The Reactions Shown by Children Against the Loss of the Beloved Parent After Divorce
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",isbn:"978-1-80356-420-3",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-419-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-421-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"f188555eee4211fc24b6cca361983149",bookSignature:"Dr. Kim Ho Yeap",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11509.jpg",keywords:"Inductive Coupling, Resonant Inductive Coupling, Magnetic Coupling, Magnetic Resonance, Transmitter, Receiver, Rectenna, Antenna, Induction Coil, Stationery Charging, Dynamic Charging, Rectifier",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"12 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Kim Ho Yeap is a senior member of the IEEE, a Chartered Engineer registered with the UK Engineering Council, a Professional Engineer (PEng) registered with the Board of Engineers Malaysia, and an ASEAN Chartered Professional Engineer. In 2008 and 2015 he underwent research attachment at the University of Oxford (UK) and the Nippon Institute of Technology (Japan). Dr. Yeap has been given the university teaching excellence award and 21 research grants. He has published more than 100 research articles.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"126825",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",middleName:null,surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126825/images/system/126825.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Kim Ho Yeap is an associate professor at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysia. He is a senior member of the IEEE, a Chartered Engineer (CEng) registered with the UK Engineering Council, a Professional Engineer (PEng) registered with the Board of Engineers Malaysia, and an ASEAN Chartered Professional Engineer. He received his BEng (Hons) in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Universiti Teknologi Petronas in 2004, his MSc in Microelectronics from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia in 2005, and his PhD from Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman in 2011. In 2008 and 2015, respectively, he underwent research attachment at the University of Oxford (UK) and the Nippon Institute of Technology (Japan). He is the external examiner and external course assessor of Wawasan Open University. He is also the editor-in-chief of the i-manager’s Journal on Digital Signal Processing. He has also been a guest editor for the Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences and Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences. In addition, he has been given the university teaching excellence award and 21 research grants. He has published more than 100 research articles (including refereed journal papers, conference proceedings, books, and book chapters), which are mostly related to electromagnetics. Among his notable publications—and those of which he is most proud—are the report on the design of the receiver optics used in the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array telescope and the formulations that rigorously describe wave propagation in lossy waveguides.",institutionString:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444315",firstName:"Karla",lastName:"Skuliber",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444315/images/20013_n.jpg",email:"karla@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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The proceeding/behaviour to be together or get together as husband and wife has been referred to as “matrimonial action/wedding’’, and this established relationship is called “marriage’’ [1].
Family is expressed as a social league with vital characteristics within a limited extent, which is based on an emotional commitment within a framework of solidarity that cannot be transferred to others [2].
A complete family is a community consisting of a mother, a father and children with mutual love, respect, support/solidarity and the sense of belonging to each other. Such a family is the fundamental factor in the emotional, social and moral development of the child. In sum, a complete family is a natural environment where the child is socialized in the broadest sense [3].
It is seen that the point of view/perspective on the concept of family began to change in the twentieth century. This different point of view on family also caused the parenthood to be considered as something independent of marriage. It has been stated that the differentiation of the point of view on marriage and having children when compared to the past is associated with the developments in technology [4].
A family established by “two different individuals’’ also has the potential of conflict and discrepancy along with it as the natural consequence of being two different individuals. It is too optimistic to expect the two different individuals with various personality traits who were raised in different environments to be always in harmony for years, since a family which is an institution considered to be a harbour against the challenges of life may, itself, sometimes turn into a a stormy ocean and create problems instead of solving them, in which case the spouses end up with the decision to terminate their association and get divorced, which is, today, experienced more and more in increasing numbers [1].
Besides the fact that the widowed woman or man, following her/his spouse’s death, never confronts the various social and psychological negative consequences of having been divorced or widowed in this way within the society, she/he and her/his children even remember the deceased one with love and respect. The widowed spouse, when compared with a divorced one, can get married and start a family much more easily; thus, the child can regain a natural environment once again [3].
A child having an extramarital mother will never have had a complete family. Such being the case, the ability of the child to overcome the problems encountered as s/he grows up is dependent on the understanding/empathy the close environment around her/him will show towards her/his situation [3].
Different from the traditional families, parents in modern families focus all their financial and emotional sources along with all their attention and energy on raising children. For a woman, having a child becomes no more a conventionally inevitable role after marriage; instead, it becomes a period of personal decision/call and responsibility on the part of her. It is argued that the social changes, such as conceiving a child out of wedlock, or even the technological innovations like bearing a child through medium of sperm banks independent of the prospective father lead to a change in the point of view towards marriage and parenthood. It is now pointed out that a woman does not have a child just because she is married, and that having a child is not a marriage routine anymore but a decision independently made by the woman. Hence, it is also put forward that parenthood has lost its traditional relationship/ association with marriage. In the wake of such changes, it is also stated that the emotional value of the child, different from that of the traditional families, has increased even more. The most dramatic change of all the others within a family life throughout the twentieth century is said to have been the rapid increase in the divorce rate [4].
According to The National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG), the divorce rate in the USA is 3.6 per 1.000 population. The divorce rate is the highest in the males and females aged between 20-24, while this rate is the lowest in those aged between 35-39. Almost half of the marriages end up with divorce. The divorce rates have been on the increase since the beginning of 20th century, and particulary since 1970s. According to Brown et al.’s report (2008), the proportion of the nuclear families has declined from 85% to 69% for the last 30 years. Now 3 out of 10 children are living in single-parent homes [5].
It is seen that there has also been a great increase in the divorce rate in Turkey in recent years. According to the data of the State Statistics Institute (SSI), the divorce rate, starting from the years 1990s, have been on the increase to a great extent. The number of the married couples getting divorced in 2011 increased at a rate of 1.3% in comparison to the previous year and reached 120.117.
The rough divorce rate was 1.62 per 1.000 population in 2011. Still, the divorce rates in our country are seen to be quite lower than those in several European countries. However, it is thought that the divorce rates seen to have increased particularly in big cities in recent years have been remarkable, and for this reason, it is important that divorce and the effects of divorce on individuals and the society be analyzed [4].
There are, undoubtfully, a number of reasons for the rapid increase in divorce rates. There are also various and major consequences of divorces, among which, as the sociologists and academicians put forth, is the case of shaking the society to its foundations. The very reason that it is the phenomenon/case shaking the foundations of the society is that it primarily affects the children, along with which the relationships between children and their parents, and between the parents are generally affected from this phenomenon in a negative way [3].
The case of a divorce is a blow inflicted on the self-confidence and self-respect of both the female and the male. However terrible the marriage is, the emptiness/separation experienced in the wake of a divorce is a major problem to be overcome [1].
Divorce is not a process experienced only between spouses. Most of the couples who are divorced have children, as well; therefore, a divorce is also quite an important process for the child. It is pointed out that a divorce potentially brings with it a series of changes that may seriously affect the child. Here, the reason for using the term “potentially’’ is that divorce is not regarded as a process that will inevitably harm children [4].
The first step in this challenging process is to explain to the child what divorce means. Some parents find it unnecessary to inform their children about their intention of getting divorced, and the fact that the age of the child is younger confirms/justifies this behaviour. Whereas, nobody-whether they love their parents or not-never understand the reason why, when they wake up one morning, one of their parents disappears as if s/he never existed. No child deserves to be left to confront such a devastating behaviour. Such thoughtless behaviours or actions may lead to the fact that they make up/imagine things which are unreal in order to compensate the situation or make some sense out of this as well as reinforcing their sense of being rejected [1].
The parents should explain to their child about their decision to get divorced in a secure and familiar environment the child is used to and should act together in this if possible.
They should be totally honest in explaining the matter and use a comprehensible language by considering their age.
The children should be listened to when they ask questions, the answers given should be limited to what is asked about and no long explanations should be included.
While parents are having a conversation with their child(ren), they should avoid any mutual argument, nor should they blame each other in front of the child.
The child should never be asked to take sides in this matter, in other words, s/he should never be put in the position of a referee.
Even if one of the parents feel hatred or rage against the other party, no negative criticisms or remarks about him/her should be made behind his/her back.
The remarks or expressions likely to hurt the child or make him/her feel guilty should carefully be avoided.
The child should be given detailed information as to where s/he will live after divorce, with which parent s/he is going to stay with, how often s/he can see the other parent and what sort of changes will take place in her/his life after all.
A child should never be regarded as a fellow sufferer or a shoulder to cry on. Otherwise, such a responsibility will be too heavy on him/her, which may have future consequences. Remember that your task of being a parent to them remains the same; what they need is your parenthood.
The fact that the divorce takes place only between the father and the mother should particularly be emphasized. “We are getting separated but we are always your parents’’ [6].
Divorce is both a judicial and a psychological and social process. It is the life-style that may be traumatic for children and is unavoidable for some marriages [2].
When taken as a judicial concept, divorce, to put it simply, is the termination of a marriage contract [1].
In the light of the thought-provoking/challenging facts about the act of divorce and the increasing data suggesting that the children of divorced parents are at more risk than the others in terms of experiencing developmental and psychological problems, more and more couples are beginning to question whether it would be right to disperse/separate the family or not. Some of them, by putting aside their personal desires, consider continuing their marriage until their kids grow up and leave home. The research results have suggested that staying together merely for the sake of their children rarely works. Sometimes staying together for this reason becomes more harmful for the children of those keeping together than the children of those getting divorced due to discrepancy. The researches have revealed that the children who have witnessed various discrepancies/disagreements-from purposefully keeping still/silent or continuous noisy clamor to demonstrating physical violence-become more awkward and unbalanced than the children of those who got divorced. In short, sometimes the only way that seems to solve the problem could be to end the marriage [1].
In the process of a divorce, the situation reaches the stage of acceptance after having gone through the psychological reaction phases which are developed against a sense of loss witnessed in deadly-ill patients, such as denial, anger, bargaining, and depression, as defined by Elisabeth Kübler-Roos. The children also undergo similar stages as their parents do [7].
