Typical reflectivity of a specific absorber series in different frequency bands for normal incidence [20].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5503",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Wood in Civil Engineering",title:"Wood in Civil Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Wood is a natural building material: if used in building elements, it can play structural, functional and aesthetic roles at the same time. The use of wood in buildings, which goes back to the oldest of times, is now experiencing a period of strong expansion in virtue of the sustainable dimension of wood buildings from the environmental, economic and social standpoints. However, its use as an engineering material calls for constant development of theoretical and experimental research to respond properly to the issues involved in this. In the single chapters written by experts in different fields, the book aims to contribute to knowledge in the application of wood in the building industry.",isbn:"978-953-51-2986-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2985-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4107-5",doi:"10.5772/63178",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"wood-in-civil-engineering",numberOfPages:250,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"fb659c92f0d45acc8f960d9a656b54e2",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",publishedDate:"March 1st 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5503.jpg",numberOfDownloads:26407,numberOfWosCitations:41,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:44,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:106,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 23rd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108709/images/system/108709.jpg",biography:"Giovanna Concu is Assistant Professor of Structural Design at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture, University of Cagliari, Italy, where she teaches Timber and Masonry Structures and Laboratory of Structural Rehabilitation. She graduated summa cum laude in Structural Engineering at the University of Cagliari, Italy, and received her Ph.D. degree in Geoengineering from the same University. She authored about 70 papers, for the most part published in international conference proceedings and international journals. She is a reviewer for some international journals and scientific associations. She has been involved in a number of research projects funded by regional, national and international public and private agencies. Her research interests include timber engineering, non-destructive testing, sustainability of building materials.",institutionString:"University of Cagliari,",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Cagliari",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"712",title:"Structural Engineering",slug:"engineering-civil-engineering-structural-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"53897",title:"Grading of Low-Quality Wood for Use in Structural Elements",doi:"10.5772/67129",slug:"grading-of-low-quality-wood-for-use-in-structural-elements",totalDownloads:2987,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Timber is a sustainable resource, environmentally friendly and aesthetically pleasing. Using locally grown timber as building material leads to economic, social and environmental benefits. Being an organic material, timber is not homogeneous; hence, it is crucial to predict the base material quality. International codes require the use of wood previously graded according to the current regulations in order to verify its reliability when used as structural material. An exhaustive analysis of the state of art of different methodologies and code requirements for structural timber grading is presented herein. Structural timber grading methods and their applicability to low-strength timber is analysed and discussed with reference to Maritime Pine locally grown in Sardinia (Italy). Several physical and morphological parameters such as density, the presence of knots, clusters of knots, grain deviation, warping, annual ring width and moisture content had to be measured. Moreover, mechanical parameters (tensile strength and modulus of elasticity in tension) were measured and analysed in order to identify the strength class of Sardinian Maritime Pine. The operational issues related to the application of the different methodologies and code requirements for structural grading of low-quality wood are also discussed and analysed.",signatures:"Trulli Nicoletta, Monica Valdés, Barbara De Nicolo and Massimo\nFragiacomo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53897",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53897",authors:[{id:"114603",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbara",surname:"De Nicolo",slug:"barbara-de-nicolo",fullName:"Barbara De Nicolo"},{id:"193575",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nicoletta",surname:"Trulli",slug:"nicoletta-trulli",fullName:"Nicoletta Trulli"},{id:"193742",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",surname:"Valdes",slug:"monica-valdes",fullName:"Monica Valdes"},{id:"193743",title:"Prof.",name:"Massimo",surname:"Fragiacomo",slug:"massimo-fragiacomo",fullName:"Massimo Fragiacomo"}],corrections:null},{id:"52890",title:"Wood Thermal Properties",doi:"10.5772/65805",slug:"wood-thermal-properties",totalDownloads:2375,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wood thermal properties specify the answers to the questions related to heat transfer. The values of specific heat, thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity were simultaneously determined with quasistationary method. Wood is distinguished as a natural material for accumulating the energy by heat transfer, as isolating material, with the ability to slowly equilibrate its different temperatures. The measured thermal properties value of beech and fir wood samples support those conclusions. Known dependences of wood thermal properties on anatomical direction, density at given moisture content, temperature are modelled and incorporated into heat conduction equation to provide base for next evaluation of measured data. The heat conduction solutions, based on known wood thermal properties, are used in similar problems. It is shown that thermal properties influence the surface equilibrium temperature between skin and wooden sample and the solution of heat conduction equation describes the flux passing through the log as an element of log-cabin house. Also thermal diffusivity is a component of equation that determines the position of observed point of wood during conduction. The results served as a base point for planning the experiments, for designing the processes of heat transfer, for designing the furniture and wooden houses, for designing the machines and equipment in woodworking industry and others.",signatures:"Richard Hrčka and Marián Babiak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52890",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52890",authors:[{id:"192173",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Hrčka",slug:"richard-hrcka",fullName:"Richard Hrčka"},{id:"195164",title:"Prof.",name:"Marián",surname:"Babiak",slug:"marian-babiak",fullName:"Marián Babiak"}],corrections:null},{id:"53982",title:"A Finite Element Method Model for Large Strains Analysis of Timber",doi:"10.5772/67184",slug:"a-finite-element-method-model-for-large-strains-analysis-of-timber",totalDownloads:1961,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this report a Finite Element Method (FEM) model, within the continuum mechanics of solids, for mechanical long term response of timber structures is presented. The proposed model can analyze three-dimensional solids, within the theory for non-linear material orthotropic elastic-viscous-plastic. It can account ductile behaviour in compression and brittle behaviour in tension, under the kinematics hypothesis of large displacements and large strains. The work has been carried out with a general purpose FEM software code in which a specific stress-strain law for wood, by a proper subroutine, has been built in. The constitutive equations have been formulated by a multi-surface yield approach of viscoplasticity, each yield surface acts separately each other. This approach is specifically almost necessary for some problems, such as glued composite parts or steel bolt connections. Specialized solution algorithms, which adopt time-stepping and automating relaxation techniques, have been used to handle the behaviour of the loading path response for elastic-viscous-plastic or elastic-brittle behaviours. The model has been applied to examples to test the effectiveness of the suggested approach. The results obtained have shown the potentiality of the proposed model to effectively simulate the overall mechanical behaviour of timber.",signatures:"Vincenzo De Luca",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53982",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53982",authors:[{id:"192196",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"De Luca",slug:"vincenzo-de-luca",fullName:"Vincenzo De Luca"}],corrections:null},{id:"52160",title:"Flame-Retardant Systems Based on Alkoxysilanes for Wood Protection",doi:"10.5772/64916",slug:"flame-retardant-systems-based-on-alkoxysilanes-for-wood-protection",totalDownloads:2247,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The aim of this study was to formulate, develop, and determine the performance of flame-retardant systems for wood protection. Flame-retardant systems involve wood impregnation and intumescent coating application. The impregnation was made in two retention levels using silanes of low and high hydrophobicity (methyltriethoxysilane and n-octyltriethoxysilane, respectively); these silanes were conducted to polymerize by sol-gel process in wood pores. The intumescent coatings were formulated with a polymeric binder (hydroxy-functional acrylic resin) modified with n-octadecyltriethoxysilane in two w/w ratios to combine the individual characteristics of each film-forming material. In this research, Pinus radiata panels were selected to study the performance of quoted flame-retardant systems. The results indicated excellent flame-retardant performance of some studied systems in two foot tunnel, in oxygen index cabin, and in horizontal-vertical chamber.",signatures:"Carlos A. Giudice and Guadalupe Canosa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52160",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52160",authors:[{id:"100127",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Giudice",slug:"carlos-giudice",fullName:"Carlos Giudice"},{id:"194158",title:"Dr.",name:"Guadalupe",surname:"Canosa",slug:"guadalupe-canosa",fullName:"Guadalupe Canosa"}],corrections:null},{id:"52948",title:"Wood-Boring Insect Control in Constructions by High Temperature and Microwaves",doi:"10.5772/66094",slug:"wood-boring-insect-control-in-constructions-by-high-temperature-and-microwaves",totalDownloads:1725,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter focusses on the control wood boring insects in constructions. The influence of temperature in the range of 50–65°C was studied for the larvae of Hylotrupes bajulus L. Attempt is made to clarify the influence of high temperature on the larvae in the context of the different results in the former German publications. The paper presents too the conditions in which the insects, which are technical pest to timber, can be combated by the use of high air temperature and microwaves 12,2cm length (2,45GHz) and which are emitted in the form of scattered field. In the experiments two prototype microwave devices ware used, their power being 600W and 1400–2400W, as well as one microwave chamber whose power was 1000 W. Laboratory results of author were presented against the designer results obtained with other insect species and the results in the recent publications by other authors. The aim of this work is to present the results of the author’s microwaves research and some problems in practice. Additional experiments were conducted on polychrome and gilded timber as well as the timber into which two-inch steel nails had been driven. The study included the possibility of melting wood resin.",signatures:"Adam Krajewski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52948",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52948",authors:[{id:"191699",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",surname:"Krajewski",slug:"adam-krajewski",fullName:"Adam Krajewski"}],corrections:null},{id:"53959",title:"Exterior Wood Coatings",doi:"10.5772/67170",slug:"exterior-wood-coatings",totalDownloads:2954,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In addition to aesthetic appeal, coatings are designed to protect