\r\n\tThere are a variety of approaches to reversing biodiversity loss, ranging from economic, to ecological and ethical. The utilitarian approach to conservation, bolstered by the concept of ecosystem services, can be utilized to improve the conservation case by supplementing the burgeoning biodiversity rhetoric. To address this issue, a pluralistic approach to biodiversity is required for conservation and sustainability.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-339-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-338-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-340-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ab014f8ed1669757335225786833e9a9",bookSignature:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, Dr. Jahangeer Bhat and Dr. Sumit Chakravarty",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11460.jpg",keywords:"Ecosystem Services, Intrinsic Value, Global Trends in Biodiversity Loss, Convention on Biological Diversity, Utilitarian Value, Biodiversity Conservation, Perception, In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation, Nature Conservation, Sustainable Development Goals, Drivers of Degradation, Prioritizing Biodiversity",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, prior to becoming an assistant professor, has worked under NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project), NICRA ( National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture), and SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board) projects. The focus of his research and development work is forest conservation. He has authored 75 research papers, 10 book chapters and has edited 5 books.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Jahangeer is a Guest Associate Editor in Frontiers in the Environmental Science journal and is the first researcher to report the first time growing of Acacia dealbata Link. (Silver Wattle), an invasive species in the high altitudes of the Himalayas. He has 11 years of research and 8 years of teaching experience with a publication record of more than 60, including research articles, review papers, conference papers, and books of national and international repute.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Chakravarty, Ph. D., has a wide experience in forestry training, research, and development. He is currently working as a Professor in Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He has conducted research on several aspects of forestry, agroforestry, medicinal plants, and climate change. He has trained many students in these fields. The focus of his research and development work is on forest ecology and conservation.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"101105",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"gopal-shukla",fullName:"Gopal Shukla",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101105/images/system/101105.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, Ph.D., is currently an assistant professor of Forestry in Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He holds an MSc and Ph.D. in Forestry from Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya. Before joining the university, he worked under NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project), NICRA ( National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture), and SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board) projects. The focus of his research and development work is forest ecology and conservation.",institutionString:"North Bengal Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"North Bengal Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"329967",title:"Dr.",name:"Jahangeer",middleName:null,surname:"Bhat",slug:"jahangeer-bhat",fullName:"Jahangeer Bhat",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329967/images/system/329967.png",biography:"Jahangeer A. Bhat, Ph.D., is a former head of the Department of Forestry, College of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Fiji National University, Republic of Fiji Islands. Dr. Jahangeer has worked as a counsellor, mentor, and coordinator for forestry academic programmes. He has been instrumental in developing HE and TVET streams of forestry and allied programmes and worked closely in accreditation with the Fiji Higher Education Commission and forestry stakeholders. Before joining Fiji National University, he worked for HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, India, and has 11 years of research and 8 years of teaching experience with a publication record of more than 60, including research articles, review papers, conference papers, and books of national and international repute. Dr. Jahangeer reviews research articles for several scientific journals and has handled research projects in his capacity as Principal Investigator and Co-Principal Investigator. His major interests lie in emerging issues in forestry including conservation of biodiversity, traditional knowledge of plants, and sustainable management of forest resources. His focus of research is vegetation ecology, ethnobotany, and evaluation of ecosystem services, forest plant biodiversity, climate change, and socio-cultural issues in forestry. Dr. Jahangeer is currently working at the College of Horticulture and Forestry, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, India.",institutionString:"Central Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Central Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"94999",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumit",middleName:null,surname:"Chakravarty",slug:"sumit-chakravarty",fullName:"Sumit Chakravarty",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94999/images/system/94999.