different values along their curvilinear course, resulting in reduced contact in the central notch region [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The trochlear notch shows a slightly elliptical shape, so that the anconeal process and distal aspect of the notch as well as the coronoid process are in contact with the humeral condyle. This kind of physiological humero-ulnar incongruence was first described in humans and could be detected in the canine elbow joint, too [4, 5, 6, 8, 9].
The maximum range of motion (ROM) varies between 110 to 150 degrees, with breed-specific maximum flexion of 25 to 49 degrees and maximum extension of 155 to 175 degrees [10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. The main extensor muscle of the elbow joint is the triceps brachii muscle [1]. Further this muscle prevents flexion of the elbow during the stance phase. The anconeal and tensor fasciae antebrachii muscles are additional extensors of the elbow joint. Flexion is performed by the biceps brachii and brachial muscles. The extensor carpi radialis muscle contributes to flexor function to some amount. The canine antebrachium can be pronated 17 to 50 degrees and supinated 31 to 70 degrees [10, 15]. The supinator and brachioradial muscles are responsible for supination of the antebrachium. The latter contributes only minimal to supination and is missing in some individuals [16]. The pronator teres and pronator quadratus muscles are responsible for pronation and the pronator teres muscle is supposed to contribute to elbow joint flexion as well [1, 2].
Four ligaments support the elbow joint: the medial and lateral collateral ligament, the annular ligament and interosseous ligament/interosseous membrane [1, 2]. The medial and lateral collateral ligaments origin from the medial and lateral humeral epicondyle. The medial collateral divides into two crura. The cranial one is weaker and attaches at the radius, while the stronger caudal one attaches mainly at the ulna and to some amount at the radius. The lateral collateral ligament consists of two crura as well. The cranial part attaches to the radius, and the caudal part attaches to the ulna and colligates with the annular ligament, which can contain a sesamoid bone [2]. The annular ligament runs transversely around the radial head spanning from the lateral to the medial aspect of the radial incisure of the ulna. It runs underneath the medial and lateral collateral ligaments. The radius and ulna are further attached to each other by the interosseous ligament and interosseous membrane, which spans the interosseous space. Distally the radius and ulna are connected to each other by the radioulnar ligament.
Kinematics describe the motion of body segments without measuring the forces acting onto that segments. Kinematic analysis allows evaluation of the range of motion, angular velocities, segmental velocities of each portion of the limb, stride frequency and stride length [17]. Depending on the technique used for the kinematic analysis, motion of bones and joints can be measured with a submillimeter accuracy [18, 19, 20].
Generally two forms of kinematic analysis can be differentiated: the video-kinematography, based on a video motion capture system, and the radiostereometric kinematic analysis (RSA), based on a radiographic system, coupled with high speed video cameras. Video motion capture kinematic systems use skin markers, attached to specific body areas, which are tracked in the generated videos of the moving animal and allow for calculation of the aforementioned parameters. Radiostereometric analysis can be marker based or performed without bone markers [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Furthermore, both kinematic analysis systems can be used to evaluate motion in the two or three dimensional (2D, 3D) space, depending on the technical setup [17].
The most commonly used technique is a video motion capture system based analysis. This technique is non-invasive and allows for evaluation of overall limb, limb segment or body segment motion. However, skin mounted markers do not match exactly the movement of the underlying bones. Movement of the soft tissues results in skin motion artifacts [21, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35], with a difference of 0.4 to 1.2 cm between the skin marker and respective underlying bony landmark in small animals [33]. Especially in the proximal joints of the forelimb skin marker based data differ significantly from fluoroscopically gained kinematic data [28]. Comparison of biplanar fluoroscopy and video-kinematography in hindlimb kinematics revealed significant differences between both techniques, too [21]. Skin marker based data tend to project different trajectories and smaller amplitudes compared to fluoroscopic kinematography with particularly contradictory results, especially in proximal joints, where increased soft tissues can be found [21].
Radiostereometric analysis, also called fluoroscopic kinematography, allows for the most accurate kinematic data acquisition [19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 30]. One or two fluoroscopic units, coupled with high speed video cameras, take x-ray movies of the moving object. Based on these x-ray movies bone movement can be calculated and transferred onto 3D bone models generated from CT scans of the individual animal. Bone motion analysis can be performed using implanted bone markers, which are tracked in one (uniplanar, 2D evaluation) or both (biplanar, 3D evaluation) x-ray movies and 3D coordinates of each marker are then transferred onto the 3D bone models. Alternatively, scientific rotoscoping or autoscoping techniques can be used to track bone movement and transfer this in vivo bone motion from the fluoroscopic images onto 3D bone models [18, 20, 36]. These techniques do not rely on bone markers, rather the shape and edges of each bone are used to project digitally reconstructed radiographs (DRR), generated from the CT scans of each bone, onto the respective bone in the fluoroscopic image. By that the 3D bone model is aligned and animated along the x-ray movies. Scientific rotoscoping is performed manually, while autoscoping is a completely computerized process. Both techniques can be described as morphology based methods of motion analysis. Marker based tacking is the gold standard of kinematic analysis with an accuracy of 0.1 mm and 0.1 degrees [20]. However, scientific rotoscoping and autoscoping show a high accuracy as well, with values ranging from 0.16 to 0.66 mm in translation and 0.43 to 2.78 degrees rotation for scientific rotoscoping and 0.07 to 1.13 mm translation and 0.01 to 3.0 degrees rotation for autoscoping [18, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. Therefore, both techniques result in a highly precise evaluation of bone and joint motion with a substantially reduced invasiveness compared to a bone marker based analysis.