the wood from weathering degradation in outdoor conditions. This chapter gives an overview of the effects of the main coating components, coating properties, wood properties and treatments on coated wood performance in service. Understanding how different type of resins, pigments, solvents, and other major additives affect coating performance on wood, helps coating formulators to develop more durable coatings. It is beneficial for both wood scientists and coating chemists to learn which properties of coatings have the highest impact on predicting their service lives when exposed to weathering. For instance, measuring glass transition temperature (Tg) defines the degree of flexibility of a coating. Since wood swells and shrinks due to moisture uptake and subsequent drying, flexibility of a coating plays a critical role in defining its durability on wood in exterior conditions. Similarly, learning how preservative treatment or a new modification technique changes the surface properties of wood will help coating formulators to adjust properties of coatings in way that would have better adhesion and performance on that specific modified wood. Also, the effects of these factors in increasing service life of exterior wood coatings are discussed.",signatures:"Mojgan Nejad and Paul Cooper",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53959",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53959",authors:[{id:"193511",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojgan",surname:"Nejad",slug:"mojgan-nejad",fullName:"Mojgan Nejad"},{id:"194021",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Cooper",slug:"paul-cooper",fullName:"Paul Cooper"}],corrections:null},{id:"53641",title:"Wooden Reinforcement for Earth Constructions in the Castile Area of Spain",doi:"10.5772/66646",slug:"wooden-reinforcement-for-earth-constructions-in-the-castile-area-of-spain",totalDownloads:1755,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter studies wooden reinforcements for earth constructions. Analysing vernacular houses from Castile, Spain, I discovered this reinforcement and started to compare its performance with other traditional bracings for earth construction. At present, approximately over 30% of the world’s population still live in earth houses, 50% of which are in the third world countries. This is why it is so important to understand how earthwork constructions behave. Most importantly, for the rehabilitation and preservation of existing World Heritage Sites, also there is a great need to construct new buildings in developed countries under the criteria of sustainability and developing countries because of housing shortages and lack of materials. The main failure of earth constructions is because of the low tensile resistance of the earth, causing walls to detach in the corners under horizontal loads. This chapter analyses a vernacular wooden reinforcement from Castile, Spain: its history, composition, construction and structural behaviour. It compares it with earth constructions without reinforcements, using a unique model under the same conditions. This makes a qualitative and quantitative comparison possible. The conclusions can be applied to rehabilitation or construction of new-build depending on the loads, distances and height, which can be a security condition or a vital necessity.",signatures:"Q. Angulo Ibáñez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53641",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53641",authors:[{id:"191610",title:"Dr.",name:"Q.",surname:"Angulo-Ibáñez",slug:"q.-angulo-ibanez",fullName:"Q. Angulo-Ibáñez"}],corrections:null},{id:"53031",title:"Wood-Reinforced Polymer Composites",doi:"10.5772/66336",slug:"wood-reinforced-polymer-composites",totalDownloads:2194,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The importance of protection of natural resources, recycling and biodegrability are the basic reasons behind the increased use of lignocellulosic (LC) material–reinforced polymer composites. This chapter investigates wood filler–reinforced polymer composites, which have gained attention among the researchers and in the market in woody applications having aesthetic and low service costs. Most polymers have the increasing cost of petrochemical products while LC materials are obtained from different national resources such as different types of wood powder. LC materials are available in light, cheap, environment-friendly forms with easy maintenance. The main disadvantages of LC-reinforced composites are moisture sensitivity and poor dimensional stability, besides changing wood fiber characteristics in time and poor adhesion to basically all kind of matrix polymers. Additive usage in manufacturing is an increasing trend of wood-based LC material–reinforced polymer composite parts to penetrate new markets, with better performance requirements and long-term stability. This chapter investigates description, classification, production with common additive types and usage of wood-polymer composite materials. In addition, it approaches preprocesses to reach high productivity and high-quality product manufacturing. Finally, some experimental manufacturing results of wood-reinforced polymer composites are presented.",signatures:"Anil Akdogan and Ali Serdar Vanli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53031",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53031",authors:[{id:"190673",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anil",surname:"Akdogan",slug:"anil-akdogan",fullName:"Anil Akdogan"},{id:"191060",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Serdar",surname:"Vanli",slug:"ali-serdar-vanli",fullName:"Ali Serdar Vanli"}],corrections:null},{id:"52795",title:"Ductile Behavior of Timber Structures under Strong Dynamic Loads",doi:"10.5772/65894",slug:"ductile-behavior-of-timber-structures-under-strong-dynamic-loads",totalDownloads:2797,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to their comparatively low mass that implies reduced horizontal dynamic loads even during strong earthquakes, wood-made buildings might be a good choice in seismic prone regions. To meet the modern design philosophy requirements, however, such structures should be able to behave in a ductile way under exceptional events. By presenting a brief review of the latest developments in the field, this chapter investigates on when and to what extent historical and modern timber buildings may exhibit a ductile and dissipative behavior. A special focus is given to the crucial role of connections and to the difficulties involved by their mechanical model when carrying out code-based non-linear dynamic analyses. Although a ductile behavior is typically required under strong earthquakes, it is to note that a well-designed ductile structure may also be able to withstand other exceptional events as, for instance, tornadoes or blasts.",signatures:"Maria Cristina Porcu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52795",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52795",authors:[{id:"192513",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Cristina",surname:"Porcu",slug:"maria-cristina-porcu",fullName:"Maria Cristina Porcu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53126",title:"Traditional Wooden Buildings in China",doi:"10.5772/66145",slug:"traditional-wooden-buildings-in-china",totalDownloads:3463,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Chinese ancient architecture, with its long history, unique systematic features and wide-spread employment as well as its abundant heritages, is a valuable legacy of the whole world. Due to the particularity of the material and structure of Chinese ancient architecture, relatively research results are mostly published in Chinese, which limits international communication. On account of the studies carried out in Nanjing Forestry University and many other universities and teams, this chapter emphatically introduces the development, structural evolution and preservation of traditional Chinese wooden structure; research status focuses on material properties, decay pattern, anti-seismic performance and corresponding conservation and reinforcement technologies of the main load-bearing members in traditional Chinese wooden structure.",signatures:"Ze-li Que, Zhe-rui Li, Xiao-lan Zhang, Zi-ye Yuan and Biao Pan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53126",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53126",authors:[{id:"191878",title:"Prof.",name:"Ze-li",surname:"Que",slug:"ze-li-que",fullName:"Ze-li Que"},{id:"205443",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhe-rui",surname:"Li",slug:"zhe-rui-li",fullName:"Zhe-rui Li"},{id:"205444",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiao-lan",surname:"Zhang",slug:"xiao-lan-zhang",fullName:"Xiao-lan Zhang"},{id:"205445",title:"Dr.",name:"Zi-ye",surname:"Yuan",slug:"zi-ye-yuan",fullName:"Zi-ye Yuan"},{id:"205446",title:"Dr.",name:"Biao",surname:"Pan",slug:"biao-pan",fullName:"Biao Pan"}],corrections:null},{id:"52332",title:"Experimental Analyses and Numerical Models of CLT Shear Walls under Cyclic Loading",doi:"10.5772/65024",slug:"experimental-analyses-and-numerical-models-of-clt-shear-walls-under-cyclic-loading",totalDownloads:1952,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper reports the results of an experimental campaign performed at the University of Tokyo on cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels subjected to lateral loads. Analytical and numerical interpretations are provided as well, comparing the experimental analysis results with two methods: firstly, an analytical method to preliminarily evaluate the ultimate strength of the four panels, based on the geometrical dimensions of the openings and of the panel; secondly, a finite element model has been developed in order to provide some guidelines for calculating the stiffness and elastic behaviour of CLT panels subjected to lateral loads. The experimental tests showed that the CLT panels are as more brittle and stiffer as more the difference between the total panel area and the fenestrated area is high. The presence of large openings determined stress concentration at the corners where failure occurred for the attainment of the maximum tension strength in the inner layer. The proposed analytical formulation was shown to fairly closely predict the ultimate strength of panels with same geometry, characteristics and boundary condition, allowing preliminary information of this relevant parameter.",signatures:"Valeria Awad, Linda Giresini, Mikio Koshihara, Mario Lucio Puppio\nand Mauro Sassu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52332",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52332",authors:[{id:"192739",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauro",surname:"Sassu",slug:"mauro-sassu",fullName:"Mauro Sassu"},{id:"193120",title:"Dr.",name:"Linda",surname:"Giresini",slug:"linda-giresini",fullName:"Linda Giresini"},{id:"193197",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Valeria",surname:"Awad",slug:"valeria-awad",fullName:"Valeria Awad"},{id:"193198",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mario Lucio",surname:"Puppio",slug:"mario-lucio-puppio",fullName:"Mario Lucio Puppio"},{id:"193683",title:"Prof.",name:"Mikio",surname:"Koshihara",slug:"mikio-koshihara",fullName:"Mikio Koshihara"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8299",title:"Timber Buildings and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bccf2891cec38ed041724131aa34c25a",slug:"timber-buildings-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8299.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2193",title:"Advances on Analysis and Control of Vibrations",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"926bac5ebecf5b70140e42105b5e2527",slug:"advances-on-analysis-and-control-of-vibrations-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mauricio Zapateiro de la Hoz and Francesc Pozo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2193.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"148213",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauricio",surname:"Zapateiro",slug:"mauricio-zapateiro",fullName:"Mauricio Zapateiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8822",title:"Advances in Structural Health Monitoring",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"429d24d493e64821ae08df0a71d33e37",slug:"advances-in-structural-health-monitoring",bookSignature:"Maguid H.M. 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There are ten common types of rubber Natural Rubber, Styrene-butadiene rubber, Butyl, Nitrile, Neoprene®, Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer, Silicone, Polyurethane, and Hydrogenated Nitrile. Their properties and applications are important for domestic and industrial applications.