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sumit Chakravarty, Ph.D., has wide experience in forestry training, research, and development. He is currently a professor at Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He holds an MSc in Forestry and a Ph.D. in Agronomy from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. He has conducted research on several aspects of forestry, agroforestry, medicinal plants, and climate change. He has trained many students in these fields. The focus of his research and development work is on forest ecology and conservation.",institutionString:"North Bengal Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"North Bengal Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5539",title:"Forest Ecology and Conservation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6bd160f6d1da73fc253dfe6c4df7c095",slug:"forest-ecology-and-conservation",bookSignature:"Sumit Chakravarty and Gopal Shukla",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5539.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101105",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal",surname:"Shukla",slug:"gopal-shukla",fullName:"Gopal Shukla"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6264",title:"Forest Biomass and Carbon",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"964f96c9209ff2a3eaf3c5c6a54d81c3",slug:"forest-biomass-and-carbon",bookSignature:"Gopal Shukla and Sumit Chakravarty",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6264.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101105",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal",surname:"Shukla",slug:"gopal-shukla",fullName:"Gopal Shukla"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9841",title:"Agroforestry",subtitle:"Small Landholder’s Tool for Climate Change Resiliency and Mitigation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec5444e2a12dcd63ab9e7246d93a63ab",slug:"agroforestry-small-landholder-s-tool-for-climate-change-resiliency-and-mitigation",bookSignature:"Gopal Shukla, Sumit Chakravarty, Pankaj Panwar and Jahangeer A. Bhat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9841.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101105",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal",surname:"Shukla",slug:"gopal-shukla",fullName:"Gopal Shukla"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57660",title:"Structural Modifications of KrF Excimer Laser-Ablated Zirconium Correlated to the Surface and Mechanical Properties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70952",slug:"structural-modifications-of-krf-excimer-laser-ablated-zirconium-correlated-to-the-surface-and-mechan",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Laser-induced micro and nanostructuring of materials is a versatile approach to modify the material properties for enhanced thermal properties [1], optical absorption [2], field emission properties [3], biocompatibility [4], hydrophobicity [5], and tribological performance [6]. The interaction of laser radiations with solid materials, accompanied by a variety of instabilities, may result in the formation of various surface features, for example, laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSSs), cracks, nanodots, nanopores or nanocavities, and grains [7, 8].
\n
Nanofabrication based on laser ablation strongly depends on parameters of laser beam, such as number of pulses, pulse duration, wavelength, fluence, and material’s nature as well as the environmental conditions and their nanochemical effects [8]. With increasing number of pulses, the incubation effects become dominant, causing the reduction in ablation threshold of the irradiated material. For metallic targets, incubation effects are related to the accumulation of plastic deformation produced by laser-induced thermal stresses [9]. Materials ablation in liquid-confined environment has become an important technique for the production of debris-free microstructures on material’s surface. The presence of a dense medium adjoining to the molten layer of the target causes various instabilities. Various kinds of structures can be grown due to the viscous flow of the vapors of the surrounding liquid and its chemical reaction with the metals. Shock wave generation, confinement and shielding effects, different cooling and quenching rates, and different chemical reactivity of the environment significantly affects the ablation efficiency of the target material [1, 8] without momentous effect on the stoichiometry of the target, and results in the development of cavitation bubbles and colloids owing to the formation of metal alcohols and oxides. Several physical processes such as formation of plasma, condensation, agglomeration, nucleation and coalescence are accountable for the formation and growth of nanostructures in the presence of reactive environment [10]. Particles and nanostructures produced by this process show liquid’s dense vapors interaction with the molten layer produced on the surface of target. Such interactions are attributable to hydrodynamic instabilities under such circumstances. The molten layer acts as a source for the formation of nanoparticles and nanostructure. When beam focus passes through liquids, several nonlinear effects [11] as well as higher harmonic generation, filamentation and self-phase modulation take place. Considerable literature is already reported on liquid-based pulsed laser ablation of metals. Barminaa et al. reported the improvement in thermionic properties of tungsten surface after ablation in liquid environment [12]. Ablation of materials in the presence of surrounding liquid includes heat transfer through convection/conduction and motion of bubbles, which is responsible for the removal of particles redeposited over the surface and reduces the oxidation of debris [13]; as a result, the enhanced coupling of energy to the target is directed to hygienic and clean target surface [14].