Multiple studies have investigated elbow joint kinematics in healthy dogs and dogs with different joint pathologies. Results have to be interpreted cautiously due to varying breeds, different technical setups and varying gaits and gait velocities, e.g. the walk or the trot, all of which influencing the kinematic pattern. Table 1 gives an overview of previous studies on canine forelimb and elbow joint kinematics.
Study | Technique | Breed | Number of dogs | Gait/Speed |
---|---|---|---|---|
DeCamp et al. [43] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Greyhound | 8 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (walkway) |
Allen et al. [44] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Mixed breed dogs | 14 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (overground) |
Hottinger et al. [45] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different large breed dogs | 15 | walk, 0.9–1.1. m/s (overground) |
Gillette and Zebas [46] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever | 16 | trot, 2.8 m/s |
Nielsen et al. [47] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion), stance phase only | Mixed breed dogs | 6 | walk, 0.8–1.0 m/s (overground) |
Owen et al. [48] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Greyhound | 11 | trot, 2.2–2.4 m/s (treadmill) |
Clements et al. [49] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever | 10 | trot, 2.0 m/s (treadmill) |
Feeney et al. [50] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever | 10 | walk, velocity not documented (overground) |
Burton et al. [51] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 7 (unilateral elbow disease) | trot, velocity not documented (treadmill) |
Holler et al. [52] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 8 | walk, 0.89–1.1 m/s (treadmill, normal, uphill, downhill, obstacle) |
Agostinho et al. [53] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever Rottweiler | 20 (10 each) | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Guillou et al. [54] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography | Fox hound | 4 | walk & trot, velocity not documented |
Angle et al. [55] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Greyhound | 7 | Movement initiation up to 3.52 m/s (overground) |
Jarvis et al. [56] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion), stance phase only | Different breeds | 40 (24 healthy, 16 front limb amputee dogs) | trot, 2.2–2.6 m/s (walkway) |
Brady et al. [57] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different breeds | 16 | trot, 1.8 m/s & 2.5 m/s (walkway) |
Miqueleto et al. [58] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | German Shepherd | 20 (10 hip dysplasia, 10 healthy dogs) | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Galindo-Zamora et al. [59] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 20 (unilateral elbow disease) | walk, 0.65–1.1 m/s (treadmill) |
Caron et al. [60] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 3D evaluation | Labrador Retriever | 26 (13 healthy, 13 dogs with coronoid disease) | walk, 0.7 m/s (treadmill) |
Fischer & Lilje, [61] | 3D marker based video- & fluoroscopic kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | 32 different breeds | 327 | walk & trot, 0.54–5.56 m/s (treadmill) |
Catavitello et al. [62] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever Golden Retriever | 6 (3 each breed) | walk, 2 m/s, trot, 4 m/s & running, 9.5 m/s (overground) |
Duerr et al. [63] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) and inertial measurements unit | Different mid to large breed dogs | 16 | trot, 2.4–2.5 m/s (overground) |
Andrada et al. [28] | 3D marker based video- & fluoroscopic kinematography (scientific rotoscoping), 3D evaluation | Beagle | 5 | walk, 0.98 m/s & trot, 2.2 m/s (treadmill) |
Lorke et al. [64] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Beagle | 10 | trot, 1.7–1.8 m/s (treadmill) |
Rohwedder et al. [22] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography (first third of stance phase only) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 11 (5 healthy, 6 dogs with coronoid disease) | walk, 0.6–0.9 m/s (treadmill) |
Kopec et al. [65] | Uniplanar marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 8 | walk, 1.01–1.45 m/s (overground & stair exercise) |
Rohwedder et al. [23] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography (first third of stance phase only) | Different mid to large breed dogs | 11 (5 healthy, 6 dogs with coronoid disease) | walk, 0.6–0.9 m/s (treadmill) |
Rohwedder et al. [24] | 3D marker based fluoroscopic kinematography & joint contact pattern evaluation | Labrador Retriever | 1 (before and after DPUO*) | walk, 0.6–0.9 m/s (treadmill) |
Humphries et al. [66] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | Labrador Retriever German Shepherd | 24 (12 each breed) | trot, 2.19–2.45 m/s (walkway) |
De Souza et al. [67] | 3D marker based video-kinematography, 2D evaluation (sagittal motion) | American Pit Bull Terrier | 11 | walk, 1.17 ± 0.17 m/s trot, 2.04 ± 0.33 m/s (overground) |
Summary of studies investigating canine forelimb and/or elbow joint kinematics.
DPUO: dynamic proximal ulnar osteotomy.
Most studies on elbow joint kinematics are based on video-kinematographic analysis and have investigated the motion of the elbow only in the sagittal plane [43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 63, 65, 68, 69]. Caron et al. were the first to describe the real 3D kinematics of the canine forelimb of healthy Labrador retrievers and dogs with medial coronoid disease using video-kinematographic analysis [60]. Another study evaluated the 3D motion of orthopedic healthy canine forelimbs using video-kinematography and compared that data to fluoroscopically gained motion analysis, which was additionally calculated in one of the dogs [28].
One complete gait cycle consists of the swing and the stance phase. The swing phase starts when the paw breaks contact with the ground and ends with first ground contact of the paw. The time between initial ground contact and paw lift is defined as the stance phase. The ratio between swing and stance phase depends from the gait pattern and the dog’s velocity [28, 29, 70, 71]. At the walk the swing phase of the forelimb accounts for 39 to 43% of the whole gait cycle [60] and increases to approximately 50% to two thirds of the whole gait cycle during the trot, depending from the trotting speed [28, 43, 45, 58, 62, 64, 66]. During running the swing phase is further prolonged and accounts for approximately 75% of the gait cycle [62]. Conversely, with increasing speed the stance phase decreases [45, 70, 71].