The researches carried out among children suggest that children do not accept the case of divorce; instead, they prefer a miserable marriage to a divorce [2].
The relationship of any child with her/his mother-father, in the first years of her/his life in particular, is of great importance. On the other hand, divorce is, doubtlessly, rather a challenging and stressful process for both children and their parents. Considering it from the child’s side, the child will no more be able to reach the two people equally s/he has been mostly dependent on up to that time, that is, her/his parents, and her/his world will split up in a sense. Divorce, besides the changes taking place in the relationship of the patients, is quite important in terms of the parental roles of the divorced couples. When we analyze divorce in terms of parents, we encounter several problems to be coped with, such as re-building a new life following the divorce, developing new ways of contact with both the ex-spouse and the children, and additionally, the financial hardships occurring in the life of the divorced mother and the changes in social relationships [4].
One of the psychological variables that may cause a risk for the divorce of parents is the life satisfaction. Life satisfaction comprises the cognitive aspect of the concept of subjective well-being used as a synonym with happiness in the field of positive psychology. Accordingly, the subjective well-being (SWB) has two dimensions as the emotional/affective dimension consisting of positive and negative emotions and the cognitive dimension known as life satisfaction. Life satisfaction is also the cognitive judgement and evaluations made by the individual regarding her/his life. The conducted studies suggest that as the positive relationships of the adolescents with their parents increase along with the increase in the positive attitudes of a mother-father, commitment to parents and the socio-economic level, so does the life satisfaction escalate with such aspects. Thus, the familial variables are the important determinants of an adolescent/pubescent life satisfaction, and the changes within the family structure, like divorce, may affect the children’s quality of life and the ways of perceiving their lives as is true for all the members of the family, as well [8].
It may be expected that the change in the life-style and circumstances also affect a child’s life satisfaction in a negative way. As a matter of fact, the limited number of studies analyzing the life satisfaction of the children with divorced and undivorced parents show that the life satisfaction and general well-being levels of the children coming from broken families are lower than those coming from complete families. To sum up, the separation or the divorce of a child’s parents causes a striking disadvantageousness due to the challenging life experiences brought to children’s lives in terms of both their psychological developments and life satisfaction [8].
Another point to be highlighted is the extreme tolerance the mother shows towards her child in order to compensate the separation with her/his father, which may pave the way for the development of different behavioural problems in the child. For this reason, the balance should be maintained well, and the children should not be allowed to experience such borderline problems. In the wake of separation or divorce, the parents should not speak out against each other, nor should they reflect any problem they may be having with each other on the child. Such is the case commonly seen in divorced families, which may bring major problems with it. The child should also be allowed to see her/his parent living away from her/him frequently (unless there is some problem) and thus, the communication between the child and the other parent should be sustained [1].
Following the divorce, the relationship of the child with both of her/his parents will differ as compared to that in the past. After the divorce, the child will start living with this single parent, which is usually the mother in such cases. Therefore, major changes take place in the relationship between the child and the father who has left home after divorce. These major changes occurring in the child’s and the parents’ lives in the wake of the divorce are seen in a number of areas, such as the frequency of the meetings with both the parent living together with the child and the other parent living away, and the parents’ responsibilities towards their child(ren) as well as fulfilling the tasks regarding them. Thus, it is required that both the mother and the father, after having been divorced, adapt to the new circumstances while maintaining their relationship with their children and re-structure this relationship for their new life-style [4].
Many children but the little ones know what divorce means due to the fact that the termination of marriages today is a commonly-seen incident. If there is tension and unhappiness within a family, it is greatly likely that the children within that family circle become aware of the fact that something is going wrong. Within the families where fightings, particularly the physical violence and alcoholism are often seen, the children learn to read the psychological states of their parents without any awareness. They can find the best time to approach an angry or an unhappy parent by starting from various details. In the same way, they know when to get away from the clamour. Even knowing something more or less about divorce and witnessing the continuous fight between their mother and father do not prepare most of the children to the news that her/his parents are separating ways or getting divorced. Once the incident breaks out-which often happens with one of the parents leaving home-the child literally gets shocked. If the child has been kept away from her/his parents fights up to that time, s/he even experiences a greater shock. Drifting away from a parent, even if it may be an abusive one, horrifies a child. It is natural for a child to miss the parent who left the family. The separation of the parent does not annihilate the children’s sense of commitment [1].
The best time to explain the case of divorce to children should be at least one week before the day when one of the spouses will leave home, since the children will have quite a lot of questions and worries preoccupying their mind once they have got the news [1].
Divorce may occur as a major transformation in a child’s life. If, for instance, the child has a chronic disease, the divorce in question poses an extra load/burden on the stress experienced in struggling with the disease. Witnessing the loss of love between parents, the abandonment of matrimonial obligations by parents, getting used to travelling between two different homes and the feeling of daily absence of a parent while living with the other one all cause new familial circumstances for the child. Divorce is a turning point in a child’s life, since the ongoing life has changed to a considerable extent [5].
Brown et al. (2008) assume that 20-30% of the children and adolescents in the USA suffer from chronic diseases. The parents of the children with severe or chronic diseases may confront a higher risk of divorce. The data regarding the effect of the diagnosis of a child with a chronic disease on the marriage relationship are inadequate. As the result of the research, the reasons supporting a negative impact involve the communication problems, increased role tension, decreased relationship satisfaction and spending less time with a parent [5].
Syse et al. (2010) did not find any difference in the divorce rates between the couples who had a child with cancer and those who had a child with no cancer. They found out that when the educational levels of the mothers having children with cancer were higher than the average, the divorce rates in those parents proved to be higher, as well [5].
The age of the child, the gender, parental attitudes, educational status of parents, the socio-economic level of the family, the parents’ professions, the number of sisters-brothers and the success status of the child are the factors affecting anxiety. The situations causing anxiety/worry in little children pave the way for the psychological reactions in the advanced ages. The ongoing disputes/conflicts between the separated parents even after the divorce may give rise to the occurrence of anxiety in the child. Anxiety may manifest itself in children in the form of different reactions. Some children withdraw in order to avoid any worrying situation and abstain from joining any groups of their peers, while others develop defense mechanisms, such as retreat, rejection, repression and projection [2].
The vulnerability that a divorce creates on the child is associated with, particularly, age, gender, the stress level experienced within the family in the divorce process and whether the parental functions are sufficiently fulfilled or not [9].
It was reported that the most important factor regarding the child’s adaptation to this new state was his/her age at the time of divorce. Children, either at very young ages or in late adolescence, are influenced less by the long-term negative effects of divorce when compared with the other periods of age [9].
The children of the divorced parents experience a much more challenging process during adolescence when several developmental changes are being experienced, such as acquiring a social, sexual and occupational identity, having the capacity of getting independent, acquiring competence and being able to establish close relationships. It is reported that in comparison to the adolescents in the undivorced families, the risk of getting expelled from school, antenuptial conception and exhibiting antisocial actions increased 2-3 times more in those with the divorced parents [10].
The comparative studies conducted on the matter suggest that the children with divorced or separated parents, compared to those living with their families, develop a distrustful way of commitment towards their parents, and that their tendency to exhibit instant rage, constant rage, self-accusation, desperateness, depression and the tendency to commit suicide is higher than the others. The social adaptation, self-esteem and psychological resilience levels of those with divorced parents were found to be lower [8].
While some research results suggest that boys are much more influenced by a divorce when compared to girls, other research results show that this is just the other way round. In the study conducted by Aslıhan (1998) with a group of children belonging to broken and complete families, it was determined that male students had a higher level of anxiety in comparison to female ones. A significant difference was determined between the levels of anxiety in terms of the genders of children whose parents were not divorced. No significant difference was ascertained between the self-esteem levels in terms of the anxiety level ages of the children with divorced/separated parents [2].
As is seen, it is impossible to make generalizations as to how the act of divorce influences children, since each divorce case is indeed a unique, complex and multi-faceted event. However, despite all, the psychologists and academicians claim that several generalizations can be made as to how a divorce may affect a child by considering her/his age at the time of divorce [3].
They constantly show bad tempers.
It is difficult for them to adapt to a change.
Babies and those in their infancy feel the pain whenever they are separated from their parents.
They do not feel themselves secure/safe during the times when the parents are together or when they feel the changes in the emotional state of one of the parents. They may react to such changes by crying, clinging or showing bad tempers [11].
The environmental changes should be limited as much as possible.
Parents must be particular about setting arranged time for their children’s nutrition and sleep.
A great deal of closeness should be shown as much as possible, both verbally and physically.
Parents should spend a good deal of time by cradling, holding, caressing their babies and singing songs to them.
Babies should be often allowed to contact with both parents.
A parent should be able to communicate with the other parent about what to do in order to act in accordance/consistently.
Once the baby utters her/his first word or takes her/his first step, the parent involved should share this experience with the other one.
The new-born babies, particularly the premature ones, are oversensitive. It is highly necessary not to shout or fight when the baby is close.
A calm/soothing tone of voice should be used while speaking to the other parent at the time of changing hands in holding the baby [11].
Thus, for instance, it is argued that a nurseling does not suffer much from a divorce. The reason for this is considered as the inability of the nurseling to understand the dispute between parents, and besides being incapable of taking sides, s/he is usually left to her/his mother’s care [3].
The thought that the babies in their infancy will be least influenced by a divorce with the assumption that s/he is yet unaware of many things is wrong. In the babies at these ages were prominent changes in behaviours observed after divorce. The most striking ones were crying and crying jags, sleep disorders and malnutrition, and the loss of interest in toys. Hence, even at this age group, the couples getting separated after a divorce should do a good planning to share their responsibilities for the baby and come together with him/her. In the meantime, they should never attempt to fight or argue in front of the baby [12].
Change is hard/challenging for them.
They are scared of separation and the visits from one parent’s home to another’s could be rather traumatic.