\n
The purpose of structural, surface, and mechanical modification of Zr by irradiation with nanosecond laser is to develop and alter its widespread functional, physical, chemical, and mechanical characteristics such as wear, hardness, and corrosion resistance etc. The development of several surface structures can be well associated with the increase of chemical reactivity of Zr. To achieve the enhanced chemical and mechanical properties, Zr targets were irradiated with KrF excimer laser for varying number of pulses ranging from 500 to 2000, in the presence of deionized water and ethanol. Various diagnostic techniques such as X-ray diffractometry (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and Vickers hardness techniques were utilized to relate the surface morphology and hardness with the variations in chemical composition and crystallinity after irradiation.
\n
\n
\n
2. Experimental setup
\n
KrF excimer laser (EX 200/125-157 GAM Laser, USA) of pulse duration of 20 ns, pulse energy of 70 mJ, repetition rate of 20 Hz, and wavelength of 248 nm was employed for irradiation of Zr targets. The unfocused beam was rectangular with size 11 × 7 mm. The beam was focused by using a circular lens of 50 cm focal length and the focused beam spot appeared elliptical with major and minor axis of 2.5 × 1 mm, respectively.
\n
Zr was bought from Alfa Aesar with purity 99.9%. EDS of the untreated and laser-irradiated samples was performed to check the elemental composition of targets before and after irradiation. Table 1 shows the wt.% of elements present in untreated and treated samples. Zr targets rectangular in shape (dimensions: 8 × 8 × 2 mm) were grinded and polished to get mirror-like surface in order to decrease the surface roughness and to enhance the quality of the surface. The polished samples were cleaned ultrasonically for 30 minutes with acetone. These polished samples were then placed in quartz cuvette (Cuvette dimensions: 10 × 10 × 45 mm). Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of the experimental setup. Threshold fluence for Zr was calculated by using following relation [15].
The comparative EDX analysis of the unirradiated and central-ablated area of zirconium target after excimer laser irradiation at a fluence of 3.6 J/cm2, wavelength of 248 nm, pulse duration of 20 ns, and repetition rate of 20 Hz for 1000 laser pulses under ambient environments of deionized water and ethanol.
\n
Figure 1.
Schematic diagram of experimental setup.
\n
where “Lv” is the specific heat of vaporization per unit mass, “\n\nρ\n\n” is the density of sample, “a” is the thermal diffusivity (a = K/\n\nρ\n\nC, where C and K are the specific heat and thermal conductivity respectively), and te is the pulse duration of laser and their values are, \n\nρ\n\n = 6.52 g/cm3, Lv = 6375 J/g, a = 0.1246 cm2/s, te = 20 ns by substituting the values in above equation, we get the value of threshold fluence, which comes out to be 2.08 J/cm2. Zr targets were exposed for several number of overlapping laser pulses ranging from 500 to 2000, for laser fluence of 3.6 J/cm2, which is higher than the threshold fluence. The ablation threshold fluence is the minimum fluence to generate a surface damage that can be seen under the SEM. For nanostructuring of materials, fluence should be higher than the threshold fluence and in order to avoid intense heating/melting and burning of the samples, fluence should not be very high.
\n
Absorption coefficient for deionized water has value of 5.05 × 10−3/cm [16], whereas for ethanol its value is 4 × 10−2/cm [17]. It shows that ethanol will absorb more energy than deionized water; so, less energy will reach the target surface in case of ethanol. This shows that the threshold fluence value will be more for ethanol than deionized water. Experiment was conducted in two steps: (a) nanosecond laser ablation of Zr in ambient environment of deionized water, (b) nanosecond laser ablation of Zr in ambient environment of ethanol. Before exposure to laser, every time fresh liquid was filled in the cuvette with 4 mm thickness over the sample.