The sagittal plane range of motion of the elbow joint (flexion-extension) is between 48.1 degrees and 70 degrees during one complete gait cycle when the dog is moving on a flat surface (Table 2), with the majority of motion occurring during the swing phase [28, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67]. Range of motion is influenced by different parameters like breed, limb and body segment length, gait, velocity, exercise, age, contralateral limb amputation and concurrent orthopedic disease. With increasing speed of the gait the range of motion of joints increases [29, 45, 57, 62, 66, 68, 69]. Obese dogs show an increased range of motion as well, especially during the stance phase [57]. However, increasing age leads to an decrease in total range of motion, even in orthopedic healthy dogs [64]. Further, different exercises like descending stairs, uphill and downhill walking influence the range of motion, with descending stairs, obstacle exercises and uphill walking increasing the range of motion, while downhill walking decreases the amount of sagittal motion in the elbow [52, 65].
Study | Breed | Range of motion (°) | Flexion/Extension (°) | Gait/Speed |
---|---|---|---|---|
DeCamp et al. [43] | Greyhound | 53.7 | 86.8/140.5 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (walkway) |
Allen et al. [44] | Mixed breed dogs | 55.8 | 93.7/149.5 | trot, 1.8–2.3 m/s (overground) |
Hottinger et al. [45] | Different large breed dogs | 48.1 | — | walk, 0.9–1.1. m/s (walkway) |
Gillette and Zebas [46] | Labrador Retriever | right: 69.1 left: 66.1 | — | trot, 2.8 m/s |
Nielsen et al. [47] | Mixed breed dogs | — | 111.7 ± 12/136.3 ± 10.4 (stance phase only) | walk, 0.8–1.0 m/s (overground) |
Owen et al. [48] | Greyhound | 49.35–49.59 | 100.98–102.7/150.57–152.05 | trot, 2.2–2.4 m/s (treadmill) |
Clements et al. [49] | Labrador Retriever | 59.3 (SD 5.5) | — | trot, 2.0 m/s (treadmill) |
Feeney et al. [50] | Labrador Retriever | 54.8 ± 17.9 | 91.4/146.3 | walk, velocity not documented(overground) |
Holler et a. [52] | Different mid to large breed dogs | normal: 52.9 ± 7.0 uphill: 54.2 ± 7.4 downhill: 43.1 ± 5.8 obstacle: 57.0 ± 6.9 | — | walk, 0.89–1.1 m/s (treadmill, normal, uphill, downhill, obstacle) |
Agostinho et al. [53] | Labrador Retriever Rottweiler | 63.77 ± 4.83 54.86 ± 5.16 | 90.52 ± 11.66/154.28 ± 9.64 93.99 ± 10.19/148.85 ± 9.15 | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Jarvis et al. [56] | Different breeds | stance phase only: control: 33.3 ± 8.6 amputee: 39.7 ± 10.4 | control: 123.0 ± 12.9/ 156.4 ± 12.2 amputee: 119.2 ± 12.8/ 158.9 ± 12.5 | trot, 2.2–2.6 m/s (walkway) |
Brady et al. [57] | Different breeds | lean: 52.5 (1.8 m/s) obese: 65.0 (1.8 m/s) lean: 54.0 (2.5 m/s) obese: 62.0 (2.5 m/s) | lean: 95 ± 7/147 ± 17 obese: 90 ± 11/155 ± 9 lean: 93 ± 8/147 ± 9 obese: 88 ± 14/150 ± 18 | trot, 1.8 m/s & 2.5 m/s (walkway) |
Miqueleto et al. [58] | German Shepherd | healthy: 68.15 ± 7.19 hip dysplasia: 63.54 ± 13.53 | healthy: 61.99/131.77 ± 7.60 hip dysplasia: 69.09/133.68 ± 11.37 | trot, 2.1–2.2. m/s (treadmill) |
Galindo-Zamora et al. [59] | Different mid to large breed dogs | healthy: 54.18 ± 8.62 MCD: 51.45 ± 7.27 | healthy: 82.36 ± 6.02/136.54 ± 9.16 MCD: 87.1 ± 10.8/138.55 ± 13.03 | walk, 0.65–1.1 m/s (treadmill) |
Duerr et al. [63] | Different mid to large breed dogs | 63.4 ± 7.7 | 82.1 ± 8.6/145.5 ± 10.8 | trot, 2.4–2.5 m/s (overground) |
Lorke et al. [64] | Beagle | young: 68.8 ± 2.7 old: 62.9 ± 5.1 | young: 83.2/152.0 ± 10.5 old: 76.8/139.6 ± 12.4 | trot, 1.7–1.8 m/s (treadmill) |
Kopec et al. [65] | Different mid to large breed dogs | flat: 65.81 desc. Stair: 80.43 desc. Ramp: 67.95 | 66.23/132.03 34.36/114.79 46.0/113.95 | walk, 1.01–1.45 m/s (overground & stair exercise) |
Humphries et al. [66] | Labrador Retriever German Shepherd | left: 70.63 right: 67.13 left: 67.13 right: 67.94 | 77.21/147.84 77.21/144.34 75.45/142.58 74.37/142.31 | trot, 2.19–2.45 m/s (walkway) |
De Souza et al. [67] | American Pit Bull Terrier | walk: 45.22 trot: 52.39 | walk: 111.25/167.65 trot: 110.14/163.00 | walk, 1.17 ± 0.17 m/s trot, 2.04 ± 0.33 m/s (overground) |
Summary of the values for range of motion in sagittal plane and flexion and extension angles of the canine elbow joint from different kinematic studies. All values are expressed in degrees and were calculated, if necessary, based on data of each study to allow comparison between studies. 180 degrees represent maximum extension and 0 degrees maximum flexion.