\r\n\r\n\tThe scope of this book covers four areas of rubber material as its properties and characterizations of them. Their mechanical, optical, and acoustic properties and kinetics are covered in the book. Firstly, their elasticity, toughness, modulus, compression, and extension parameters are significant concerning their mechanical properties. Secondly, their optical properties of them can be characterized by spectroscopic techniques such as fluorescence and UV measurements. Thirdly, their swelling, drying, diffusion, and release parameters are obtained as their kinetics of them. Lastly, the parameters such as transmission loss, sound absorption coefficient, and acoustic impedance are given as acoustical performance of them in this book.
\r\n\t
The electromagnetic compatibility of the electronic devices is mainly considered in two ways, measuring radiated emission (RE) or radiated immunity (RI), where the test procedures are specified in different standards [1, 2]. The frequency spectrum of RE/RI tests starts from tens of kHz. Since the absorber technology cannot cover such low frequencies, the concentration of the absorber design goes around 70 MHz test frequencies [3]. Anechoic chambers (AC) in the form of fully or partially covered rooms with electromagnetic absorbers that simulate the open area test site (OATS) are the most common indoor facilities for the electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) tests, where the quality of the installed absorbers influences the precision of the tests [4]. Moreover, there are other types of shielded enclosures such as compact renege rooms, transverse electromagnetic (TEM) cells, and gigahertz transverse electromagnetic (GTEM) cells. Properly lining these test facilities with absorbing materials is a key factor for their expected operation [5, 6, 7, 8].
When an electromagnetic wave illuminates an environment, it is reflected, transmitted, or absorbed. An efficient absorber can be realized by minimizing the contributions of the former two components [9]. For covering the test frequencies in different applications, broadband absorbers are necessary. Various approaches are proposed for bandwidth enhancement of the electromagnetic absorbers, multi-resonance and multilayered structures being two important groups, realized by merging multiple closely spaced resonances [10, 11]. Broadband absorbers in the EMC field are commonly attained by tapered geometries, such as wedge or pyramidal configurations, or by parameter gradient flat structures to provide gradual impedance matching [12]. In all cases, the metallic backside prevents wave transmission [5]. Unit cell analysis, transmission-line model, homogenization method, finite difference time domain (FDTD) technique, and mode-matching technique are some of the approaches that have been used for the performance prediction of the absorbers [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. In this chapter, the analysis and design of some important types of EMC absorbers are reviewed. The chapter also includes millimeter-wave absorbers for future EMC applications.
Different types of absorbing materials and geometries are used for EMC applications depending on the operating frequency range. Below 1 GHz, ferrite-based materials having dispersive lossy permeability are used in different planar configurations. Moreover, above 1 GHz, electric losses or magnetic losses provided by lossy dielectric or lossy magnetic materials, respectively, can be used. To cover both of the above ranges, hybrid absorbers constructed by combining the ferrite tiles and pyramidal absorbers are a solution. In the higher microwave/THz frequencies, metamaterial absorbers can be used. In the following subsections, a detailed discussion of each category is presented. Note that the required absorber’s reflectivity is dedicated by the frequency range and its application. Specifically, the military standard requires −6 dB normal incidence reflectivity for 50–250 MHz frequencies and −10 dB normal incidence reflectivity above 250 MHz. Moreover, for immunity tests, −18 dB normal incidence reflectivity for 80–1000 MHz spectrum is essential. For emission tests in 3-meter chambers, −18 dB normal incidence reflectivity for 30–1000 MHz region and −12 dB at 45° for 30–1000 MHz spectrum fulfill the requirements, while in 10-meter chambers, −20 dB normal incidence reflectivity for 30–1000 MHz spectrum and −15 dB at 45° for 30–1000 MHz range are required [19]. Typical reflectivity of absorbers in different frequency bands can be found in the data sheets provided by the manufacturers, from which an appropriate absorber model can be specified. Table 1 is given as an example [20]. Finally, depending on the operating frequency range, NRI arch, waveguide, coaxial line, time-domain method, and free-space approach can be used for the performance evaluation of the absorbers [17, 21]. The test procedures are specified in IEEE Standard 1128 [22]. The difference between measured reflection coefficient (S11) with and without the absorber is the reflectivity in the former method. In the latter approach, reflectivity is attained by comparing the received power with that using the perfect electric conductor (PEC) plate [20, 23].
The simplest type of ferrite absorbers is ferrite tiles, where the whole desired surface can be covered by installing multiple tiles next to each other. This type of absorber is shown in Figure 1(a), backed by a PEC layer. Ferrite tile ceramics are realized by heating powders under pressure at 1000–1500°C. Thus, brittle and thin tiles between 4 and 7 mm are commonly used because of the heavyweight of iron, manganese, and other metal oxides [1]. The typical surface area of the tiles is 100 mm2, and they are usually installed onto plywood panels leading to an extremely fire-retardant installation [5]. Due to the low operation frequency, the homogenization of the entire structure and later using the transmission line method gives reasonable results for the associated absorption rate. Thus, the surface impedance of the shortened ferrite slab is [14]:
(a) Ferrite tile absorber [
where
where
An inherent problem of installing the ferrite tiles is the small-sized air gaps between the adjacent cells. The air gaps result in performance degradation due to the significant difference between the permeability of the air gaps and ferrite material. The impact of air gaps on the performance of the ferrite tile absorbers can be approximated
where Δ is the size of the air gap perpendicular to the magnetic field and
Model number | 80 MHz | 120 MHz | 200 MHz | 300 MHz | 500 MHz | L-BAND1–2 GHz | S-BAND2–4 GHz | C-BAND4–8 GHz | X-BAND8–12 GHz | KU-BAND 12–18 GHz | K-BAND18–40 GHz |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EHP-3PCL | −30 dB | −40 dB | −45 dB | −45 dB | |||||||
EHP-5PCL | −30 dB | −40 dB | −45 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | ||||||
EHP-8PCL | −30 dB | −40 dB | −45 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | |||||
EHP-12PCL | −35 dB | −40 dB | −45 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | |||||
EHP-18PCL | −30 dB | −40 dB | −45 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | ||||
EHP-24PCL | −20 dB | −30 dB | −35 dB | −40 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | ||
EHP-36PCL | −11 dB | −13 dB | −25 dB | −30 dB | −40 dB | −45 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB |
EHP-48PCL | −15 dB | −20 dB | −30 dB | −35 dB | −40 dB | −45 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB |
EHP-72PCL | −20 dB | −30 dB | −40 dB | −40 dB | −45 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB |
EMC-24PCL | −6 dB | −6 dB | −7 dB | −30 dB | −35 dB | −45 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −50 dB | −45 dB |
Typical reflectivity of a specific absorber series in different frequency bands for normal incidence [20].
Table used with permission of ETS-Lindgren.