\n
To evaluate the crystal structure and phase analysis of the irradiated Zr targets X-ray diffractometer (X’Pert PRO (MPD)) was employed. For chemical analysis, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS-S3700 N) was used. Raman spectroscopic analysis was performed to determine the structural modification of laser-ablated Zr. Scanning electron microscope (SEM-JEOL JSM-6480 LV) was employed to study the surface morphology of ablated targets. Hardness was evaluated by employing the Vickers microhardness tester (HV-1000A).
\n
\n
\n
3. Results and discussion
\n
\n
3.1. Effect on surface microstructure
\n
Figure 2 shows the XRD pattern of unirradiated Zr target. Unirradiated sample shows the presence of Zr (100), (002), (101), (102), (110), (103), (004), and (104) plane reflections.
\n
Figure 2.
XRD patterns of unirradiated zirconium.
\n
Figure 3a represents the XRD diffractograms of laser-irradiated Zr targets, in an ambient environment of deionized water, for varying number of laser pulses ranging from 500 to 2000. Figure 3b shows the variation in crystallite size and residual stresses with increase in number of laser pulses. New phases of Zr oxides (zirconia): ZrO2 (−111) (111), (212), (321), (220), Zr3O (201), (200), (217) and Zr hydrides: ZrH2 (112), ZrH (123) are also detected together with the original phases of Zr.
\n
Figure 3.
(a) XRD patterns of excimer laser-irradiated zirconium samples, (b) variation in the crystallite size and residual stresses of laser-irradiated zirconium for various number of overlapping laser pulses in an ambient environment of deionized water.
\n
For ZrO2 (212) plane reflection, the crystallite size is calculated by using Scherrer’s formula [18].
where d is the observed, d0 is the standard plane spacing, and ε is the induced strain.
\n
By using the relation given below, the induced stresses are calculated
\n
\n\nStress\n\n\nσ\n\n=\n\nεE\n\nE4
\n
where ε is the strain, E is the young’s modulus for ZrO2 and its value is 186.21 GPa [19].
\n
Intensity of peak and crystallite size of ZrO2 (212) reflection plane first decreases and then increases with increase in number of laser pulses, Figure 3a,b. Initial reduction in the intensity of peak is due to the recrystallization of the irradiated targets during resolidification after melting.
\n
After irradiation with laser, the larger crystallites breakup into smaller ones (Figure 3b) that also results in decrease in peak intensity [20]. The decrease in size of the crystallites is also credited to the interstitial diffusion of the gas atoms, which causes the peak broadening owing to the variation of d-spacing [21]. The ablated Zr atoms chemically react with atoms of the surrounding gas (oxygen/hydrogen) and redeposit on the target surface after the formation of oxides and hydrides. Formation of theses oxides and hydrides is attributable for the decrease in crystallite size [22]. The possible defect production and growth of residual stresses might also be considered to be other reasons for decrease in the crystallite size [22]. An increase in stacking faults and structural disorder owing to the diffusion of hydrogen/oxygen widens the XRD peaks [23]. Increases in density of point defects affect the crystallinity and grain boundary mobility, which in turns causes a linear increase in the FWHM of XRD peak. The increase in intensity of the peak and crystallinity of ZrO2 (212) reflection plane is due to the increased oxygen diffusion into the surface across the boundaries of grains and enhancement in the X-ray’s diffraction from the surface of the target [24]. The diffusion of oxygen in Zr after irradiation is exhibited in EDX analysis depicted in Table 1. The microstructure and Bragg’s conditions of diffraction of Zr surface gets modified after the interaction with nanosecond laser. These variations in the microstructure and Bragg’s conditions of diffraction are attributable to the variation in d-spacing and intensity of diffraction lines. The variation in laser-induced residual stresses for a variety of number of laser pulses is exhibited in Figure 3b.
\n
Laser-induced thermal shocks and lattice defects generated by oxygen ions incorporation into the lattice may cause residual stress variation. Compressive stresses are generally due to ion implantation, whereas laser-induced thermal shocks are responsible for tensile stresses [25]. For 500 number of laser pulses, high tensile stresses are present, which relax on increase in number of laser pulses to 1000. The defects and stresses produced by initial pulses are annealed and relaxed after successive pulses. When number of pulses are increased up to a value of 2000, thermally induced shocks results into increasing tensile stresses [24].