The stance phase is mainly characterized by continuous extension of the elbow joint until lifting of the paw from the ground. Some studies have shown flexion of the elbow joint just after weight bearing [43, 45, 47, 53, 58, 60, 64], resulting in two peaks of extension during the gait cycle. The first peak of extension occurs during the late swing phase and the initiation of ground contact and a second peak occurs at the end of the stance phase. The amount of this flexion differs between studies by several degrees. Further, this movement has not been described using fluoroscopic kinematography, what represents the gold standard of kinematic gait analysis [28]. This might be due to breed and inter-individual differences in the gait, due to the different techniques used for kinematic analysis or due to a soft tissue artifact, which occurs with skin mounted markers, and does not represent the in vivo motion of the bony cubital joint, but the movement pattern of the complete limb including the soft tissues [28, 32, 33]. Maximum extension of the elbow joint is reached at the end of the stance phase and is followed by continuous flexion during the swing phase. The peak flexion of the elbow joint is reached at approximately the middle of the swing phase and is followed by continuous extension of the elbow joint as a preparation for paw strike [53, 60, 64].
Besides flexion and extension, which represent the main motion pattern of the elbow joint, supination and pronation of the antebrachium and abduction and adduction of the humerus and antebrachium occur during the regular locomotion. In healthy Labrador retrievers the antebrachium is positioned in mild supination at the initial stance phase and shows minimal pronation during the remainder stance phase with a mean supination of the antebrachium of 3 ± 9 degrees [60]. In healthy Beagle the forelimb is placed onto the ground in mild pronation and is kept in this position during two thirds of the stance phase and then externally rotated during the last third of stance [28]. During the initial swing phase the antebrachium is supinated and maximum supination (mean 19 ± 9 degrees) occurs at the middle of the swing phase, together with maximum flexion of the elbow joint, in healthy Labrador retrievers [60]. In orthopedic sound Beagle a similar motion pattern is present during the swing phase, with supination of the antebrachium occurring during the first third of the swing phase [28]. Prior to foot strike rapid pronation of the antebrachium occurs and the limb is placed on the ground in a slightly supinated position in Labrador retrievers and slight pronation in Beagle [28, 60].
Three dimensional micromotion of the humerus, radius and ulna relative to each other was measured in different studies using marker based fluoroscopic kinematographic analysis [22, 23, 24, 54, 72]. Results of these studies show that the bones of the antebrachium have a complex motion pattern and radius and ulna cannot be seen as one single object. At the walk and the trot an axial movement between radius and ulna occurs in healthy and MCD affected elbows [22, 54]. In healthy canine elbow joints the radius shows an mean axial movement of 0.7 (SD 0.31) mm to 0.8 mm in relation to the ulna. This axial motion was detected in different mid to large breed dogs, like Fox hounds, Australian shepherd, Labrador retriever, Eurasian, German shepherd, Bernese mountain dog and mixed breeds [22, 54]. After the initiation of ground contact the radius moves proximally and remains in a slightly elevated position relative to the ulna, resulting in a dynamic negative radio-ulnar incongruence (RUI) [22, 72]. These results correspond with data from an in vitro study, which investigated the effects of limb loading and flexion and extension onto the radio-ulnar joint conformation and intra articular contact areas and which showed, that elbow extension leads to a relative lowering of the ulna in relation to the radius [73]. Extension is the main motion of the elbow during the weight bearing phase and therefore the induction of a dynamic negative RUI might be seen as a adaption to joint loading [72]. Further, internal and external rotation between the radius and ulna occurs during the walk. Prior to foot strike the radius is in an externally rotated position relative to the ulna und shows internal rotation during the first third of the stance phase. Mean range of motion of the in vivo internal-external radial rotation is 11.4 (SD 2.0) degrees during the initial weight bearing phase [74]. No data exist investigating the in vivo radio-ulnar movement during the later stance phase and the swing. Therefore, the in vivo motion of the antebrachial bones and the dynamic changes within the radio-ulnar joint during the complete gait cycle are still unknown.
The in vivo humero-ulnar micromotion has only been investigated in one study so far [23]. Movement between the humerus and the ulna is characterized by flexion and extension, but rotational movement of the humerus relative to the ulna takes also place during locomotion [23]. At the walk the humerus shows an relative external rotation of 2.9 (SD 1.1) degrees during the first third of the stance phase in healthy humero-ulnar joints [23, 28]. These data imply that the elbow joint is not completely restricted to sagittal motion only. One study, investigating the 3D kinematics of the whole canine forelimb showed, that at the moment of ground contact the humerus is in an internally rotated position, which is slightly less at the trot compared to the walk (mean segment angle, walk: −34 degrees; trot: −25 degrees) [28]. During the walk the humerus shows internal and external rotation and only external rotation during the trot throughout the complete stance and swing phase, with a net external rotational movement during the stance phase [28]. This external rotational motion of the humerus is contrary to the internal rotation (pronation) of the antebrachium, which occurs prior to paw strike and is maintained during the stance [28, 60].
When kinematics of the diseased canine elbow joint are evaluated two different types of changes in the kinematic pattern have to be differentiated. First, changes attributed to pain and lameness, i.e. altered kinematics as a result of the disease. Second, changes in elbow joint kinematics, which represent a causative factor of the disease process.
Due to pain, caused by different joint pathologies in the elbow with DED, multiple adaptive mechanisms occur in the affected forelimb. Decreases in stance time, angular displacement and net joint moments can all be seen in the diseased elbow joint [51].