Maxwell Garnett formula | |
Bruggeman formula | |
Liu formula | |
Hashin–Shtrikman bounds |
Different homogenization approaches for modeling ferrite tiles with air gaps [29].
Different types of dielectric absorbers having lossy permittivity (electric loss) or permeability (magnetic loss) are commonly used for the wideband electromagnetic wave absorption above 1 GHz [5]. Organic materials (such as rice straw, oil palm empty fruit bunch, sugar cane bagasse, and coconut shell [33]), magnetic materials (such as NiZn spinel ferrite, Co2Z hexaferrite, and RuCoM hexaferrite [34]), and dielectric materials (such as foam (carbon-based), polyurethane, polystyrene, polyethylene, and thin film [30]) can be used for this purpose. The absorption capability of each material can be evaluated using its constitutive parameters. To this end, the attenuation constant of the incoming wave is calculated to guarantee that the wave can penetrate the device. Therefore [2],
where prime and double prime, respectively, denote the real and imaginary parts of the permittivity (
Note that the real and imaginary parts of the constitutive parameters cannot change arbitrarily, and the Kramers–Kronig relationship should be satisfied [2]. Above 1 GHz, absorbers are fabricated in the form of pyramidal (standard, twisted, or hollow), wedge, convolved, or multilayered geometries, the pyramidal shape being the most common one [5]. Pyramidal absorbers are fabricated in different lengths, depending on the lower limit of the operating band. Specifically, with the optimized carbon loading, the one and eight wavelength absorber’s reflective is around −33 dB and −51 dB [5]. Also, for mechanical reasons, the base-to-height ratio is about 2.5 [1]. The product is commonly black after fabrication and is painted with blue latex to improve light reflectance. The tips are retained unpainted to prevent absorption degradation in the millimeter-wave band. The measured data do not seem to support such a common practice, and the whole absorbers should be unpainted to achieve improvements at the millimeter band [35]. Moreover, pressure-sensitive adhesives can be used for the installation, and fire-retardant chemical loading is used to meet the current fire retardancy requirements [5].
At the low-frequency limit, when the period of the array is small compared to the wavelength, homogenization of the transversely periodic structure in Figure 2 with a transversely uniform medium with anisotropic permittivity and permeability can be used for the analysis. Thus, the longitudinal and transverse components of the constitutive parameters can be approximated as [36]:
The schematic view of the pyramidal absorber [
where the subscripts
where the parameter
Apart from low-frequency approximate techniques, various full-wave numerical and quasi-analytical methods such as the finite element method (FEM), the integral-equations-based method of moments (MoM), and the FDTD technique can be used for the pyramidal absorber analysis. In this regard, time-domain methods are more reasonable choices due to the wideband nature of the problem [39]. Thus, for accurate wideband modeling of pyramidal absorbers, the FDTD method can be used. The required spatial meshing for this approach is illustrated in Figure 3(a), and its return loss in comparison with the homogenization model and capacitor model is included in Figure 3(b), where good agreement with the former approach is attained [16].
(a) Spatial meshing of the pyramidal absorber for its analysis based on FDTD and (b) its return loss in comparison with the homogenization model and capacitor model ([
Importantly, the bi-static or off-angle behavior of the absorbers is an important factor affecting the validity of the indoor facilities for RE/RI measurements. Therefore, polynomial approximations are proposed to predict reflected energy from pyramidal RF absorbers in different incident angles [1, 40, 41].
To design an absorber covering the sub-GHz and GHz frequencies, hybrid absorbers, simultaneously exploiting both technologies mentioned above, are proposed. Hybrid absorber design is not just putting the pyramidal absorbers above the ferrite tiles [42]. Adjusting the carbon loading of the dielectric pyramidal absorbers, making the pyramidal absorbers hollow, or using shaped coatings of lossy paint are some solutions to improving the impedance matching of hybrid absorbers. Also, the absorption degradation due to a lower amount of carbon material is compensated by truncating the pyramid’s tip, and some small-sized elements are included to improve the high-frequency performance, as in Figure 4 [24]. Moreover, using a matching layer between the pyramidal and ferrite absorbers is another method. Fourier analysis and the mode-matching technique have been used to analyze this absorber efficiently [17]. Note that when several thousands of hybrid absorbers with complex material parameters are used in the facility design, a thin-surface impedance sheet with the same reflectivity can be used to provide time and memory efficiency instead of simulating the hybrid absorber. For this purpose, the reflectivity of the absorber must be approximated by optimizing the material parameters and thicknesses in the equivalent multilayered model [43, 44]. Modeling the absorber arrays as multilayered media through homogenization aids in analyzing the chambers using Green’s function of the layered media [45].
(a) Hybrid absorber designed by controlling the amount of carbon loading and using pyramid’s tip truncation [
With the development of fifth-generation (5G) communication technology utilizing massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) phased array antennas for high-speed communication, the use of millimeter-wave absorbers (30–300 GHz) with high-power handling capability is necessary for test facilities [46, 47, 48]. Convoluted (egg-carton) absorbers with the typical absorption of 50 dB at normal incidence at 30 GHz are primarily useful in millimeter-wave bands [1, 2]. The manufacturers also suggest convoluted absorber in this frequency spectrum because of tolerating wide incident angles and suggest ordering them without paint [49]. Moreover, pyramidal structures with vent holes and heat sinks are proposed, and associated power-handling capability is analyzed using multi-physics simulations [50]. Also, a millimeter-wave metamaterial absorber bandwidth is widened by embedding one of the resonators inside another in the unit cell. The device is fabricated by a standard optical photolithography process, and the measurement is done by a custom-made spectrometer, as shown in Figure 5 [51]. Furthermore, the optical transparency requirement for some special EM protections, demanding large light transmittance and high absorptivity, can also be satisfied [52, 53, 54]. As a final note, naturally thin and transparent graphene material has great potential in the millimeter-wave absorber design [55].
Measurement setup of the millimeter-wave absorber ([
Depending on the frequency range of interest, different absorber types have been commonly used for EMC applications. For the sub-1 GHz range, the magnetic losses of unbiased ferrite tiles or grids are the main mechanism for electromagnetic absorption. Moreover, pyramidal absorbers fabricated by organic, electric, or magnetic materials have been exploited frequently in microwave frequencies. Considering the coverage of both spectrums mentioned above, efficiently designed hybrid absorbers, using both technologies simultaneously, have been proposed. They have been achieved by controlling dielectric pyramidal absorbers’ carbon loading and tip truncation or by designing a matching layer between the two absorbing sections. Finally, in the millimeter-wave regime, metamaterial absorbers have been proposed for providing the measurement setups of ever-growing high-frequency applications, such as 5G communication. The one-atom-thick graphene material also has great potential for this purpose.
The author would like to thank ETS-Lindgren Company for guiding through the use of necessary sources.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Worldwide, grapes are one of the most widely cultivated fruit crops, encompassing 6.9 million hectares of arable land from which 74.3 million metric tons were produced in 2017 [1]. From the 2017 data, grapes ranked third among crops such as bananas, apples, and oranges that produced 113.9, 83.1, and 73.3 million metric tons, respectively. Since most of the harvested grapes are usually fermented into wine, it is suggested that its economic potential is greater than those of other comparative commodity crops. For example, wine sales from California alone in 2018 generated approximately $40 billion in sales [2]. According to 2015 statistics, the California wine industry contributed $57.6 and $114 billion to both the state and the US economies, respectively. The three major uses for grapes are winemaking, fresh fruit (table grapes), and dried fruit (raisins) production. The products derived from grapes or winemaking include grape juice, jelly products, ethanol, vinegar, grape seed oil, tartaric acid, and fertilizer.
Potential health benefits of certain grape-derived antioxidant compounds (polyphenols, resveratrol) have also contributed to increased research to investigate its compounds for their nutraceutical value. Grape extracts are used food additive, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. Statistics from winemaking is steeped in history and tradition—perhaps more than any other food or beverage industry. From the soil, climate, and harvesting of grapes to the crushing and aging processes, painstaking attention to detail dictates the flavor, bouquet, and the overall sensory experience of the final product. Hence, it may not be a surprise to learn that the grape industry is increasingly looking toward biotechnology for new opportunities to improve strategies for combating crop diseases and lower production costs for producing healthier and more flavorful products.