They may show bad tempers or may cry for the other parent.
They may want you stay with them and never get out of their sight, and when you attempt to go, they may desperately cling to you.
They may suffer from such problems as falling asleep or staying awake the whole night [11].
As the kids at this age range have no accurate comprehension of time, the separations may appear to be dreadful to them and seeing her/his parent that separated a week later may feel like eternity to him/her. That’s why, a kid at this age gets into a tantrum and cries while getting apart from the other parent.
Being in contact with both of the parents may help the kid’s fears of separation diminish.
Make sure that s/he fully trusts your love and that you will meet his/her needs.
Show him/her that you understand her/his yearning/longing for the other parent. Show him/her when to meet or call the other parent again by using the calendar.
Hug him/her with love to make the separation easier and tell her/him that you will always be there and love him/her.
Set predictable, reliable boundaries and prescribe coordinated programs.
Ensure that s/he goes to bed at the exact hour in both homes.
Reading him/her the same bed-time story and letting him/her sleep with the most beloved blanket and toy of his/hers could be useful [11].
Fear of being abandoned.
Feeling guilty, angry, nervous, scared, sad and confused.
Being anxious/concerned about whether or not they are safe or loved.
Blaming themselves for the divorce.
Believing that their hostile thoughts or bad tempers caused their parents to split up.
Dreaming about the reunion of their parents.
Making futile efforts in order to unite their parents.
Extreme obedience.
Thinking like “I’m not good enough’’ or “I’m an evil person’’.
Having difficulty in making visits between homes.
Returning to behaviours, such as wetting the bed, thumbsucking, etc.
Anxi4ety may lead them towards masturbation, whereas some others may develop tantrums or experience sleep disorders.
Since the concept of continuity in little kids has not yet been developed, they may repeatedly ask when their mother or father will come back home although you have told them you will not be living together anymore [11].
The preschoolers may be seen as those who are most intensely influenced by a divorce. The kids of these ages consider themselves as the focus of attention in life and thus, within their family circle. This notion prompts them to the feeling of guilt, with the presumption that
Talk to your child about your divorce issue and let them ask questions about it.
If the kid repeatedly asks whether or not her/his mother/father is coming back, just answer him/her calmly and tell him/her that you have already got divorced and her/his mother/father is now living in a new place.
Tell him/her when s/he could see the other parent.
Kids express their emotions indirectly. They need help in order to express their emotions properly. (Parents may help their kids by reading them decent stories about other kids whose parents got divorced.)
When you see your child sad or worried, ask her/him to draw or paint pictures regarding their emotions and thoughts on what has been happening. Hand them baby dolls and puppets to help them cope with their emotions. (Watch them while they are playing games and listen to their speech. In this way, you can get clues as to how they adapt to the case of divorce).
Teach your children new words about emotions. (Use your daily experiences as the chance to define the emotions).
The little kids need explanations as to the fact that it is not they who have caused a crisis within the family and that it is not their task to solve it.
Show them you love them with a physical closeness and ensure them that you will undertake any care they need any time.
If they are still dreaming about the reunion of the family, tell them that their wish is natural and ok but impossible to come true again.
In order to prepare your child for the change between homes, play games with them related to these visits to both homes. (By placing chairs in two separate rooms, tell your child that one of the rooms belongs to her/his mother and the other to her/his father. While you are performing imaginary visits with your child between the rooms, tell her/him what to do and what to bring with her/him during these visits. Make it a fun game to play in order to make the real visits become sort of fun for the child) [11].
In this age and during the time until preschool period, if the child has been left under the negative impact of the main divorce in particular, the negative behaviours to be observed in the child are fear, stubbornness, sleep disorders, poor feeding, bed wetting, stuttering, etc. [3].
Kids feel themselves split in two.
They may blame themselves for the divorce.
They assume they will be deprived of food and toys or will be neglected by their parents.
They usually feel abandoned/deserted.
They may have feelings of rejection, loss, and the contradiction as to whom they should be loyal to, along with the feelings of guilt.
They have the anxiety that they have lost the separated parent eternally, and they get scared of the idea of another person taking their place.
They often cry and show bad tempers.
They feel emptiness and have difficulty in concentrating at school.
They may regard the divorce as a battle requiring them to take sides.
They long for the parent living away from home and try to unite them again, and they even write notes full of love, pretending to be the other parent sending the note to his/her spouse.
They do not state that they are stressful /tense. The problems caused by divorce result from several nervous attitudes, such as nose-picking, hair-twisting, making face/frowning, stuttering, nail-biting and chewing pencils, etc. They may withdraw cry, get furious and aggressive or become extremely placid/ meek.
If the cause of divorce is not explained to them, they will find a way in their own way to get it explained. Since they are still unable to comprehend that there are two sides to both of the stories, they may totally put the blame on a single parent. If, for instance, one of the parents start seeing somebody else right after the divorce, then s/he may be the one to be blamed for [11].
No matter how understanding they may seem towards the reasons for the divorce explained to them, the kids at this age, in fact, subside into the intense feeling of loss for the matter involved. Nevertheless, the kids at this age, contrary to the little ones, do not take the blame on themselves but put it on their parents. They feel rage against their elders, get disappointed and consider themselves rejected. From time to time, with the notion that they have to take sides, either that of the father or the mother, they may exhibit behaviours like bearing a grudge against the other parent. Almost all of them have trouble at school after the divorce, and their success at school declines, as well [12].
Since their skills to think logically has not yet been improved, it may be useless to try to make cool and reasonable explanations to them.
They need help in defining their emotions and expressing them verbally. (Look through the magazines with your child. Mark the sad, angry, scared or happy faces and comment on what that person might be feeling at that time).
The children at this age would like to make their parents pleased. (Since they may be wishing to be loyal to both sides, it is of utmost importance not to talk negatively against the other parent).
Early school age kids need the assurance/guarantee that they be taken care of and their needs be met. (Make them sure that they are safe and that you have plans to protect her/him against any vice.).
If you need to cut down on expenses due to financial problems, explain to your kid that they will always have a secure place to eat and live in.
The kids at this age are in need of physical closeness/affinity. (Hug/hold them when their peers are not around) [11].
It is best to explain to the kids at this age the reasons for the divorce without any lies in it. They should be treated like an adult rather than like a child. Separately, since many children tend to hide this family issue from their friends and teachers, their teachers must definitely be informed about the issue, at least, in order to avoid the problems that may occur at school [12].
The processes of divorce and remarriage is particularly difficult for the children at these ages.
They begin to understand the family/parental relationships and are more sensitive to conflicts.
Divorce causes anger and shame in many children, and the changes to take place makes them really anxious. (Anxiety is reflected through their behaviours, such as bad tempers or challenges they encounter in their lessons).
They may fight with their peers or just keep away from them.
They may start having nightmares.
They may get offended or nervous without knowing the underlying cause. (They may feel a sense of anger, pain, anxiety and weakness).
Emotions like the feeling of loneliness, loss and deprivation may lead to depression or other emotional problems.
Since the children at this age distinguish everything as black or white, they are quite sensitive to the pressures put by their parents with respect to taking sides in the matter.
They become worried/anxious about their parents. (They may try to substitute the parent who left and behave as if they were mature enough to handle things).
They understand the psychological states /moods of their parents more easily and wonder whether they will be able to take care of their children or not [11].
For all that, a child is influenced by the divorce during the school age at most. S/he has begun to understand the discrepancy between her/his mother and father and to take sides between them already. The divorce results in losing her/his trust/confidence in her/his father or mother, or both [3].
During this period, it may be rather painful and shocking for a child to see their parents divorce.
They may show reluctance in getting involved in emotional relationships. Besides, with the feeling of having been deserted, they may get away from home often and spend more time with their peers.
They experience sense of loss and anger/rage.
They may be scared of getting hurt, or assume that their own marriage, one day, will also fail and they may be afraid of repeating the same mistakes their parents made.
The financial matters and the psychological states of their parents worry them a great deal.
They may have difficulty concentrating on their lessons at school.
They may complain about physical health problems or experience chronic fatigue.
They may easily sink into a depression because of the fact that family is now no more a safe harbour to rely on.
Inappropriate/unbalanced behaviours can be observed in the children who have difficulty in understanding the divorce or accepting this fact. (Fleeing from school, making friends with children exhibiting improper actions, using alcohol, committing suicide, etc…) [11].
The adolescents who are affected by the divorce at most are those who cannot find a peaceful home in their new lives. If there was an uncomfortable environment prior to the divorce which may have psychologically shocked the adolescent, then the impact of divorce may increase more and more. The adolescent may consider himself/herself as the cause of divorce. S/he creates the psychological problem with which s/he assumes that his/her parents quarreled because of his/her actions and, therefore, it is s/he who has caused this separation [13].
The children in this period require proper ways to reveal their emotions and also need encouragement from their parents.
It is important to arrange family gatherings and have one-to-one conversations with both of the parents.
Writing poetry, painting, keeping a diary, writing and sending letters to the parents may help them express their urge to throw things away or hide them.
You should be honest to your child about your divorce without giving too much detail. Never ask them to take sides.
You must never rely on them for a psychological support.
Encourage them to spend time with their peers. You can also support their friends’s visits to both homes.
While the calendar is being marked for mutual visits or some sorts of changes are being made, the opinions of the children of this period should also be taken into account, however, the final decision should be made by the parents.
It is indeed a difficult situation for the children aged 11 and above to observe their parents get interested in the opposite sex and to see them get engaged in an emotional relationship, because they have already started to be aware of their own sexuality. Thus, before showing any physical affinity/ intimacy towards the person you are interested in right in front of your child, spare some time for them to get to know that person and get used to him/her.
You should continue setting clear, reasonable and steady boundaries without letting him/her take shelter in the other parent’s home by running away from house chores and responsibilities [11].