A reduced range of motion in the sagittal plane (flexion-extension) is present in dogs with MCD [51, 59, 60]. In particular flexion of the joint is decreased and the elbow kept in a more extended position during the gait. In Labrador retrievers with MCD a faster extension of the cubital joint occurs during late swing phase and the elbow is more extended by 9 degrees (mean) during initial ground contact and the early stance phase compared to orthopedically healthy elbows [60]. This more extended gait is a compensating mechanism and aims to reduce pressure at the medial joint compartment [7, 73, 75]. At the end of the stance and beginning of swing phase the elbow joint is more rapidly flexed in affected dogs. However, no active push off occurs at the end of the stance phase indicating that the affected limb is pulled off the ground by the proximal musculature [51]. Reduction in active push off aims to reduce the pressure acting on the joint surface. The elbow is held 16 degrees more externally rotated during the end of swing and initial stance phase and the antebrachium is in average 2 degrees more abducted throughout the gait cycle and 9 degrees more supinated during the paw strike and early stance phase [60]. These changes have to be assumed as compensating mechanisms as well. Supination leads to caudal displacement of the peak pressure at the medial ulnar joint surface and by that to a release of pressure and potentially pain at the diseased medial coronoid process. Besides the Labrador retriever a more extended elbow joint is present in other breeds with MCD, e.g. Rottweiler, Staffordshire Bullterrier, Airdale terrier, Golden retriever, Polish Lowland sheepdog, German wirehaired pointer, Belgian malinois, Irish setter and mixed breed dogs [51, 59, 60]. Therefore, these changes in the kinematic pattern represent a general secondary adaption to intra articular pathologies and the corresponding pain in canine elbow joints with MCD.
Primary changes in the kinematics of the radius, ulna and humerus are assumed to play an role in the pathogenesis of MCD. Altered kinematics in the proximal radio-ulnar joint, were suggested by different researchers to be one potential factor influencing the development of MCD [76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90]. One proposed mechanism was an increased axial translation of the radius relative to the ulna leading to an dynamic radio-ulnar incongruence. Translational movement between the radius and ulna occurs in elbows with and without MCD in vivo [22, 54], with no significant difference in the total amount of movement between both groups [22]. Therefore, increased axial movement between the radius and ulna and induction of a dynamic RUI under weight bearing conditions could be excluded as an primary factor. However, the direction of radial motion is different between normal and diseased joints, with a negative RUI being induced during the initial stance phase in healthy elbows and no significant change in the radio-ulnar joint conformation in MCD affected joints [72]. Based on the results of that study dogs with a static RUI are not able to compensate the radio-ulnar step formation by radio-ulnar translation and dogs with MCD, but without a static RUI, do not show the same amount of negative dynamic RUI as measured in healthy canine elbow joints [72]. The induction of a negative radio-ulnar step during weight bearing might be a protective mechanism in healthy canine elbow joints. Lowering of the ulna or elevation of the radius during extension of the elbow joint was previously described in vitro and leads to a decrease of intra articular pressure at the medial joint compartment [73]. The inability of the diseased canine elbow joint to adjust the radio-ulnar joint conformation during loading might be one potential biomechanical factor in the pathogenesis of MCD. Especially in dogs without a measurable static incongruence, which account for 40% of all patients with MCD [76], the insufficient adaption to intra articular joint loads can lead to mechanical overload at one distinct joint compartment. Increased radio-ulnar rotation was proposed as another potential cause of mechanical overload along the radial incisure of the medial coronoid process and subsequent cartilage and bone damage [82, 87, 88, 89, 90]. The only study comparing in vivo radio-ulnar rotational movement in healthy joints to joints with MCD showed no significant difference in the total amount of radial rotation and in the motion pattern of the radius [74]. The radius starts in an externally rotated position during the late swing phase just before paw strike and rotates internally in relation to the ulna during the early weight bearing phase. At approximately 30 to 40% of the stance phase the radius shows an external rotation again. Values of total rotational movement and internal/external movement of the radius show no significant difference between normal and affected elbow (internal radial rotation, healthy: 5.7 [SD 2.1] degrees; MCD: 5.3 [SD 2.6] degrees; p = 0.1727; external radial rotation, healthy: - 5.8 [SD: 1.3] degrees; MCD: - 4.5 [1.7] degrees; p = 0.7705; total rotation, healthy: 11.4 [SD: 2.0] degrees; MCD: 9.8 [SD: 3.2]; p = 0.2904) [74]. Absence of increased radio-ulnar rotational motion does not exclude an biomechanical overload along the lateral aspect of the medial coronoid process of the ulna caused by interaction with the radial head. An abaxial attachment of the tendon of the biceps brachii muscle at the ulna was detected in dogs with MCD [90]. The pull of the biceps brachii muscle on the ulna could potentially lead to increased pressure between the medial coronoid and the radial head without altering the kinematics. However, no studies have investigated the forces acting between radius and ulna and compared these data between healthy and MCD affected dogs.
Another significant difference can be seen in the humero-ulnar rotational movement between healthy and MCD affected joints. Increased external rotation of the humeral condyle in relation to the ulna occurs at the first third of the stance phase in cubital joints with MCD (humeral rotation, healthy: 2.9 [SD 1.1] degrees; MCD: 5.3 [SD 2.0] degrees; p = 0.0229) [23]. This rotation of the humeral condyle leads to compression of the joint space between the medial coronoid process and the humeral trochlea, and might potentially lead to mechanical overload at the coronoid process and consequently to cartilage and subchondral bone damage (Figure 1). Therefore, increased humero-ulnar rotation has to be considered as one dynamic factor in the pathogenesis of MCD. If this increased humero-ulnar rotational movement is caused by soft tissue laxity, like in the dysplastic hip joint, altered muscle function or due to bony differences altering the joint function has not been investigated so far. The influence of a static positive radio-ulnar incongruence onto the contact areas and pressure distribution within the humero-ulnar joint is known [91, 92, 93]. However, the literature is lacking kinematic analysis investigating the influence of a static RUI on elbow joint motion, particular the humero-radio-ulnar micromotion. In the cited study on humero-ulnar kinematics the MCD group consisted of dogs with and without a static positive RUI [23]. Due to the small sample size no correlation could be found between the presence of static RUI and the amount of humeral rotational motion. Therefore, the influence of this significant bony deformity on the kinematics of the elbow joint remains unknown.