Grape breeding started very early, first for wine grapes and, by the end of the nineteenth century, for table grapes. Breeding for rootstocks started toward the end of the nineteenth century after the era of
Globally, table grape production represents 27% of the 750,000 hectares planted with this species. Although table grape production in North and South America mainly represents c.a. 18% of the total world production, North America accounts for almost 50% of the global exports. Main exporters are Chile and Italy, followed by the USA, South Africa, and Mexico. Of the thousands of existing cultivars, only about 20 are grown for fresh consumption, with “Sultanina” (“Sultani,” “Sultana,” “Kishmish,” or “Thompson Seedless”) representing about 40% of the grapes grown for fresh consumption. This cultivar has been used extensively as a parental line for the development of new cultivars, such as “Flame Seedless” and “Crimson Seedless.” These varieties, together with “Red Globe” (an important seeded cultivar due to its excellent postharvest life, high productivity, and public acceptance), are some of the most cultivated worldwide. During the last decade, new biological and genetic information are available to plant breeders, particularly in the area of biotechnology.
Biotechnological tools have been incorporated into breeding programs focused on the improvement of genetic diversity [3, 4]; fingerprinting applications based on codominant markers; quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping and identification of candidate genes linked to QTLs for quality traits; development of cDNA libraries designed for the identification of genes involved in plant and berry development and host-pathogen interactions; and finally, the establishment of a genetic transformation platform available for the introduction of genes of interest as well as for the evaluation of gene function(s) using the grapevine as a model for woody plant species. The grape genome project was started in 2005 with collaborators in France and Italy within the framework of the International Grape Genome Project (IGGP).
The grape genome is attractive to genomic research due to its diploid chromosome with a small genome size of 475–500 Mb. The economic importance of the
Most breeding programs initially were publicly funded, but nowadays many of them are privately owned. Mostly new cultivars are protected by intellectual property rights, and, hence, growers need to pay royalties for their use or they may not gain access to some of the cultivars stored in closed commercialized “entities.” Due to this new scenario, many countries and companies started their own private breeding programs. In 1988, the Chilean Institute for Agricultural Research started a breeding program to develop new table grape cultivars with emphasis on seedless grapes, disease resistance, and postharvest life [5]. Since the production of seedless cultivars, crosses were made among the seedless cultivars followed by in vitro embryo rescue. Early in the program, researchers have realized that certain cultivars were more efficient for embryo rescue. For example, in “Ruby Seedless” and “Red Seedless,” 68% and 40% of the embryos, respectively, could be rescued, but with “Superior Seedless” or “Black Seedless,” less than 30% of the embryos could be rescued [6].
As with other crops, plant breeders faced difficult task to develop high-vigor cultivars that would combine high yield with good quality traits. Quality in table grapes is associated with genetic factors, but also with environmental factors, most of which can be managed by different agricultural practices which can influence yield. Quality traits in table grapes are also influenced by consumer preferences, an important factor to be considered by grape breeders. Good berry quality characteristics include seedlessness, berry size, skin thickness, uniformity, aroma, firmness, flavor, texture, etc. present during harvest and after prolonged storage [7, 8]. More recently, characters such as the presence of nutritional components and nutraceutical determinants have gained increased traction. Postharvest traits of importance include resistance to prolonged storage and transport, rachis tolerance to oxidation and dehydration, low susceptibility of the berries to browning and spotting, as well as resistance to decay.
Research in grapevine genetics is restrained by the lack of genetic stocks, high heterozygosity, inbreeding depression, large space requirements, and the relatively long juvenile period. In 1957, De Lattin [9] summarized his work on 53 genes identified in
Genetic resources possessing genes for resistance to many fungal diseases were found within
Marker-assisted selection can be used for pyramiding genes for resistance. Genetic pyramiding is a process used for the development of new breeding lines with homozygous resistance loci and consequently selecting new parental lines with the desired traits. To understand the potential value of molecular markers, it is imperative to identify the major markers. Isozymes have different electrophoretic mobility and, hence, can be visualized following gel electrophoresis. Over 20 polymorphic isozymes have been identified in grapes. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) can be used for their rapid detection using restriction enzymes and involves cutting genomic DNA molecules at unique nucleotide sequences (restriction sites) yielding DNA fragments with varied sizes. However, identification of RFLPs requires a high concentration of DNA and could be relatively expensive to assay.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays are generally much less expensive and can reveal higher levels of polymorphism [11, 13]. The selection process of a DNA fragment for amplification involves “primer annealing” in which two primer pairs (5–30 bases long) complementarily bind onto genomic DNA strands in a reaction process. The primer-DNA complex is a critical step for the replication of adjacent DNA sequences by a thermostable polymerase supplied in the reaction mixture.
A commonly used PCR analysis is based on random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs). These markers are based on the occurrence of an inverted pair of 9–11 base repeats (occasionally longer or shorter, as well) as within between 200 and 2000 base pairs. This is a single primer reaction that amplifies one-to-many segments of DNA through PCR. Amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) are based on the selective amplification of restriction enzyme-digested DNA fragments. Multiple bands (50–100) are generated during each amplification reaction resulting in random DNA markers. Neither RAPDs nor AFLPs are “anchored,” i.e., their primary use is within and not between crosses. On the other hand, several sequence-tagged site (STS) markers are useful as anchoring loci between crosses. The most important of these is a
Genetic analyses have progressed rapidly since the discovery of polymorphic regions or loci with two or more alleles in genomic DNA [14]. Variation in location, copy number, length, and base pair sequence of these highly repetitive DNA regions provide a rich source of markers for unique identification. Random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis has been applied to several aspects of the winemaking process [15, 16]. Several investigators have attempted to discriminate between grape plant clones utilizing a variety of genetic typing techniques [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. However, Regner et al. [24] utilized SSR, RAPD, and AFLP markers and were successful in detecting differences within clones of the Grüner, Veltliner, Pinot Blanc, Morillion, and Chardonnay varieties. Using RAPD markers, Moreno et al. [25] discriminated between clones of
Microsatellite genotyping requires the determination of the number of repeat units at a given locus in a given cultivar. This is achieved by electrophoretic sizing of the fragment containing the repeat region (the microsatellite allele), which was amplified by PCR with primers situated upstream and downstream of the microsatellite DNA. The initial grapevine microsatellite study conducted by Thomas and Scott [26] at CSIRO Plant Industry, Australia, reportedly identified DNA isolated from 26
Since then researchers have accumulated microsatellite profiles of hundreds of grapevine cultivars from many different regions. The data is available in public databases (Table 1). Among the 19 chromosomes of grape genome from a homozygous line, PN40024, about 10,948 contained trinucleotide repeats, 4386 had tetranucleotide repeats, and 3347 had penta-nucleotide repeats [27].
Database name | Physical address | Internet address of public databases | Number of genotypes |
---|---|---|---|
European | IRZ, Siebeldingen, Germany | http://www.genres.de/eccdb/vitis/ | In preparation |
Grape Microsatellite Collection (GMC) | IASMA, San Michele, Italy | Not public | |
Grape SSR database | Australian Wine Research Institute (AWRI) | Not public | |
International | IRZ, Siebeldingen, Germany | http://www.vivc.bafz.de/index.php | 46 |
SSR profiles (not searchable) | BOKU, Vienna, Austria | http://www.boku.ac.at/zag/forsch/grapeSSR2.htm | 162 |
The Bulgarian Plant Genomics Database | Agrobioinstitute, Sofia, Bulgaria | http://bulgenom.abi.bg/AgroBioInstitute%20Selected.htm | 76 |
The Greek | University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece | http://gvd.biology.uoc.gr/gvd/index.htm | 298 |
The Swiss | University of Neuchâtel, Switzerland | http://hydra.unine.ch/svmd/ | 170 |
Ukrainian, Moldovan and Russian | Magarach Institute, Yalta, Ukraine | Not public | 104 |
University of California, Davis, USA | Not public | ||
INRA Montpellier, France | Not public |
Existing public and unpublished databases of grapevine SSR profiles [28].
Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-based genetic markers have attracted significant attention when researchers are creating dense genetic linkage maps. SNPs are the most abundant class of polymorphisms, and they provide gene-based markers that may prove useful when identifying candidate genes of interest to be associated with quantitative trait loci.