This is the age group in which divorce is mistakenly thought to have the least impact on children. Whereas, at this age, the child who already carries the burden of puberty/adolescence with him/her becomes faced with an additional stress factor with the divorce of his/her parents. Their initial reactions are generally centered on starting to behave more distant towards their parents, spending most of their time with their friends rather than their parents and feeling, in their environment, ashamed of this incident experienced within the family [12].
Female children usually give more sensitive reactions compared to male ones. The increasing interest towards the opposite sex due to the loss of confidence experienced against their parents and having a sexual experience at an early age as the result of confiding in a protective male companion are the possible consequences to occur in this respect. Male children, on the other hand, show more aggressive reactions [12]. The negative behaviours exhibited by the children at this age are failure at school, telling lies, stealing, sexual perversion, etc.. Moreover, starting from this period, the child begins to encounter various problems that cannot be resolved only by his/her parent and him/herself, against which s/he may be carried away with the sense of insufficiency [3]. The most important outcome to be expected and be careful about is their ending up in a youth detention center due to their tendency to commit crimes at an early age. Further problems in both of the genders, such as becoming drug addicts and giving harm to themselves should also be taken into account [12].
As is seen, it is almost impossible to find out in families with children the ideal age of the child during the period of divorce. The separation of parents will bring with it the problems considered to be rather intense for any child at any age group, since the dream about a “holy and healthy family’’ remains the same for any child, from infancy to adolescence [12].
Those who left home, and those who even have kids have difficulty in understanding the divorce of their own parents. They keep asking, “why now?’’.
Since divorce has undermined their feeling of confidence, they may avoid making long-term promises.
Considering that life has no guarantee, and since they are scared of being betrayed or deserted, they turn to interdependent relationships and choose the people who will need them most so that they can never be abandoned.
Those living away from home may feel anxious and angry as to which parent they are going to spend their vacation with.
The married ones may question the stability of their own marriage due to their parents’ current situation.
You should tell them that both parents contribute to the problems within the marriage, that it is hard after all to continue like that and people can change in time.
Still, it will be your responsibility to give them some hope to be able to establish positive relationships and to sustain their own marriage and explain to them how important it is to have communication and agreement and to solve problems in marriage.
It is necessary that you not complain about the other parent and not force the grown-up child to take sides in this matter by blaming the other one.
If the other parent is not communicating with your child and not visiting him/her regularly, do not force him/her to establish a relationship with the child, because it is important that s/he develop their relationships without your influence.
You should tell your child that you will maintain your relationships with her/him and your grandsons/granddaughters, and that you will continue their school activities and other activities, as well. You should also talk to them about how you will spend the vacations together [11].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t|||||||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t | Pain and hopelessness | \n\t\t\tComforting one’s self | \n\t\t\tDependency | \n\t\t\tFear of Loss | \n\t\t\tAnger/Rage | \n\t\t\tRestlessness | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSorrowful, crying, mourning, apathy | \n\t\t\tThumbsucking, Caressing and holding the toys | \n\t\t\tClinging | \n\t\t\tConcern /worry about separation | \n\t\t\tSimilar anger | \n\t\t\tAgitation | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCrying (yet, decreased), sadness, withdrawal | \n\t\t\tMasturbation | \n\t\t\tClinging, desire to be taken care of. | \n\t\t\tConcern /worry about separation | \n\t\t\tRevealing/ expressing anger and rage in games | \n\t\t\tAgitation | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tCrying, sadness | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | Clinging, whining, childish speech, independence | \n\t\t\tSchool fobia | \n\t\t\tDisobedience, fleeing from school, committing crimes | \n\t\t\tRestlessness, decline in school success | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tTearful state, sadness, fatigue | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | School fobia | \n\t\t\tRebellion, sexual acts, belligerence, rudeness, drug abuse, use of alcohol, escape from home | \n\t\t\tRestlessness, decline in school success | \n\t\t
The Reactions Shown by Children Against the Loss of the Beloved Parent After Divorce
Parents should try to learn how to approach their children. Even though they decide to get a support from a mental health specialist, the child who particularly fails to accept the separation of his/her mother and father or rejects it may, of course, refuse to get such a support. In order to enable their child to adapt him/herself to the divorce process, parents should be able to do the following:
To make their child understand what it means for a family to live under the conditions unique to themselves and what divorce means in that sense, which should be done together and without ever blaming each other.
To tell them that it is not their fault when parents get divorced in accordance with their age, and to explain with tangible/concrete expressions in what way it will affect them.
To encourage the children in maintaining a happy and warm relationship with the other parent and to do his/her best in this respect.
To make their children believe that they will always be loved and taken care of in the best way and to do the best in this respect.
To maintain the relationship with the ex-spouse as smoothly as possible. To co-operate with each other in the issues involving the child. If this is not possible, it is better not to reflect any problems to the child.
To encourage the children in asking for assistance and guidance from other people in their lives or from the specialists [7].
Motivate your children in expressing their emotions. Avoid your impulse to tell him/her how to feel. Your child may withdraw and once s/he does that, the possibility of sharing the emotions diminishes.
Avoid attempting to get engaged in any legal battles as to how your child shall stay with which parent. Such court issues may cause the child to consider the future from an insecure perspective. Do not separate the sisters/brothers from each other unless one of the children in his/her puberty period clearly states that he wants to live away from her/his sister/brother [14].
Children may require a professional health team in order to minimize their negative emotions and misunderstandings and to get help in trying to cope with the problems experienced in the wake of the divorce. The psychiatric nurses within this team have a major position due to the fact that they can directly reach children and know the dynamics within the family and are aware of the way the child is influenced [15].
The main purpose of the nurses working in this field is to determine the high-risk groups within the society and improve their ability to cope with problems and aid them to manage the state of crisis they encounter. In this context, they deal with the problems experienced by the children of the divorced parents by using the nursing process [15].
The first stage of this approach is the one known for the term “determining the situation’’-the stage where the data that could form the basis to the care of the individual are collected. The second stage comprises the analysis of the collected data and the determination of the nursing diagnosis through the interpretation of the data, while the third stage consists of the plan of attempts/interventions prepared for the problems of the patient and based on the knowledge and ability of the nurse to make a decision. The fourth stage, on the other hand, is the stage at which this plan is put into effect. The final stage is the one at which there are reviews as to whether the attempts have resolved the individual’s problems or not and an evaluation is performed with respect to it [15].
The problems experienced by the children of the divorced families were formulated by using the nursing diagnoses determined by NANDA (North America Nursing Diagnosis Association), and the nursing attempts in accordance with these diagnoses have been explained [15].
The problems experienced by the children of the divorced parents can be dealt with the following nursing diagnoses:
Situational Low Self-Esteem
Change in interparental processes
Insufficiency in individual coping
Failure in Communication [15].
Self-esteem is one of the four elements of the self-concept and is the sum of an individual’s skills, the value attributed to himself/herself and to others by him/her, the skill to be able to overcome hardships, and the feelings and thoughts s/he has in regard to respect for others. The development of a healthy self-esteem in children is dependent on their closeness/ affinity to the most significant figures in their lives, who are their parents. The children of divorced families have witnessed the separation of the two most important people in their lives and have been emotionally affected by it through experiencing the feeling to lose them. For this reason, such can be the case in a child who once had a positive self-esteem but experienced negative emotions as the result of their parents’ divorce [16]. The objectives and the general nursing attempts to be performed for the diagnosis dealt with as the situational low self-esteem are as follows:
The ability of the child to express the emotions s/he has felt regarding the divorce.
The ability of the child to sort/sequence the changes that the divorce brought into his/her life.
The ability of the child to express his positive and negative thoughts and the social areas s/he succeeds in [16].
The child is allowed to express his/her emotions about divorce through medium of emotion cards, pictures or puppet games.
The changes that the divorce may bring into the child’s life are explained through illustrative materials and the changes in the life of the child are discussed.
The child is allowed to define himself/herself through various games s/he could be fond of according to the age group and to become aware of her/his positive traits via such activities; therefore, the advantages of sparing time for the activities s/he is talented in or does with delight, such as sports, music, etc., are discussed [16].
Divorce causes a number of changes within the present family structure and functioning and also brings about the separation of the family members, leading to the formation of a single-parent family. The changes taking place in the life of the child along with his/her parents’ divorce (Moving to another house, a new school, living in two different homes, spending less time with the parent, etc.) are the situations that are difficult to accept. All these transformations also cause a change in the interparental processes [17]. The objectives and the general nursing attempts to be performed for this diagnosis are as follows:
The ability of the child to express and become aware of the changes/transformations s/he has experienced in the wake of divorce.
The ability of the child to reveal his/her emotions regarding the changes experienced.
The ability of the child to comprehend that there are different types of families.
The ability of the child to describe her/his emotions about the family members s/he is living with and those s/he is away from.
The ability of the child to arrange the frequency of the meetings with her/his parent living away [17].
The experiences of the child are discussed by making use of the books which describe the changes that the kids of the divorced families undergo. As the result of these changes, the emotions experienced by the child are discussed through the group process.
By using the pictures illustrating different family types, the structure of a single-parent family is focused on, and the child is aided to reveal his/her feelings about this.
By co-operating with the parents after divorce, the responsibilities undertaken by both parents in regard to the child’s routine activities (Going to school, seeing the parent who lives apart from him/her,etc.) are reviewed, and the child is assisted to balance the frequency and period of the meeting with the separated parent.
The child is encouraged to talk about his/her feelings and thoughts related to the parent living away from him/her [17].
With the divorce, the children experience the feeling of losing both their mother and father.
The fact that one of the parents leave home during this period and the changes in the new school environment, new friends and the house order make it difficult for the child to adapt himself/herself to these changes and they negatively affect their skill to cope with such issues [16]. In such a period of time, the objectives and the general nursing attempts to be performed for supporting the child in coping with the problems can be as follows:
Allowing the child to become aware of the methods s/he uses in coping with the divorce and to express them.