Image sequence of the in vivo humero-ulnar joint motion during the late swing phase (f0), at the moment of weight bearing (f30) and the first third of the stance phase (f60 – f150). (A) Healthy joint; (B) MCD affected joint; relative external rotation of the humerus occurs just after ground contact, when the joint gets loaded. External rotation of the condyle leads to a craniolateral shift of the trochlea, impinging on the lateral aspect of the medial coronoid process [
The mean body weight distribution between fore- and hindlimbs is approximately 60% : 40% in dogs [56, 94]. A large study investigating 123 different breeds found that the grand mean proportion of mass was 60.4% on the forelimbs (range: 47.6 to 74.4%) [94]. Only sex was shown to be a significant factor altering that ratio, with females being below the mean value throughout different breeds [94]. Another study comparing kinematic and kinetic data of orthopedic healthy Labrador retrievers and German shepherds reported that Labrador retrievers carry a higher percentage of the weight on their forelimbs compared to the German shepherd (69% vs. 62%, p < 0.001) [66]. If this breed specific mechanical overload plays a role in the pathogenesis of DED and contributes to the high rate of Labrador retrievers with developmental elbow disease, in particular MCD, is not known.
Within the elbow joint load and forces are not homogenously distributed throughout the whole joint surface. It was believed that the radial joint surface is the main weight bearing surface of the radio-ulnar joint. However, more recent studies have shown, that the radius takes 51 to 52% of load [73, 75, 91]. Therefore the ulna plays a more important role in weight bearing than previously assumed. Despite an overall equal load and force distribution between the radius and the ulna, not every part of the joint surface represents an active joint contact area. Within the combined radio-ulnar joint surface three distinct contact areas can be found: the craniolateral aspect of anconeal process, the joint surface of the radial head, and the medial coronoid process [7, 24, 73]. There is no particular contact at the medial aspect of the anconeal process and the center of the trochlear notch (Figure 2). The latter one might be explained by the slight physiological humero-ulnar incongruence leading to a bicentrical contact pattern [6, 7, 9, 73, 95]. When the elbow joint is loaded the force applied by the humeral condyle is distributed along the anconeal process and the coronoid region. With increasing load the concave ulnar notch is stretched and these pressure forces are partially transformed to traction forces [8, 95, 96, 97]. Therefore this physiological incongruence leads to a more even stress distribution within the humero-ulnar joint. In human elbow joints the proximal and distal contact area confluent when high loads are acting onto the ulnar joint surface [98]. This load dependent change in contact pattern has not been described in canine elbows so far [7].
Colored animation of the in vivo humero-ulnar joint contact pattern at the ulnar joint surface at the beginning of weight bearing in a healthy canine elbow joint (red: Humero-ulnar contact). Joint contact is present along the medial coronoid process and the lateral and proximal aspect of the trochlear notch. The radius is not shown in this animation.
The presence of these three contact areas within the elbow joint is further supported by increased subchondral bone density measurements at these anatomic areas [95, 99]. Bone is a dynamic tissue which has the ability to remodel in response to mechanical load (Wolff’s law) [100]. Therefore, increased bone density can be found in areas with increased load. Increased subchondral bone densities are present at the disto-medial and cranial aspect of the humeral trochlea and in the olecranon fossa, the anconeal and medial coronoid processes of the ulna and the cranio-medial region of the joint surface of the radius [95]. The same study showed a significant age-dependent increase in the subchondral bone density of the joint surfaces of all three bones, representing continuous adaption of the bone to mechanical stress with increasing age [95].
Though increased loading of the ulnar joint surface does not result in confluence of the bicentric contact pattern, other factors can influence the joint contact patterns of the humero-ulnar and humero-radial joint surfaces. An in vitro study investigated the influence of positive radio-ulnar incongruence (short radius) on joint contact patterns. Presence of a positive RUI leads to a shift of the contact area at the medial coronoid process towards the cranio-lateral aspect of the coronoid process and reduction of the anconeal contact area [93]. Other in vitro studies show similar results. After induction of a 1.9 mm positive RUI medial compartment contact area decreases significantly while the lateral contact area increases. Likewise the mean contact pressure and peak contact pressure increase within the medial compartment and decrease in the lateral part [91, 92]. Therefore, presence of a static positive RUI has to be assumed as an important factor in the disease process of developmental elbow disease and a correlation between the severity of cartilage damage and static RUI has been shown in affected elbows [76, 77, 101]. In vivo evaluation of the ulnar joint contact pattern during the walk in a dog with positive static RUI before and after bi-oblique dynamic proximal ulnar osteotomy (DPUO) confirmed the results of different in vitro studies [24]. Following DPUO positive static RUI decreased, leading to a significant increase of the contact area at the medial coronoid process and to a shift of the contact area from the cranio-lateral aspect (tip and radial incisure) towards the medial aspect and the base of the medial coronoid process (Figure 3) [24]. This positive effect of different forms of ulnar and humeral osteotomies onto humero-radio-ulnar contact and force distribution has previously been shown in vitro [75, 91, 92]. Whether a static RUI changes the kinematic pattern of humero-radial, humero-ulnar or radio-ulnar motion and by that the intra articular contact areas and pressure distribution or has a purely mechanical influence without dynamic changes has not been investigated so far.