In grapes, polymorphic DNA loci are relatively frequent. Salmaso et al. [28] found a single SNP in every 116 bp in the coding regions of 25 genes using EST-derived primers in the analysis of seven
The genome project was informed by the realization that the
The first high-quality reference grape genome sequence was obtained from a Pinot Noir clone ENTAV 115, a variety grown in wide range of soil types to produce red and sparkling wines. The reference genome sequence information has been useful toward understanding its overall genetic organization, including the content of genes and the structural components of the DNA of the 19 linkage groups (LGs) of
The estimated genome size of
The NCBI taxonomy web portal for
Genetic maps have been produced [33, 61, 62, 63, 64], and physical maps are being produced in several laboratories [65] with a consensus map in progress. A grape BAC library is available from the French National Resources Center for Plant Genomics (CNRGV). Affymetrix (http://www.affymetrix.com/index.affx) released a grape array that represents 14,000
Qiagen (http://www1.qiagen.com) also released a new grape (
Genetic transformation offers new perspectives for introducing important traits like that of disease resistance into traditional
Leaf disc derived embryogenic callus for grapevine cv. Koshusanjaku by Hoshino et al. [40], who subsequently established an
In the past, various studies have been conducted on the origin and regulation of sugar and acid concentrations. Of these two processes, the regulation of acid levels is probably well-understood. It is clear, for example, that the two most important acids, namely, tartaric acid and malic acid, have different origins. Tartaric acid is produced directly out of the sugar pool, while malic acid is probably formed by reactions of the Krebs cycle and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPcase) [46]. During ripening, malic acid is used for the synthesis of sugar and as a respiration substrate [47]. Less is known about the control of tartaric acid concentration, which is also far more slowly metabolized than malic acid. Recently researchers have identified two important wine quality genes in grapevine related to tannin synthesis. By looking at when and wherein the plant tannins are produced throughout berry development and comparing similar genes in tobacco and the model plant
In grape, flavonoids are the major portion of soluble phenolics and represent the most concentrated natural antioxidants in the berry [50]. The predominant flavonoids occurring in grape berries and seeds belong to varied classes such as tannins, anthocyanins, flavan-3-ols, and flavonols [51]. These compounds in addition to phenolic acids (mainly benzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids) contribute in different ways and/or manner to organoleptic features of the wine and other by-products [52]. Flavonoids are synthesized along the general phenylpropanoid pathway by the activity of a cytosolic multienzyme complex loosely associated at the cytoplasmic surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. This pathway has largely been characterized in different plant species [53] but also in
In berry pulp their expression is low, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (
Anthocyanins are responsible for the red and white color in grapes. Grapes are primarily distinguished based on the level of anthocyanin in berry skin. Geneticists discovered that the grape skin color is controlled by two
Until now, the models of flavonoid transport have been mainly based on genetic approaches where this process has been correlated to the expression of several specific genes in reproductive organs during development or in response to environmental factors. Limited information is available for direct identification and characterization of proteins involved in the uptake and accumulation of these metabolites. Therefore, it is crucial that future research should be more focused on the understanding of the biochemical mechanisms responsible for flavonoid transport and regulation [62].
Muscadine (
Previous [65] study conducted at the Center for Viticulture and Small Fruit Research, Tallahassee, Florida, which involved the analysis of metabolites in local grape varieties with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), determined a high phenolic content in muscadines as compared to bunch and Florida hybrid bunch grapes [65]. Grape seed extracts from some muscadine grape cultivars showed high anticancer activity. Characterization of these compounds confirmed the presence of resveratrol. One other advantage of resveratrol is its
Currently,
Causal agent | Properties of pathogen | Disease | Specific characters of disease |
---|---|---|---|
Uncinula necator | Obligate biotrophic fungus | Powdery mildew | The most economically important disease of |
Plasmopara viticola | Obligate biotrophic oomycete | Downy mildew | Affects |
Botrytis cinerea | Necrotrophic fungus | Grey mold rot | One of the most common and widely distributed grapevine diseases |
Elsinoe ampelina | Non-obligate fungus | Anthracnose | Affects |
Phomopsis viticola | Non-obligate fungus | Phomopsis cane blight and leaf spot | A wood disease |
Non-obligate fungus | Excoriosis | A wood disease | |
Ascomycete fungus | Eutypa dieback | A major grapevine disease in many countries that infects the vine stock; a wood disease |
The major widespread and economically important pathogens affecting grapevines worldwide [69].
Knowledge and experience in the field of genetically engineered grapevines have increased enormously. Several ongoing projects are aimed at the improvement of transformation efficiency, allowing its use as a standard strategy for various purposes. The great interest in the transgenic approach is due to its capability to establish disease tolerance or resistance in both elite grapevine varieties and rootstocks without changing their genotype-specific traits. Progress made in grapevine genomics along with the availability of reference genome sequence obtained from Pinot Noir [70] has made the transgenic approach attractive for both basic research and functional genomics. Included herein is a list of major transgenic disease-tolerant plants, which are currently in field trials in the last 5 years for improved bacterial and fungal resistance (Table 3).
Institution | Received | Status | Gene(s) | Phenotype(s) | Release location | Acreage |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cornell University | 07/21/09 | Issued | Coat protein—donor: Grapevine fan leaf virus resistant | Grapevine Fan leaf Nepovirus Resistant | CA, USA | 4 |
University of Florida | 09/27/07 | Acknowledged | FL, USA | 1.1 | ||
University of Florida | 09/27/07 | Acknowledged | Lytic peptide gene for bacterial resistance | Powdery Mildew Resistant BR— | FL, USA | 1.1 |
University of Florida | 09/27/07 | Acknowledged | Endogenous gene for fungal resistance—grape lytic peptide gene for bacterial resistance | Powdery Mildew Resistant BR— | FL, USA | 1.1 |
University of Florida | 09/27/07 | Acknowledged | Lytic peptide gene for bacterial resistance | FL, USA | 1.1 | |
University of Florida | 09/27/07 | Acknowledged | Lytic peptide gene for bacterial resistance | FL, USA | 1.1 | |
University of Florida | 09/13/06 | Acknowledged | Synthetic lytic peptide gene Grape thaumatin-like protein gene | Fungal Resistant, Bacteria Resistant | FL, USA | |
University of Florida | 09/13/06 | Acknowledged | Neomycin phosphotransferase (NPTII)* Synthetic lytic peptide gene cercopin of Silkworm Grape thaumatin-like protein gene | Fungal Resistant, FR—Fungal Resistant, —Bacteria Resistant | FL, USA | |
University of Florida | 09/13/06 | Acknowledged | Synthetic lytic peptide gene cercopin of Silkworm Grape thaumatin-like protein gene | Bacteria Resistant, Fungal Resistant | FL, USA | |
State University of New York | 08/02/06 | Acknowledged | Lignan biosynthesis protein from peas | Powdery Mildew Resistant | NY, USA | 1 |
Cornell University | 03/03/06 | Acknowledged | Antimicrobial peptide from Magainin from | Pathogen resistant | TX, USA | 0.1 |
State University of New York | 04/11/05 | Acknowledged | Lignan biosynthesis protein | Powdery Mildew Resistant | NY, USA | 1 |
Transgenic grape plants in field trails resistance to major pathogens.
Different strategies and genes have been used in genetic engineering to enhance resistance to major plant pathogens [71]. Expression of a fungal endochitinase gene in cv. “Chardonnay” led to reduced symptoms of powdery mildew and
The expression of synthetic magainins, such as Myp30 [80] and MSI99 in transgenic plants via either the chloroplast genome [81] or in the nuclear genome [82], led to enhanced resistance against bacterial and fungal pathogens. The studies in “Chardonnay” (
The most devastating diseases in the southeastern United States include Pierce’s disease commonly present on bunch grapes and anthracnose that infects Florida hybrid bunch grapes (Figure 1) [83]. Pierce’s disease, caused by the bacterium
Common diseases of grapes. Note: The picture of a downy mildew infection is from Ya Li Zhang, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China.
A study was conducted at the Center for Viticulture and Small Fruit Research, Tallahassee, Florida, USA, to understand the molecular basis of Pierce’s disease tolerance by employing subtractive hybridization (SH) and real-time PCR for the detection and characterization of transcripts, which are differentially expressed in the xylem tissue challenged by PD bacterium. Results obtained from the SH analysis of 300 partial cDNAs indicated high to moderate expression patterns in PD-tolerant
Transgenic Pierce’s disease-resistant plants have been developed using polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins (PGIPs) and antimicrobial peptides. PGIPs are plant cell wall proteins that specifically inhibit fungal endo-polygalacturonases (PGs) that contribute to an aggressive decomposition of susceptible plant tissues. The inhibition of fungal PGs by PGIPs suggested that PGIPs have a role in plant tolerance to fungal infections, and this has been confirmed in transgenic plants expressing PGIPs. The bacterium,
AMPs are particularly effective against bacteria since they disrupt cell membranes. To date, transgenic plants with antimicrobial peptides have been generated. The plants included 76 “Chardonnay” lines and transformed with two magainin-type genes, mag2 and MSI99, as well as a PGL class gene. The primary objective of the research was to study the potential resistance to Pierce’s disease of magainin- and PGL-producing vines. A newly designed antimicrobial peptide was developed based on natural antibacterial toxins. For example, shiva-1 peptide was designed with a significantly different sequence from natural cecropin B (46% homology) [85, 86]. A more advanced generation of lytic peptides was based on the synthesis of newly designed antimicrobial peptides instead of its natural antibacterial toxin [86]. The design of synthetic antimicrobial peptides with predetermined structures and properties led to improved stability of these gene products and enhanced their protection property against proteases in the transformed plants.