Allowing the child to define the concept of problem solving and to sequence/sort the problem solving steps.
The ability of the child to comprehend the realtionships between problems, resolutions and emotions.
Allowing the child to become aware of the problems s/he can solve in his/her life and those s/he cannot.
Allowing the child to comprehend the ways of coping with problems that s/he is unable to solve [16].
The problems experienced by the child with respect to the divorce are reviewed, and the ways to cope with them while solving them are discussed.
The best and the most proper method to cope with issues are stated to be problem solving ones, and by using the illustrated materials, the problem solving steps and their relationship with the emotions are discussed.
How various issues encountered in his/her daily life can be resolved through the problem solving steps is discussed.
Several cards on which the problems to be experienced by the children of the divorced parents are written are prepared, and the child is made to exercise the problem solving skills through games [16].
The child is helped to understand that there may be problems in his/her life that s/he can solve as well as those s/he will be unable to solve. (Re-union/re-marriage of the parents, providing reconciliation between them, etc.).
It is explained through the examples of real life events that people may get offended or enraged against the problems they are unable to solve; however, anger or rage can, of course, be expressed in a constructive way, as well [16].
Divorce and the changes it brings along affect the social relationships in a negative way as well as the the child’s interaction within the family circle [16]. The objectives and the general nursing attempts to be performed for this diagnosis are as follows:
The ability of the child to share his/her feelings about the divorce with his parents.
Allowing the child to comprehend the importance of the regularity and permanency of the days when s/he is together with her/his parent living apart and the one living with her/him.
Allowing the child to take part in the events that may improve his/her social relationships [16].
Following the divorce, the importance of sharing feelings with parents is discussed, and the child is encouraged about the importance of sharing his/her emotions with his/her parents in that matter.
Discussing with the child about the necessity and importance of establishing positive relationships with the parent living apart and the one living with him/her together. In this case, both parents are worked with in coordination, and the necessity of the quality time they spend together with their children and its positive effects on children are explained.
The child is encouraged/motivated to participate in the activities s/he is interested in, both within and outside the school [16].
As a result, the nurses help the children of the divorced families cope with the crisis they experience in their lifetime by dealing with the problems the children undergo through the nursing process; thus, they can also assist the future generations to grow up as healthier and more conformable individuals that have acquired skills in coping with the problems of life [15].
Protein is not only significant as an energy source, but also as a component of the body, such as muscle and connective tissue, and as a physiological function substance, such as enzymes, hormones, and immune antibodies.
On the other hand, the problem of food shortage (in particular, protein) due to global population growth is becoming increasingly serious. Because of the economic development of emerging countries, people who used to consume energy from “carbohydrates” such as bread and rice are now tending to consume “proteins” such as meat and seafood as a luxury item, and there are concerns about a shortage of protein supply on a global scale. Under these circumstances, the effective use of plant proteins as a protein source has been attracting attention. Plant proteins have been considered to be less adaptable to human tastes in terms of flavor and physical properties than animal proteins, but recent superior food processing technologies have led to the marketing of “delicious” plant protein foods that are at the same level as animal protein foods.
It has been reported that plant proteins, especially soy proteins, have beneficial functions to improve and prevent lifestyle-related diseases that cannot be overcome by animal proteins, which are currently prevalent all over the world. The US Food and Drug Administration [FDA] has approved the health claim for food labelling that the consumption of 25 g of soy protein per day reduces the risk of heart disease [1]. In Japan, the Consumer Affairs Agency [formerly the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare] has allowed the health labelling of soy protein as a food for specified health use “to people who are concerned about cholesterol levels” [FOSHU].
The beneficial physiological effects of soy protein are presumed to be due to anti-inflammatory properties. The anti-inflammatory effect of soy protein is enhanced by its processing into peptides. Indeed, it has been reported that soy peptides suppress muscle inflammation pain relief in rheumatoid arthritis and ameliorate inflammatory bowel disease.
Recently, it is being reported that not only soy proteins, but also some legume-derived proteins have excellent physiological effects that are similar to, or even absent from, soy proteins. In this chapter, the author 1] introduces the beneficial physiological effects of soy protein for MetS, CKD and inflammation; 2] reports that these effects acted complementarily when used in combination with drugs; and 3] suggests other legume-derived proteins as alternatives to soy protein as novel proteins from legumes with beneficial physiological functions.
By understanding these findings, it is hoped that plant proteins will be used more actively to contribute to the improvement of human health, as well as their value as protein nutrition, which is in short supply worldwide.
The concept of MetS has been proposed by several committees. The first formalized concept of MetS was proposed by a consultation group for the definition of diabetes for the World Health Organization (WHO); it was determined to have a high-risk status with multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease. This group emphasized insulin resistance as the major underlying factor [2]. In 2001, a definition for MetS was devised by the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Adult Treatment Panel III (ATP III) [3]. The American Heart Association and the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute updated this definition in 2005 [4]. This updated definition is one of the most widely used criteria for MetS. The International Diabetes Foundation (IDF) published new criteria for MetS [5] in 2005. Although it includes the same general criteria as the other definitions, it requires that obesity, but not necessarily insulin resistance, be present. Although visceral obesity is now recognized as an important factor, the IDF definition has been criticized for its emphasis on obesity, rather than insulin resistance, in pathophysiology [6].
In Japan, in 2006, MetS was defined as a multiple risk factor clustering syndrome caused by visceral fat accumulation and insulin resistance that accompanies this accumulation [7]. In the MetS stage, it is advocated that lifestyle intervention to reduce visceral adiposity should be given priority over drug treatment. Subjects with multiple risk factor syndrome were diagnosed with MetS if their visceral fat areas determined by CT scan were over 100 cm2.
The Japanese Committee for the Definition and Diagnosis of MetS aimed to select subjects with multiple risk factors in which lifestyle modification to reduce visceral adiposity has priority over drug treatment [8]. For this purpose, the Japanese government started a new health policy that provides a specific health check-up followed by specific counseling for subjects diagnosed with MetS according to the Japanese criteria from 2008.
Soy protein exerts not only conventional nutritional value but also beneficial effects on human health. Many randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have assessed the effects of soy products on serum lipids. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have reported improvements in lipid metabolism (Table 1) [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
Title | Number of articles | Number of total subjects | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids. | 38 | 743 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓ | [9] |
Meta-analysis of the effects of soy protein containing isoflavones on the lipid profiles. | 23 | 1,381 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓, HDL-C↑ | [10] |
A meta-analysis of the effect of soy protein supplementation on serum lipids. | 41 | 1,756 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓, HDL-C↑ | [11] |
Hypocholesterolaemic effects of soya proteins: result of recent studies are predictable from Anderson meta-analysis data. | 27 | 923 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓ | [12] |
Soy protein effects on serum lipoproteins: a quality assessment and meta-analysis of randomized, controlled studies. | 43 | 1,946 | LDL-C↓, TG↓, HDL-C↑ | [13] |
Effect of Plant Protein on Blood Lipids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. | 112 (non-soy; 18) | 5,774 (non-soy; 599) | LDL-C↓, Non-HDL-C↓, Apo-B↓ | [14] |
A Meta-Analysis of 46 Studies Identified by the FDA Demonstrates that Soy Protein Decreases Circulating LDL and Total Cholesterol Concentrations in Adults. | 43 | 2,607 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓ | [15] |
The effects of isolated soy protein, isolated soy isoflavones and soy protein containing isoflavones on serum lipids in postmenopausal women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. | 46 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓, HDL-C↓, hypercholesterolemic subjects’ Apo-A1↓ | [16] |
Meta-analysis on improving lipid metabolism in soy protein.
Note: ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of active compounds. Total-cholesterol (Total-C); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); triglyceride (TG); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C); non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C); apo-lipoprotein-B (Apo-B); apo-lipoprotein-AI (Apo-AI).
Soy protein isolate [SPI] is composed of three major components, glycinin [approx. 40%], β-conglycinin [approx. 20%], and lipophilic proteins (approx. 40%) [17]. Glycinin and β-conglycinin are storage proteins in soy, and lipophilic proteins consist primarily of membrane proteins. Among these components, β-conglycinin has the function of lowering serum triglycerides preferentially over serum cholesterol [18]. Digestive decomposition products of β-conglycinin were reported that lowering the activity of fatty acid synthase and increasing the activities of β-oxidation enzymes, and the fecal excretion of TG was high in β-conglycinin-fed mice and rats [19, 20]. Therefore, in the calculation based on the recommendation by the FDA, the same effect can be expected with 5 g of β-conglycinin. In clinical study, daily consumption of 5 g of β-conglycinin per subject significantly lowered serum TG concentrations, and the apo B and VLDL-TG concentrations were significantly decreased [21]. Hence, β-conglycinin consumption may specifically affect TG metabolism. In addition, the intake of 5 g of β-conglycinin per day decreased the body fat ratio and visceral fat [21, 22]. Additionally, serum adiponectin significantly increased with the consumption of β-conglycinin, and serum free fatty acids in the β-conglycinin group were significantly decreased. Tachibana et al. showed that β-conglycinin improves insulin sensitivity in rats [23]. β-conglycinin might be an important food component for the prevention and/or amelioration of visceral fat syndrome, which is also called MetS (Table 2) [21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27].