Humero-ulnar joint contact pattern at the ulnar joint surface at the beginning of weight bearing in a canine elbow joint with MCD (red: Contact area). (A) Contact pattern before bi-oblique DPUO; focal concentration of joint contact at the medial coronoid process (MCP) and slight contact at the medial and lateral aspect of the anconeal process is present. (B) Contact pattern 12 weeks postoperative; joint contact is more homogenously distributed throughout the ulnar joint surface and the craniolateral aspect of the MCP is even not in contact with the corresponding humeral trochlea [
Further, joint contact areas change during the regular locomotion. Pronation leads to reduction of the contact area in the medial and to a lesser amount in the lateral compartment of the radio-ulnar joint surface. The effect of pronation is further influenced by the elbow joint angle, with significant reduction of the medial contact area by 23% at 135 degree of flexion, what represents the average flexion angle during the stance phase [73]. A reduced contact area will result in increased pressure when the same load is applied to the joint. Further, pronation of the antebrachium leads to a shift of the peak contact pressure towards the apex of the medial coronoid process. Otherwise supination of the antebrachium leads to caudal displacement of the peak contact pressure on the medial coronoid process [73, 75]. This might explain that dogs with medial coronoid disease show a more supinated stance to release pressure from the apex of the medial coronoid [60]. Moreover, flexion and extension, the main motion pattern during the normal locomotion, influence the intra articular pressure distribution. Flexion increases peak pressure at the medial radio-ulnar joint compartment and extension decreases pressure [73]. It is assumed that this change is due to dynamic changes within the radio-ulnar joint surface in healthy canine elbows [72, 73]. In a cadaveric study extension of the elbow joint induced lowering of the radius and ulna, however more pronounced in the ulna (3.8 mm) compared to the radius (1.9 mm). This corresponds to findings of the in vivo investigation of the radio-ulnar joint cup conformation in healthy elbow joints during the walk, where a negative RUI (short ulna) was induced during weight bearing [72]. This lowering of the ulna relative to the radius might protect the medial coronoid process from mechanical overload during locomotion in healthy canine elbows. In contrast, altered radio-ulnar kinematics preventing elevation of the radius might lead to continuous excessive mechanical overload and subsequent joint pathologies.
Considering the changes of intra articular contact areas and pressure distribution as a function of limb position might explain the typical clinical signs in dogs with developmental elbow disease. Affected dogs stand with the elbow slightly abducted and the antebrachium in slight external rotation (supination) [102]. Furthermore, the elbow joint is more rapidly extended during the swing phase and kept in a more extended position during weight bearing [60]. This motion pattern aims to reduce the contact and pressure at the medial coronoid process, where most commonly lesions attributed to developmental elbow disease occur [90, 103].
Canine elbow joint kinematics are more complex than flexion and extension of the joint and influenced by multiple factors like breed, limb length, gait, exercise and joint pathologies. The precise interaction of the three joint forming bones is essential for physiologic joint contact and intra articular force and pressure distribution. Based on the current literature an significantly increased humero-ulnar rotational movement as well as an reduced adjustment of the radio-ulnar joint during the regular locomotion of the dog seem to be two essential pathological factors influencing the development of MCD. This kind of movement is only measurable using laborious techniques like 3D fluoroscopic based kinematography. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to evaluate the complex kinematics of the healthy and the diseased canine elbow joint and to understand the effect of different kinematics onto kinetics.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. 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This chapter thus briefly discusses different biological methods, specially biofilm technologies, the development of biofilms on different filter media, factors affecting their development as well as their structure and function. It also tackles various conventional and modern molecular techniques for detailed exploration of the composition, diversity and dynamics of biofilms. 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Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. 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Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. 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Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5429,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6226,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"13",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83067",title:"Multiplicity in the Genes of Carbon Metabolism in Antibiotic-Producing Streptomycetes",slug:"multiplicity-in-the-genes-of-carbon-metabolism-in-antibiotic-producing-streptomycetes",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106525",abstract:"Streptomycetes exhibit genetic multiplicity, like many other microorganisms, and redundancy occurs in many of the genes involved in carbon metabolism. The enzymes of the glycolytic pathway presenting the greatest multiplicity were phosphofructokinase, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and pyruvate kinase. The genes that encode citrate synthase and subunits of the succinate dehydrogenase complex are the ones that show the greatest multiplicity, while in the phosphoenolpyruvate-pyruvate-oxaloacetate node, only malic enzymes and pyruvate phosphate dikinase present two copies in some Streptomyces. The extra DNA from these multiple gene copies can be more than 50 kb, and the question arises whether all of these genes are transcribed and translated. As far as we know, there is few information about the transcription of these genes in any of this Streptomyces, nor if any of the activities that are encoded by a single gene could be limiting both for growth and for the formation of precursors of the antibiotics produced by these microorganisms. Therefore, it is important to study the transcription and translation of genes involved in carbon metabolism in antibiotic-producing Streptomyces growing on various sugars.