In another research with the objective to control Pierce’s disease, Aguero et al. [87] studied transgenic plants of grape cvs. “Chardonnay” and “Thompson Seedless” by expressing the pear polygalacturonase protein (pGIP). They reported a delayed development of Pierce’s disease in some of the transgenic lines. The lines had reduced leaf scorching, lower titers of
Genetic resources possessing genes for resistance to many fungal diseases have been found in
Recently, researchers at the Center for Viticulture and Small Fruit Research, Tallahassee, Florida, USA, successfully identified genes/gene products from Florida hybrid grape that are uniquely expressed in response to anthracnose infestation postinoculation with pure cultures of
The grape industry must maintain and expand grape production despite increasing constraints caused by pests, diseases, and abiotic stressors. Biotechnology represents one of the most promising approaches that can bridge the knowledge gap that exists since it is crucial for the introduction of single gene determinants with defined phenotypic traits. In addition to aiding the production of grapevine varieties (disease-resistant and stress-tolerant), biotechnology has also contributed to the modification of numerous quality traits, such as color, flavor, ripening characteristics, and modulation of specific metabolites with potential health benefits. Multiple genes for disease resistance and/or modification of quality traits should be inserted simultaneously into grape cultivars. However, researchers are still concerned that the product of a single gene could readily be overcome by virulent pathogens. New genes are being sought from grapevines and other close relatives with an attempt to create a comprehensive genetic gene pool for the improvement of grapevines. Genetically altered vines should be subjected to stringent field testing to assure the public that ultimately the technology will be safe and will not alter essential traits of both the vine and the fruit. These advantages can only be realized if concrete strategies are put in place to overcome potential technical hurdles. Strategies should be put in place that involve a comprehensive regulatory framework to improve the general public acceptance of such biotechnology-derived foods.
The corresponding author Kambiranda D would like to acknowledge the funds received from USDA-Evans-Allen project 621660.
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Its first known use in rehabilitation published by Max North named as “Virtual Environments and Psychological Disorders” (1994). Virtual reality uses special programmed computers, visual devices and artificial environments for the clients’ rehabilitation. Throughout technological improvements, virtual reality devices changed from therapeutic gloves to augmented reality environments. Virtual reality was being used in different rehabilitation professions such as occupational therapy, physical therapy, psychology and so on. In spite of common virtual reality approach of different professions, each profession aims different outcomes in rehabilitation. Virtual reality in occupational therapy generally focuses on hand and upper extremity functioning, cognitive rehabilitation, mental disorders, etc. Positive effects of virtual reality were mentioned in different studies, which are higher motivation than non‐simulated environments, active participation of the participants, supporting motor learning, fun environment and risk‐free environment. Additionally, virtual reality was told to be used as assessment. This chapter will focus on usage of virtual reality in occupational therapy, history and recent developments, types of virtual reality technologic equipment, pros and cons, usage for pediatric, adult and geriatric people and recent research and articles.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Orkun Tahir Aran, Sedef Şahin, Berkan Torpil, Tarık Demirok and\nHülya Kayıhan",authors:[{id:"172938",title:"Prof.",name:"Hulya",middleName:null,surname:"Kayihan",slug:"hulya-kayihan",fullName:"Hulya Kayihan"},{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"196848",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Orkun Tahir",middleName:null,surname:"Aran",slug:"orkun-tahir-aran",fullName:"Orkun Tahir Aran"},{id:"197159",title:"Mr.",name:"Tarık",middleName:null,surname:"Demirok",slug:"tarik-demirok",fullName:"Tarık Demirok"},{id:"197312",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Berkan",middleName:null,surname:"Torpil",slug:"berkan-torpil",fullName:"Berkan Torpil"}]},{id:"61806",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78312",title:"Executive Functions and Neurology in Children and Adolescents",slug:"executive-functions-and-neurology-in-children-and-adolescents",totalDownloads:1731,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This chapter discusses the theoretical and methodological issues of creating a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Focusing on school periods, this section outlines the development of the basic components of EF—inhibition, working memory, and attention. Cognitive and neurophysiological evaluations show that despite the emergence of EF in the first few years of life, it continues to grow significantly in childhood and adolescence. The components vary slightly according to their developmental sequence. The chapter links findings to long-standing developmental issues (i.e. developmental sequences and processes) and suggests the necessary research to establish a developmental framework covering early childhood throughout adolescence.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Gokcen Akyurek",authors:[{id:"197265",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokcen",middleName:null,surname:"Akyurek",slug:"gokcen-akyurek",fullName:"Gokcen Akyurek"}]},{id:"56049",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69101",title:"Measurement of Participation: The Role Checklist Version 3: Satisfaction and Performance",slug:"measurement-of-participation-the-role-checklist-version-3-satisfaction-and-performance",totalDownloads:2800,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Participation in society is an area of interest to both clinicians and population researchers. Measurement of participation is therefore important, yet differences in definition, in terms of both content and scope, have made general agreement on one instrument tool elusive. What is recognized is the need for a theoretically based tool that captures both the insider and the outsider perspective. The outsider perspective, inclusive of the generally held views of a society, supports the utility for aggregating population data, whereas the insider perspective provides the internally held views of an individual needed for client-centered treatment planning. The Role Checklist Version 3 modifies one of the most commonly used assessment tools in occupational therapy practice, has good preliminary psychometric properties, and is theoretically consistent with both the ICF and the Model of Human Occupation. The Model of Human Occupation is the most widely used theoretical model in occupational therapy. This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical development, empirical testing, and implications for use of this participation measure by occupational therapists along with implications for population researchers.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Patricia J. Scott, Kelsey McKinney, Jeff Perron, Emily Ruff and Jessica\nSmiley",authors:[{id:"195495",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia J",middleName:null,surname:"Scott",slug:"patricia-j-scott",fullName:"Patricia J Scott"},{id:"208801",title:"Dr.",name:"Kelsey G.",middleName:null,surname:"McKinney",slug:"kelsey-g.-mckinney",fullName:"Kelsey G. McKinney"},{id:"208802",title:"Mr.",name:"Jeffrey M.",middleName:null,surname:"Perron",slug:"jeffrey-m.-perron",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Perron"},{id:"208803",title:"Dr.",name:"Emily G.",middleName:null,surname:"Ruff",slug:"emily-g.-ruff",fullName:"Emily G. Ruff"},{id:"208804",title:"Dr.",name:"Jessica L.",middleName:null,surname:"Smiley",slug:"jessica-l.-smiley",fullName:"Jessica L. Smiley"}]},{id:"55024",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68463",title:"Occupational Therapy in Oncology and Palliative Care",slug:"occupational-therapy-in-oncology-and-palliative-care",totalDownloads:2664,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Cancer is a chronic disease that may occur in both children and adults. Occupational therapy focuses on the activity limitations and participation problems in their life. Oncology rehabilitation involves in helping an individual with cancer to regain maximum physical, psychological, cognitive, social, and vocational functioning with the limits up to disease and its treatments in an interdisciplinary team concept. These treatment options are associated with the risk of some side effects, including fatigue, pain, cognitive problems, decrease in bone density and muscle endurance, weight loss, and stress- or anxiety-related psychosocial problems. Occupational therapy approaches are a holistic view in a client center and use training in activities of daily living, assistive technology, education of energy conservation techniques, and management of treatment-related problems, such as pain, fatigue, and nausea. In palliative and hospice care, occupational therapists support clients with cancer by minimizing the secondary symptoms related to cancer and its treatments. At the end of life, occupational therapy offers to identify the roles and activities that are meaningful and purposeful to the client with cancer and try to determine the barriers that limit their performance. Clients with cancer who have childhood cancer or adult cancer can face problems about body structure and functions, activity, and participation, which may limit their participation to their daily life.