Study title | Design of study | Number of subjects | Duration of study | Dose of β-conglycinin | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Decrease in serum triacylglycerol and visceral fat mediated by dietary soybean β-conglycinin*1. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | Test1;138 Test2:102 | Test1:12-wk Test2:20-wk*1 | 4.4 g/day | Test1; TG↓, Apo-B↓, VLDL-TG↓ Test2; Visceral fat↓ | [21] |
Effects of soybean beta-conglycinin on body fat ratio and serum lipid levels in healthy volunteers of female university students. | Randomized, single-blinded crossover design | 41 | 8-wk | 4.4 g/day | Body fat ratio↓ | [22] |
Serum triacylglycerol-lowering effect of soybean β-conglycinin in mildly hypertriacylglycerolemic individuals. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 68 | 12-wk | 2.3 g/day | TG↓, HDL-C↑, Apo C-II↓ | [24] |
Serum lipid-improving effect of soyabean β-conglycinin in hyperlipidaemic menopausal women. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 100 | 12-wk | 2.3 g/4.6 g | TG↓, LDL-C↓, Apo-B↓, NEFA↓ | [25] |
Improvement of Triglyceride Levels through the Intake of Enriched-β-Conglycinin Soybean (Nanahomare). | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 134 | 12-wk | 38.8 g/week | TG↓ | [26] |
Effects of beta-conglycinin intake on circulating FGF21 levels and brown adipose tissue activity in Japanese young men. | Single-blinded randomized crossover trial | 21 | 2-wk | 9.2 g/day | FGF21↓, BAT act↑ | [27] |
Clinical studies for lipid metabolism improvements of β-conglycinin.
Note: *1; Test 1 is an examination of the serum triglyceride level and Test 2 is a measure of visceral fat by means of CT scanning. ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of β-conglycinin. Triglyceride (TG); apo-lipoprotein-B (Apo-B); very low-density lipoprotein triglyceride (VLDL-TG); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C); apo-lipoprotein-CII (Apo-CII); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA); fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21); brown adipo tissue activity (BAT act).
Chronic kidney disease [CKD] is a major public health burden, with a global prevalence of ~11% in the general adult population [28]. If left untreated, CKD slowly progresses to end-stage renal disease, which requires dialysis or kidney transplant. Worldwide, a 31.7% increase in CKD mortality was observed over the last decade [29]. Effective interventions to prevent and delay the progression of CKD are well recognized. Prevention should start at the government level with the institution of multisectoral polices supporting sustainable development goals [SDGs] and ensuring safe and healthy environments.
CKD is bidirectionally associated with MetS and cardiovascular diseases [CVDs] [30, 31], and diabetic nephropathy [DN] is a complication of diabetes [32]. Moreover, it has been reported that 40% of patients undergoing dialysis are doing so because of DN [33], and approximately 50% of type II diabetes patients exhibit urinary albumin disease, which is an early stage of DN [34].
For CKD prevention, it is important to gain insight about commonly consumed foods and beverages in relation to kidney function. A report has been published in which PubMed was comprehensively searched for papers published until August 2019 describing prospective cohort studies and was supplemented by manual searches of reference lists from appropriate studies [35]. In this report, there was convincing evidence that a healthy dietary pattern may lower CKD risk. Red (processed) meat, poultry, fish, dairy, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and fruits were recommended foods for CKD patients. Dietary patterns were recommended adherence to the Dietary Approach to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, Mediterranean diet, and other healthy dietary patterns. As unhealthy diets, high-fat and high-sugar diets and high-acid-loaded diets were pointed out. In the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities [ARIC] study of ~12,000 US participants with 23 years of follow-up, consumption of legumes was significantly associated with lower risks of CKD, with an HR of 0.83 [95% CI, 0.72; 0.95] for high versus low intakes [36]. Soy protein, which is representative of legumes, has been reported to suppress the progression of DN [37, 38]. The effects of soy protein on DN/CKD in clinical trials are summarized in Table 3 [39, 40, 41, 42, 43].
Study title | Design of study | Number of subjects | Duration of study | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Soy protein intake, cardiorenal indices, and c-reactive protein in type 2 diabetes with nephropathy. | Longitudinal randomized clinical trial study | 41 | 4-y | FPG↓, Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, TG↓, CRP↓, Proteinuria↓, Urinary creatinine↓ | [39] |
The effects of soy protein on chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. | Meta-analysis [9 studies] | Total 197 | 6-wk~4-y | Serum creatinine↓, Phosphorus↓, TG↓ | [40] |
Soy-based renoprotection. | Single arm intervention (3 studies) Placebo-controlled chronic intervention [22 studies] | Total 634 | 4-wk~6-mo | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, Urinary creatinine↓, [Urinary albumin↓] | [41] |
Effects of soy protein containing isoflavones in patients with chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. | Meta-analysis [12 studies] | Total 280 | Serum creatine↓, Phosphorus↓, CRP↓, Proteinuria↓, BUN↓ [in predialysis subgroup] | [42] | |
Soy Protein and Chronic Kidney Disease: An Updated Review. | RCT (3 studies), DBRCT, CRCT, LRCT Total 6 studies | Total 335 | 1~24-wk | Urinary urea nitrogen↓, Proteinuria↓, Blood sodium↓, Serum Creatinine↓ | [43] |
Summary of clinical studies by soy protein for CKD.
Note: ↓ sign represents decrease, after supplement of soy protein. Fasting plasma glucose [FPG]; total-cholesterol (Total-C); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); C-reactive protein [CRP], blood urea nitrogen (BUN).
Kidney disease patients are carefully monitored for protein intake, and restricted protein intake according to the progression of their condition by doctors and nutritionists. However, there are some reports showing that mild protein restriction does not suppress the progression of kidney disease [44, 45, 46]. Therefore, it is necessary to consider not only the quantity but also the quality of protein. Legumes, including soy protein, can be regarded as very significant proteins to help treat nephropathy.
Inflammation can occur when infectious microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi invade the body and circulate in the blood, and/or when they enter certain tissues [47, 48]. Inflammation can also occur during the course of pathologies such as tissue damage, cell death, cancer, ischemia, and degeneration [49, 50, 51].
There are reports of the anti-inflammatory effects of soy protein and its hydrolysate peptides [52]. Among them, lunasin is considered one of the most studied bioactive peptides. Since its discovery in soybean twenty years ago, many researchers around the world have focused their studies on demonstrating the chemo preventive and chemotherapeutic activity of lunasin [53, 54, 55]. Lunasin is a 44 amino acid peptide isolated from soy that has three domains implicated in anticancer activity: an RGD motif [Arg-Gly-Asp], a helical domain with a sequence conserved in chromatin binding proteins [Glu-Lys-His-Ile-Met-Glu-Lys-Ile], and a poly-aspartic acid tail [56]. Lunacin has been reported to have unique antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer properties, and to play an important role in the regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis in the body [57]. Lunacin has potential as a dietary supplement by its high bioavailability and thermal stability.
Trypsin digests of soy proteins revealed that the sequence MITLAIPVNKPGR was able to stimulate phagocytosis in leukocytes. This peptide derived from β-conglycinin was named “Soymetide”. The Met at its N-terminus was essential for its activity [58]. Four residues of the C-terminal residues of Soymetide-13 could be removed to form Soymetide-9 [MITLAIPVN], which had the highest activity. In these 9 residues [Soymetide-9], Soymetide-4 [MITL] is the minimal sequence required for its activity [58].
Soy protein with or without isoflavones was shown to reduce oxidative stress and have anti-inflammatory properties by inhibiting nuclear factor-kappa B [NF-κB] and blocking the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in model rats and mouse. In clinical study by subjects with end-stage renal disease and healthy women over 70 years of age, their oxidative stress and inflammatory symptom were reduced [59]. The bioactive peptides RQRK and VIK were produced by digestion with pepsin and pancreatin from soy milk. These peptides inhibited lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in murine macrophages and the production of nitric oxide, interleukin [I])-1, nitric oxide synthase, and cyclooxygenase-2 [60].
Inflammatory bowel disease [IBD] is an intractable disease that causes inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract. Ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease are the two major pathologies of IBD [61]. Ulcerative colitis is a non-specific inflammatory disorder that causes ulcers and erosion, primarily in the colonic mucosa. Young et al. revealed that soy peptides were effective in preventing dextran sulphate sodium[(DSS)-induced colitis in pigs [62]. The soy-derived tripeptide Val-Pro-Tyr [VPY] has been reported that anti-inflammatory effects in Caco-2 and THP-1 macrophages and inhibition of the secretion of IL-8 and TNF-α in a DSS-induced colitis model mouse [63]. They suggested that tripeptide VPY from soy peptides may be promising for the treatment of IBD.
Insulin resistance and diabetes has revealed to relate closely between nutrient excess and activation of the innate immune system in most organs pertinent to energy homeostasis by the research for a mechanism linking the pathogenesis of obesity over the past two decades [64, 65, 66]. Inflammation has been revealed to occur as a consequence of obesity, and to play a causative role in generating insulin resistance, defective insulin secretion [i.e., MetS), and disruption of other aspects of energy homeostasis by recent many studies. It has been reported that the suppressive effect of soy protein on the progression of CKD/DN, which is highly related to MetS, is also exerted by the anti-inflammatory effect in renal tubules [67]. From such a close relationship between MetS and inflammation, it is easy to predict that the beneficial effect of soy protein on MetS may be due to its anti-inflammatory effect.
The mechanism by which soy protein lowers cholesterol differs from that of statins and fibrates. Soy protein lowers serum cholesterol levels by acting as a bile acid sequestrant, which binds bile in the gastrointestinal tract to prevent its reabsorption by performing the same anion exchange reaction as the resin cholestyramine [68, 69].
Statins and fibrates are drugs developed to improve blood lipid levels. Statins are known as the most efficient agents for reducing plasma cholesterol. Statins target hepatocytes and inhibit 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A [HMG-CoA] reductase in cholesterol metabolism. Accordingly, statin and soy protein are expected to act additively or synergistically to decrease cholesterol levels. There are known serious side effects from statins, including muscle symptoms, rhabdomyolysis [secondary renal failure due to destruction of specific muscle tissue], peripheral neuropathy, myopathy, liver dysfunction, and thrombocytopenia [70, 71, 72, 73]. Rhabdomyolysis often induces sudden kidney failure [74]. Fibrates, which are antagonists of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α [PPARα], are used in adjunct therapy for hypertriglyceridemia and are usually used in combination with statins. As fibrate-related side effects, the slight gastric region discomfort and myopathy [myalgia with increased creatinine phosphokinase] have been reported. In addition, increasing of the gallstones risk has been known by fibrates because of increasing of cholesterol in the bile duct. Use in combination of statins and fibrates is reported to even more raise the risk of rhabdomyolysis. So, combination use of these two agents is contraindicated in principle.