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Toshiko Takahashi, Jonathan Alanís, Polonia Hernández and María Elena Flores"},{id:"82972",title:"Actinomycosis: Diagnosis, Clinical Features and Treatment",slug:"actinomycosis-diagnosis-clinical-features-and-treatment",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104698",abstract:"Actinomycosis is a filamentous bacterium that forms part of the normal human flora of the gastrointestinal, oropharynx and female genitalia. This indolent infection is characterized by abscess formation, widespread granulomatous disease, fibrosis, cavitary lung lesions and mass-like consolidations, simulating an active malignancy or systemic inflammatory diseases. It is subacute, chronic and variable presentation may delay diagnosis due to its capability to simulate other conditions. An accurate diagnostic timeline is relevant. Early diagnosis of pulmonary actinomycosis decreases the risk of indolent complications. Proper treatment reduces the need for invasive surgical methods. Actinomycosis can virtually involve any organ system, the infection spread without respecting anatomical variables as metastatic disease does, making malignancy an important part of the differential diagnosis. As it is normal gastrointestinal florae, it is difficult to cultivate, and share similar morphology to other organisms such as Nocardia and fungus. It is often difficult to be identified as the culprit of disease. Its true imitator capability makes this infectious agent a remarkable organism within the spectra of localized and disseminated disease. In this chapter, we will discuss different peculiarities of actinomycosis as an infectious agent, most common presentation in different organ systems, and challenging scenarios.",book:{id:"10893",title:"Actinobacteria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10893.jpg"},signatures:"Onix J. Cantres-Fonseca, Vanessa Vando-Rivera, Vanessa Fonseca-Ferrer, Christian Castillo Latorre and Francisco J. Del Olmo-Arroyo"},{id:"82412",title:"Potential of Native Microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon on the Removal of Pollutants",slug:"potential-of-native-microalgae-from-the-peruvian-amazon-on-the-removal-of-pollutants",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105686",abstract:"Environmental pollution is a severe and common problem in all the countries worldwide. Various physicochemical technologies and organisms (e.g., plants, microorganisms, etc.) are used to address these environmental issues, but low-cost, practical, efficient, and effective approaches have not been available yet. Microalgae offer an attractive, novel, and little-explored bioremediation alternative because these photosynthetic organisms can eliminate pathogenic microorganisms and remove heavy metals and toxic organic compounds through processes still under study. Our research team has conducted some experiments to determine the bioremediation potential of native microalgae on some pollutant sources (i.e., leachate and wastewater) and its ability to remove hazardous chemical compounds. Therefore, in this chapter, we provide the results of our research and updated information about this exciting topic. Experiments were conducted under controlled culture conditions using several native microalgae species, variable time periods, different pollutant sources, and hazardous chemicals such as ethidium bromide. The results indicated that native microalgae can remove pollutants (i.e., phosphorus, ammonia, etc.) of wastewater, leachate, and some hazardous chemical compounds such as ethidium bromide. In conclusion, native microalgae have an excellent potential for removing several pollutants and, consequently, could be used to develop bioremediation technologies based on native microalgae from the Peruvian Amazon.",book:{id:"11366",title:"Microalgae",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11366.jpg"},signatures:"Marianela Cobos, Segundo L. Estela, Carlos G. Castro, Miguel A. Grandez, Alvaro B. Tresierra, Corayma L. Cabezudo, Santiago Galindo, Sheyla L. Pérez, Angélica V. Rios, Jhon A. Vargas, Roger Ruiz, Pedro M. Adrianzén, Jorge L. Marapara and Juan C. Castro"},{id:"81859",title:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus",slug:"respiratory-syncytial-virus",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104771",abstract:"Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)-driven bronchiolitis is one of the most common causes of pediatric hospitalization. Every year, we face 33.1 million episodes of RSV-driven lower respiratory tract infection without any available vaccine or cost-effective therapeutics since the discovery of RSV eighty years before. RSV is an enveloped RNA virus belonging to the pneumoviridae family of viruses. This chapter aims to elucidate the structure and functions of the RSV genome and proteins and the mechanism of RSV infection in host cells from entry to budding, which will provide current insight into the RSV-host relationship. In addition, this book chapter summarizes the recent research outcomes regarding the structure of RSV and the functions of all viral proteins along with the RSV life cycle and cell-to-cell spread.",book:{id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses Infection",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg"},signatures:"Sattya Narayan Talukdar and Masfique Mehedi"},{id:"82148",title:"Mosquito Population Modification for Malaria Control",slug:"mosquito-population-modification-for-malaria-control",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104907",abstract:"Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that kills millions of people every year. Existing control tools have been insufficient to eliminate the disease in many endemic regions and additional approaches are needed. Novel vector-control strategies using genetic engineering to create malaria-resistant mosquitoes (population modification) can potentially contribute a new set of tools for mosquito control. Here we review the current mosquito control strategies and the development of transgenic mosquitoes expressing anti-parasite effector genes, highlighting the recent improvements in mosquito genome editing with CRISPR-Cas9 as an efficient and adaptable tool for gene-drive systems to effectively spread these genes into mosquito populations.",book:{id:"11379",title:"Mosquito Research - Recent Advances in Pathogen Interactions, Immunity, and Vector Control Strategies",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11379.jpg"},signatures:"Rebeca Carballar-Lejarazú, Taylor Tushar, Thai Binh Pham and Anthony James"},{id:"81934",title:"Lactobacillus Use for Plant Fermentation: New Ways for Plant-Based Product Valorization",slug:"lactobacillus-use-for-plant-fermentation-new-ways-for-plant-based-product-valorization",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104958",abstract:"Today, plant production is increasing, but most industrial processes generate a lot of waste and by-products for which, in the current context, it is a priority to recycle or valorize them. One of the cheapest valorization routes is fermentation, in particular lactic fermentation by Lactobacillus species, which produces lactic acid and other molecules of industrial interest such as bioactive compounds such as anthocyanin, organic acid, peptides, or phenol, which are widely found in the plant matrix, mainly in cereals, grass, fruits, and vegetables. Bioactive compounds may exert beneficial health effects, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, or prebiotic activities. In addition, lactic acid fermentation can improve existing products and lead to new applications in food, livestock feeding and biotechnology, such as the production of lactic acid, protein, or silage. This chapter reviews the use of Lactobacillus strains in the fermentation process of many plant bioresources or by-products through their different bioactivities, active molecules, and applications.",book:{id:"11372",title:"Lactobacillus - A Multifunctional Genus",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11372.jpg"},signatures:"Morgan Le Rouzic, Pauline Bruniaux, Cyril Raveschot, François Krier, Vincent Phalip, Rozenn Ravallec, Benoit Cudennec and François Coutte"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:102},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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