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Sedef Şahin, Semin Akel and Meral Zarif",authors:[{id:"183079",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sedef",middleName:null,surname:"Şahin",slug:"sedef-sahin",fullName:"Sedef Şahin"},{id:"183078",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu Semin",middleName:null,surname:"Akel",slug:"burcu-semin-akel",fullName:"Burcu Semin Akel"},{id:"198859",title:"Dr.",name:"Meral",middleName:null,surname:"Zarif",slug:"meral-zarif",fullName:"Meral Zarif"}]},{id:"69611",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89596",title:"What to Expect: Medical Quality Outcomes and Achievements of a Multidisciplinary Inpatient Musculoskeletal System Rehabilitation",slug:"what-to-expect-medical-quality-outcomes-and-achievements-of-a-multidisciplinary-inpatient-musculoske",totalDownloads:753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The incidence of chronic diseases is rising. Rehabilitation plays a vital role in preventing and minimizing the functional limitations associated with chronic conditions and aging. Routine outcome measures include disease-specific and unspecific general health parameters. This study evaluates indicators for medical quality outcomes from 10,373 patients (61.00 ± 13.65 years, 51.7% women) who have undergone orthopedic rehabilitation for three weeks. Inpatient rehabilitation reduces lifestyle-related risk factors, optimizes organ functioning and improves the well-being in the majority of patients (81.3%; SMD = 0.52 ± 0.38). Improvements of unspecific and indication specific outcome parameters can be observed in a comparable magnitude. However, disease specific and unspecific health factors are not directly related to each other (r = 0.19). Age, gender, ICD-classification and time of rehabilitation have an influence on initial values and on indication-specific medical outcomes but are insignificant with regards to improvements in unspecific medical outcome parameters. Inpatient rehabilitation includes two main pathways of medical practice, which can be clearly distinguished in terms of their therapeutic outcome. There are general health interventions, such as lifestyle modifications, diet and physical exercise, and symptom-specific treatments. So multidisciplinary medical rehabilitation improves general well-being and physical functioning as well as reduces risk factors in the majority of patients.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Vincent Grote, Alexandra Unger, Henry Puff and Elke Böttcher",authors:[{id:"308501",title:"M.D.",name:"Henry",middleName:null,surname:"Puff",slug:"henry-puff",fullName:"Henry Puff"},{id:"308502",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Grote",slug:"vincent-grote",fullName:"Vincent Grote"},{id:"309934",title:"Dr.",name:"Elke",middleName:null,surname:"Böttcher",slug:"elke-bottcher",fullName:"Elke Böttcher"},{id:"310535",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Unger",slug:"alexandra-unger",fullName:"Alexandra Unger"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55080",title:"Life Skills in Occupational Therapy",slug:"life-skills-in-occupational-therapy",totalDownloads:6021,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Occupational therapy is a health profession that uses the purposeful activities to achieve multiple and complex rehabilitation aims. The main goals of the occupational therapy are to support the reintegration of individuals in daily living skills as well as to increase their independence and autonomy. Interventions of occupational therapists have primarily focused on self-care, productivity, and leisure time activities. Since the life skills includes a wide range of abilities that enable a person to perform personal care and more complicated tasks such as traveling, shopping, community participation etc., occupational therapists provide life skills training programs to meet the needs of the clients. This chapter aims to contribute to the current understanding and practices of life skills from an occupational therapy perspective. The chapter starts with a brief discussion of the importance of life skills in occupational therapy. After this introduction, the first part takes a look at the definition of life skills and identifies core components of life skills. The second part describes assessment and interventions of life skills. The third one gives an overview about school life skills programs for children and adolescents. Finally, the last part explains some life skills programs in people with disadvantages.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Hatice Abaoğlu, Özge Buket Cesim, Sinem Kars and Zeynep Çelik",authors:[{id:"197551",title:"Dr.",name:"Hatice",middleName:null,surname:"Abaoğlu",slug:"hatice-abaoglu",fullName:"Hatice Abaoğlu"},{id:"205199",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinem",middleName:null,surname:"Kars",slug:"sinem-kars",fullName:"Sinem Kars"},{id:"205200",title:"Dr.",name:"Zeynep",middleName:null,surname:"Celik",slug:"zeynep-celik",fullName:"Zeynep Celik"},{id:"205203",title:"Ms.",name:"Özge Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Cesim",slug:"ozge-buket-cesim",fullName:"Özge Buket Cesim"}]},{id:"62493",title:"Occupational Therapy in Forensic Settings",slug:"occupational-therapy-in-forensic-settings",totalDownloads:2515,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"It is necessary for a person to comply with the expectations of society and the rules of law to which these expectations are secured. Offenders turn back to the community after the penalty was executed by isolating from society and some occupations. An occupational imbalance is seen in the individuals, during this penalty period and afterward, because of limited occupational participation. As an occupational being, this affects their physical, mental and psychological well-being. Imprisonment is an important practice in criminal law to punish criminals. This may be necessary for the protection of society from criminals, but successful integration into a community after exiting the prison is the most important factor in preventing recidivism. Occupational therapy focuses on health and well-being by using meaningful and purposeful occupations. Occupation involves any activity that people perform or participate in, such as giving care to themselves or others, working, learning, playing games, and interacting with others. From this perspective, the role of occupational therapists in forensic settings is to determine the abilities of these individuals to congregate their deprived freedoms and use them to train them for an independent and autonomous life; to provide a professional orientation, career counseling, and self-esteem; to gain some habits for physical, spiritual and moral life and to reinforce.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Esma Ozkan, Sümeyye Belhan, Mahmut Yaran and Meral Zarif",authors:null},{id:"70122",title:"Parkinson’s Disease Rehabilitation: Effectiveness Approaches and New Perspectives",slug:"parkinson-s-disease-rehabilitation-effectiveness-approaches-and-new-perspectives",totalDownloads:2029,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Parkinson’s disease has been considered one of the most important and common neurodegenerative diseases in the world. Its motor and nonmotor signs determine a huge functional loss, leading the individuals to lose their independence. Although the treatment requires a pharmacological approach, physical therapy has confirmed its importance in this process. Today, neurorehabilitation is indispensable to increase many of the cardinal signs of the disease. Using traditional or technological approaches, physical therapy has reached good results in improving motor and nonmotor functions, as well as the quality of life of Parkinsonians. However, it is important to develop and to fortify the physical therapy approach so that we can provide stronger evidence about our practice.",book:{id:"7543",slug:"physical-therapy-effectiveness",title:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness",fullTitle:"Physical Therapy Effectiveness"},signatures:"Luciana Auxiliadora de Paula Vasconcelos",authors:[{id:"98546",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Auxiliadora",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula Vasconcelos",slug:"luciana-auxiliadora-de-paula-vasconcelos",fullName:"Luciana Auxiliadora De Paula Vasconcelos"}]},{id:"62210",title:"Occupational Therapy’s Role in the Treatment of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders",slug:"occupational-therapy-s-role-in-the-treatment-of-children-with-autism-spectrum-disorders",totalDownloads:2725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Occupational therapists (OT) offer a wide range of therapies for individuals with ASD on the basis of specific deficits and difficulties. This chapter explores the role that OT plays, and the expertise, in relation to the interdisciplinary team. In addition, it discusses and presents empirical support for several therapeutic approaches commonly used by OTs working with individuals with ASD.",book:{id:"6772",slug:"occupational-therapy-therapeutic-and-creative-use-of-activity",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Therapeutic and Creative Use of Activity"},signatures:"Bryan M. Gee, Amy Nwora and Theodore W. Peterson",authors:null},{id:"55049",title:"Community Participation in People with Disabilities",slug:"community-participation-in-people-with-disabilities",totalDownloads:2405,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Despite the fact that participation is an important building and a valuable target, the conceptualization, identification and measurement methods vary widely. This chapter tried to gain an insider’s perspective from the obstacles that summarize what meaning participation means, how to characterize it, and what prevents and supports participation. Participation is seen as a right and a responsibility attributed to and attributed to both the person and the community. Participation does not take place in a vacuum; the environment dynamically influences participation. The effects of this conceptual framework are discussed for change at the level of evaluation, research and systems to support the participation of the people with disability.",book:{id:"5711",slug:"occupational-therapy-occupation-focused-holistic-practice-in-rehabilitation",title:"Occupational Therapy",fullTitle:"Occupational Therapy - Occupation Focused Holistic Practice in Rehabilitation"},signatures:"Gokcen Akyurek and Gonca Bumin",authors:[{id:"32431",title:"Prof.",name:"Gonca",middleName:null,surname:"Bumin",slug:"gonca-bumin",fullName:"Gonca Bumin"},{id:"197265",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokcen",middleName:null,surname:"Akyurek",slug:"gokcen-akyurek",fullName:"Gokcen Akyurek"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"198",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:45,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. 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Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",biography:"Dr. Emad Shalaby is a professor of biochemistry on the Biochemistry Department Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University. He\nreceived a short-term scholarship to carry out his post-doctoral\nstudies abroad, from Japan International Cooperation Agency\n(JICA), in coordination with the Egyptian government. Dr.\nShalaby speaks fluent English and his native Arabic. He has 77\ninternationally published research papers, has attended 15 international conferences, and has contributed to 18 international books and chapters.\nDr. Shalaby works as a reviewer on over one hundred international journals and is\non the editorial board of more than twenty-five international journals. He is a member of seven international specialized scientific societies, besides his local one, and\nhe has won seven prizes.",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{},onlineFirstChapters:{},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. 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