Nabiki et al. examined the effects of SPI on weight loss, markers of diabetes, and parameters of dyslipidaemia in obese diabetic patients by treated with statins and/or fibrates because of high levels of LDL cholesterol and triglycerides [75]. As a result, body weights of these patients decreased significantly by approximately 1 kg and their waist circumferences got thinner significantly by approximately 2 cm. Total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, and glycated hemoglobin levels of these patients decreased significantly, and HDL cholesterol levels increased significantly. In addition, a lipid metabolism-improving effect was also observed in patients who did not decrease weight. Therefore, it was suggested that the improving effect of lipid metabolism-related factors in these patients was not only due to weight loss but also a direct effect of soy protein. Use of soy protein may help to reduce the drug dose for dyslipidaemia. SPI is recommended for patients with mild dyslipidaemia prior to drug therapy or for maladaptive disease patients, such as those who have side effects from medications.
Combination prescription of fibrates and statins for patients with renal dysfunction and dyslipidaemia is contraindicated. Thus, physicians are unable to adequately treat lipid abnormalities for chronic kidney disease patients. It has been reported that when chronic kidney disease patients with dyslipidaemia ingested β-conglycinin, a major component of soy protein, for 3 months, triglyceride and LDL cholesterol levels improved. Renal function during the consumption period of β-conglycinin showed a tendency to improve despite protein intake [76]. β-conglycinin may help improve lipid abnormalities in patients with renal dysfunction as a complementary medical food material without decreasing kidney function. Moreover, β-conglycinin may improve renal dysfunction as a direct and/or secondary effect of ameliorating lipid abnormalities.
Rheumatoid arthritis is due to inflammation triggered by an immune response to autoantigens. Many of these patients have swelling and pain due to polyarticular arthritis. Their pain interferes with activities of daily living [ADLs], such as cleaning, washing, dressing, and undressing. These patients are anxious for more comfortable ADLs with reduced pain. The mechanisms of onset of rheumatoid arthritis have been reported in many studies. Based on these results, numerous new therapeutic agents have been developed.
As a specific case of improved inflammation, outpatients with rheumatoid arthritis consumed soy peptide with therapeutic drugs and the levels of IL-6 and IL-1β were significantly lower in the soy peptide group than the placebo group [77]. An increase in blood IL-6 levels is associated with extra-articular symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis, such as general malaise, loss of appetite, weight loss, and a slight fever. The Disease Activity Score 28 [DAS 28, objective assessment of rheumatoid arthritis disease activity by physicians] and the Clinical Disease Activity Index [CDAI, patient’s own subjective indicator of rheumatoid arthritis disease activity] were calculated from the degree of ADLs’ improvement, the severity of pain, and subjective symptoms recorded by visual analogue scale [VAS]. The DAS 28 score of the peptide group was markedly decreased, and the CDAI of the peptide group was significantly lower than that in the placebo group.
These effects on cytokines were also evident in a cell experiment using articular chondrocytes from patients with rheumatoid arthritis [78]. In this in vitro cell study, treatment with soy peptide significantly suppressed the mRNA levels of MMP-3 and ADAMTS-4 enhanced by IL-1β stimulation. This finding also suggests that soy peptides may prevent the degradation of articular cartilage.
Soy protein has excellent health benefits, but many soybeans grown in the world are genetically modified organisms [GMOs]. There is no problem with the safety of GMO soybeans. However, from the perspective of security, the use of soy protein in foods tends to be withheld. Recently, the use of pea and lupin proteins instead of soy protein has increased worldwide. Initially, pea protein was a substitute for soybean protein as an ingredient with physical characteristics functions, after that, its beneficial health function has been reported mainly in sports nutrition. Mung bean protein has a structure very similar to that of β-conglycinin. Mung bean protein has been reported to be responsible for the beneficial physiological functions reported for β-conglycinin.
Field pea [
Life expectancy continues to increase worldwide. In the United States, adults 65 years of age and older are projected to more than double from 600 million to 1.6 billion worldwide between 2015 and 2050 [84]. Proper body composition, physical fitness, and a healthy appetite have been reported to lead to successful aging with higher performance [85, 86]. Skeletal muscle mass and strength begin to decline at age 30, and the rate of these losses accelerates at age 60 [87]. Protein ingestion strongly increases muscle protein synthesis rates [88]. Amino acids serve as precursors for de novo muscle protein synthesis and can act as strong signaling molecules activating translation initiation via the mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin complex-1 (mTORC1) pathway [89]. It was shown that BCAA ingestion increases myofibrillar protein synthesis rates during recovery from exercise only in young males [90]. Whey protein isolate [WPI] was used as the animal protein source because of its high concentration of BCAAs and its ability to increase satiety in response to a mixed meal [91]. While whey protein supplementation is known to enhance adaptations to resistance training, not all athletes are able or willing to consume whey or animal proteins. Vegetarian athletes who want to stick to a plant-based diet or those with restrictions on other animal foods often rely on other plant proteins as an equivalent alternative to whey protein [92]. Self-identify as vegetarian in just over 5% of U.S. adults aged 18–34 years and self-awareness as vegan in more than half of these respondents are reported in a 2016 Harris Poll conducted by the Vegetarian Resource Group [93]. Meat Free Mondays’ movement and an upsurge of plant-based protein food products in the marketplace strongly reflect the recent acceptance of these lifestyles [94].
Field pea contains a well-balanced amino acid profile [95]. Because of its availability, low cost, nutritional value and health benefits, pea protein has been widely used as a substitute for soybean or animal proteins in various functional applications [96, 97, 98, 99]. Pea protein can also be used as a nutritional supplement for sports and exercises. Pea protein is an excellent source of BCAAs and has high and balanced contents of leucine, isoleucine and valine. Indeed, there are reports that pea protein is as useful as whey protein in sports nutrition (Table 4) [100, 101, 102, 103].
Study title | Design of study | Number of subjects | Duration of study | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pea proteins oral supplementation promotes muscle thickness gains during resistance training: a double-blind, randomized, Placebo-controlled clinical trial vs. Whey protein. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 161 | 12-wk | Biceps brachii muscle thickness↑ | [100] |
The Effects of Whey vs. Pea Protein on Physical Adaptations Following 8-Weeks of High-Intensity Functional Training (HIFT): A Pilot Study. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 15 | 8-wk | Result of the resistance training program↑ | [101] |
Effects of Whey and Pea Protein Supplementation on Post-Eccentric Exercise Muscle Damage: A Randomized Trial. | Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study | 109 | 5-day | Creatinine kinase↓, Myoglobin↓ | [102] |
The Short-Term Effect of Whey Compared with Pea Protein on Appetite, Food Intake, and Energy Expenditure in Young and Older Men. | Randomized, single-blinded crossover design | 30 | One shot [postprandial data] | Appetite↑, Energy expenditure↑, 24-h energy intake↑ | [103] |
Clinical studies of pea protein for sports nutrition.
Note: ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of active compounds [pea protein only or, pea and whey proteins].
In the future, pea protein is expected to be widely used as a sports nutritional supplement as well as a physical and functional ingredient in place of soybean protein.
Lupin (
There has been considerable interest in lupin seeds recently, and as a human health food, the seeds are very high in dietary fiber, gluten-free, and virtually starch-free, and therefore have a very low glycemic impact [107]. What makes lupins even more valuable is that there are no genetically modified (GM) bean varieties under commercial cultivation. World production of lupin seed increased quickly in the 1970s and is dominated by Australian production.
Lupin seeds are high in protein, with levels similar to soybeans. Their grains are also known to be high in total dietary fiber, ~40 g/100 g dry matter, making lupins unique among ancient grains and beans. The main category of protein in lupin grains is globulin, with albumin making up the remainder. The major globulin categories are α-conglutin [35–37 g/100 g total protein], β-conglutin [44–45 g/100 g total protein], γ-conglutin [4–5 g/100 g total protein], and δ-conglutin [10–12 g/100 g total protein] [108, 109, 110, 111]. Nutritionally, the limiting amino acids in lupin protein are the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine [112]. Compared to soy protein, which have a more complete essential amino acid profile, the lupin protein was reported to be slightly below the required level of sulfur-containing amino acids needed by adults [113]. However, Singla et al. reported that the sulfur-containing amino acid levels of lupin protein were similar to those of soy [114]. This discrepancy is probably due to differences in lupin protein varieties and production environments. Carvajal-Larenas et al. reviewed in detail the amino acid composition of whole lupin seeds and concluded that it varies slightly among species. In vitro digestibility is ~98% high for uncooked lupin protein and is similar to soybean [115].
In vitro models of Lupinus albus γ-conglutin have shown the biological activity that enhances insulin and metformin activity on intracellular glucose consumption, indicating the potential for regulation on blood glucose by γ-conglutin [116]. As a possible improvement of lipid metabolism, an increase in LDL receptor activity has been demonstrated by HepG2 cells [117]. Furthermore, isolated lupin proteins of have been reported to have hyperlipidemic, anti-atherogenic, and hypocholesterolemic effects in rabbits, rats, and chickens [118, 119]. Several clinical human studies have shown that lupin protein decreases total and LDL cholesterol, as well as triglyceride and reduce the glycaemic response (Table 5) [120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127].
Title | Design of study | Number of total subjects | Outcome [significant difference] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Lupin protein compared to casein lowers the LDL cholesterol: HDL cholesterol-ratio of hypercholesterolemic adults | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel trial | 43 | Total-C↓, LDL-C↓, LDL: HDL-C ratio↓ | [120] |
Hypocholesterolaemic effects of lupin protein and pea protein/fiber combinations in moderately hypercholesterolaemic individuals | Randomized, double-blind, parallel group design | 175 | Total-C↓ | [121] |
Lupin protein positively affects plasma LDL cholesterol and LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio in hypercholesterolemic adults after four weeks of supplementation: a randomized, controlled crossover study | Randomized, controlled, double-blind crossover study | 33 hypercholesterolemic subjects | LDL-C↓, HDL-C↑, LDL:HDL-C ratio↓ | [122] |
Consuming a mixed diet enriched with lupin protein beneficiallyaffects plasma lipids in hypercholesterolemic subjects: A randomized controlled trial | Randomized, controlled, double-blind three-phase crossover study | 72 hypercholesterolemic subjects | LDL-C↓, Homocysteine↓, TG↓, Uric acid↓ | [123] |
Australian sweet lupin flour addition reduces the glycaemic index of a white bread breakfast without affecting palatability in healthy human volunteer | Randomized, single-blind, cross-over design | 11 healthy subjects | Postprandial blood glucose↓ | [124] |
Lupin and soya reduce glycaemia acutely in type 2 diabetes | Randomized, cross-over trial | 24 diabetic adults | Postprandial blood glucose↓, Insulin response↑ | [125] |
Hypoglycemic effect of lupin seed γ-conglutin in experimental animals and healthy human subjects | Randomized, double-blind, parallel group design | 15 adult healthy volunteers | Postprandial blood glucose↓ | [126] |
Short-Term Effects of Lupin vs. Whey Supplementation on Glucose and Insulin Responses to a Standardized Meal in a Randomized Cross-Over Trial | Randomized, controlled, cross-over trial | 12 healthy male and female volunteers | Postprandial blood glucose↓, Insulin response↑ | [127] |
Clinical studies of lupin protein on improving lipid and glucose metabolisms.
Note: ↓ and ↑ signs represent decrease and increase, respectively, after supplement of active compounds. Total-cholesterol (Total-C); low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C); triglyceride (TG); high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C).
In general, the anti-nutrient factor of lupins is considered to be low compared to other legumes such as soybeans. Specifically, protease inhibitors are present at very low levels and are of minor importance in lupin crops. Trypsin inhibitor activity is described as “negligible” in Lupinus species, “very strong” at 43–84 trypsin inhibitor units [TIU/mg] in soybeans, and high [17–51 TIU/mg] in common beans [128]. Bitter lupin seed varieties contain quinolizine alkaloids, which may be toxic to humans. These toxic effects were recently reviewed by Carvajal-Larenes et al. [115]. Therefore, its maximum legal level of 0.02 g/100 g lupine powder and food has been legislated in several countries. There were no differences in alkaloids in grains among commercial
Lupin protein, a legume, is a plant protein with similar attributes to soybean protein [129] and can be a substitute for soybean in the food industry [130, 131]. Further extensive research is expected due to the need for alternatives to animal proteins.
The mung bean (
Mung bean protein isolate (MuPI) dose-dependently reduced plasma lipid levels, such as total cholesterol, triglycerides, and non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [non-HDL-C] in hamsters [134, 135]. The mechanism underlying the cholesterol-lowering activity of mung bean protein was speculated to increase fecal bile acid and sterol excretion and decrease cholesterol absorption and synthesis. This mechanism is the same as that reported for SPI [68, 69]. In another study, MuPI was found to lower blood triglyceride levels in normal rats by inducing adiponectin and reducing triglyceride synthesis via insulin signaling [136]. This mechanism is the same as that reported for β-conglycinin [23]. From these findings, MuPI can be expected to be more effective in improving lipid metabolism. The main component of MuPI, accounting for over 80% of the protein, is 8S globulin. 8S globulin exhibited the highest degree of sequence identity [68%] and structural similarity with β-conglycinin [137, 138]. MuPI is expected to exhibit a four times stronger beneficial function on human health than SPI, in which β-conglycinin accounts for only 20% of the total protein.
The positive effects of MuPI on glucose metabolism in pre-diabetes patients was confirmed. In recent double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, the test group subjects were instructed to consume a total of 2.5 g of MuPI twice daily for 12 weeks, with pre-diabetes [fasting plasma glucose level of 110–125 mg/dL or 2-h plasma glucose level of 140–200 mg/dL by the 75-g glucose tolerance test]. In this study, MuPI was shown to suppress to increase fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels compared to the placebo group. Triglyceride levels significantly decreased in subjects with hyperlipidaemia [139]. Another double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of 44 healthy subjects showed that after consumption of 3.0 g/d MuPI for 8 weeks, insulin levels and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance values significantly decreased, and plasma glucose levels showed a downtrend, although it was not significant [140]. The lack of a beneficial effect of MuPI on blood glucose concentrations may be attributed to the exclusion of volunteers with abnormal blood glucose concentrations in this study. In this study, the body compositions of subjects were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. As a result, a decrease in body fat mass and an increase in lean body mass in the test group were revealed. Conversely, in the control group, body fat mass increased and lean body mass decreased. The differences in body fat mass and lean body mass within each group and between the test and control groups were not statistically significant. However, the adiponectin level in the test group significantly increased, and it decreased in the control group. There was a significant difference between the net changes in the test and control groups [140]. These findings indicate that MuPI might improve insulin sensitivity by decreasing the accumulation of visceral fat.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease [NAFLD] represents a spectrum of liver diseases involving hepatocyte dysfunction caused by hepatic triglyceride accumulation in these cells. The prevalence of NAFLD has increased with the increased prevalence of obesity and metabolic syndrome. NAFLD is now a common disease, affecting 30% of the US population and 20% of Asian and European populations [141]. Rodent studies have shown that SPI intake reduces hepatic triglyceride accumulation [142, 143]. The detailed mechanism underlying the hepatic triglyceride-reducing effect of SPI remains to be elucidated, but β-conglycinin is likely to play an important role [135]. Indeed, the administration of purified β-conglycinin results in an even stronger reduction in hepatic triglycerides than SPI administration [18, 144]. From these results, it is expected that MuPI also has a preventive effect on NAFLD by preventing hepatic triglyceride accumulation. The effect of MuPI on hepatic triglyceride accumulation elucidated the potential ability of MuPI to prevent NAFLD onset and progression in experiments using an atherogenic diet-induced NASH mouse model in mice fed a normal-fat or high-fat diet [145]. In the abovementioned clinical trial [140], Alanine aminotransferase [ALT] levels increased slightly in the control group, whereas significantly decreased in the test group. Of the blood test items, ALT is one of important indicators of the degree of liver dysfunction.
The released peptides obtained from mung bean protein hydrolysate may exhibit bioactivity as angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, antioxidants, and anti-cancer Asiatic acid carriers due to their sequence characteristics [146, 147]. A peptide [<3 kDa], with a small molecular weight isolated from MuPI hydrolysates, was reported to show high ACE inhibitory and antioxidant activities, including DPPH radical scavenging activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging ability, and metal-chelating activity [146]. Three kinds of novel peptides exerting high ACE inhibitory activity were isolated from the alcalase hydrolysate of MuPI, and the amino acid sequences of these peptides were identified to be Lys-Asp-Tyr-Arg-Leu, Val-Thr-Pro-Ala-Leu-Arg, and Lys-Leu-Pro-Ala-Gly-Thr-Leu-Phe [148].
The relationships between MuPI intake, strength, and lean body mass (LBM) in underactive vegetarians were examined, and the impact of MuPI supplementation on these indices was recorded utilizing an eight-week, randomized, controlled feeding trial. LBM significantly correlated with grams of protein consumed daily and was also significantly correlated with grip strength and lower body strength [149]. Mung beans are inadequate in threonine, tryptophan, and the sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine, but they contain high levels of essential amino acids, notably leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine [150]. Although it is necessary to consider the amino acid balance, it is expected that MuPI will be widely used in the field of sports nutrition in the future.
If the current pace of population growth continues, the global population is expected to surpass 9 billion by 2050. In addition to this increase in population, the change of dietary habits of emerging countries due to their increased GDP will require, in 2050, we will need twice as much protein as we had in 2005.
So far, we have been able to meet the increasing demand for protein by improving the productivity of agriculture. However, in the future, this growth alone will not be enough to absorb the increase, and the balance between supply and demand will begin to collapse as early as 2030. This prediction is called the “protein crisis,” and has recently begun to attract attention, especially in Europe and the United States. To solve this protein crisis, it is essential to use highly productive plant proteins as food ingredients instead of animal proteins, which are less efficient in production.
WHO has called for the need to address the double burden of malnutrition. This means that we need to look not only at nutrient deficiencies, but also at nutrient excesses. Obesity caused by over-nutrition and the resulting lifestyle-related diseases are spreading around the world. In this regard, consumer demand for plant protein-based products is high and expected to grow considerably in the next decade. A variety of soy and other plant-based functional foods have been recommended by many health organizations worldwide.
Currently, contributions to the SDGs (Sustainable Developing Goals) are being appealed around the world. There is widespread recognition that the replacement of animal protein with vegetable protein not only contributes to human health, but also to the earth health. Wider and prudent use of plant proteins in the diet can help to supply adequate high-quality protein for the population and may reduce the potential for adverse environmental consequences.
This chapter focused on the recently reported physiological functions of legumes-derived plant proteins, including soybeans. Further research is expected to lead to more widely use of the legumes introduced in this chapter and to the discovery and use of legumes with new functionalities.
Of the research results presented in this chapter, our own research results were achieved in the laboratory at Fuji Oil Co. Ltd. and/or Fuji Oil Holdings Inc. to which I belonged until March of this year from 1986. I believe that I could not have done this without the cooperation of the researchers who belonged to that laboratory. I would like to take this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude.
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His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/68443",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"68443"},fullPath:"/profiles/68443",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()