\n
XRD patterns displayed in Figure 4a confirms the presence of oxides (zirconia) and hydrides of zirconium after irradiation in an ambient environment of ethanol for various number of overlapping laser pulses of (a) 500, (b) 1000, (c) 1500, and (d) 2000. New phases of zirconium oxides (zirconia): ZrO2 (111), (212), (321), (114), Zr3O (201), Zr3O (217), and zirconium hydrides: ZrH (123) and ZrH2 (112) (appeared after 1000 laser pulses) are observed along with the original phases of zirconium.
\n
Figure 4.
(a) XRD patterns of excimer laser-irradiated zirconium samples, (b) variation in the crystallite size and stresses of laser-irradiated zirconium for various number of overlapping laser pulses in an ambient environment of ethanol.
\n
Decrease in intensity (Figure 4a) and crystallinity (Figure 4b) of ZrO2 (212) plane reflection is observed with increasing number of laser pulses up to 2000. Decrease in peak intensity and crystallite size is attributable to interstitial diffusion of oxygen atoms/ions. Interstitial diffusion of oxygen atoms/ions induces microstrain defects and these induced defects causes an increase in FWHM and reduction in the peak intensity and crystallite size.
\n
Figure 4b also represents variation in induced stresses of zirconium after irradiation with various number of laser pulses. For 500 number of laser pulses, tensile stresses are observed. They relax with increasing number of laser pulses up to 2000. This relaxation is due to reduction in crystallite size. Diffusion of oxygen/hydrogen atoms into the surface causes the decrease in crystallite size and hence causes the highly tensile stresses to be relaxed.
\n
Comparison of XRD data of ablated zirconium in deionized water (Figure 3) and ethanol (Figure 4) shows the presence of oxides (zirconia) and hydrides of zirconium for both media.
\n
Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was carried out for chemical analysis of unirradiated and irradiated zirconium targets. Unirradiated sample shows following contents: zirconium ∼ 87.52 wt.%, balanced to 100% by B (∼2.78 wt.%), C (∼2.82 wt.%), O (~4.91), Re (∼1.97 wt.%). Table 1 shows the comparative EDX analysis of the unirradiated and central-ablated area of Zr target after excimer laser irradiation under ambient environments of deionized water and ethanol. The increase in the content of oxygen from 4.91 wt.% to a value of 21.52 wt.% is observed in case of deionized water, whereas less diffusion of oxygen (15.55 wt.%) but increase in content of carbon from 2.82 to 3.36 wt.% is observed in case of ethanol. Multipulse irradiation induced heating of Zr causes efficient diffusion of atomic oxygen/carbon into the target surface; therefore, oxides and carbides are formed [26].
\n
Figure 5a,b shows the Raman spectra of Zr samples irradiated for various number of laser pulses at a fluence of 3.6 J/cm2 in ambient environments of deionized water and ethanol. Raman modes arise after laser ablation of Zr due to the formation of oxides and hydrides of Zr on the metallic surface.
\n
Figure 5.
Raman spectroscopy analysis of excimer laser-irradiated zirconium in an ambient environment of (a) deionized water, (b) ethanol.
\n
For deionized water (Figure 5a), Raman peaks identified at 320, 337 cm−1 represents the Zr─Zr bond. Peak identified at 535 cm−1 corresponds to O─O bond [27], while peaks appearing at 363, 372, 420, 480, and 640 cm−1 are characteristic bands of monoclinic ZrO2 [28] and the peak identified at 269 cm−1 can be assigned to the presence of tetragonal ZrO2 [29]. The inset of Figure 5a represents the identified peak of zirconium hydride (ZrH) at 1597 cm−1.
\n
Figure 5b represents Raman spectra for ethanol environment. Peaks identified at 351, 422, and 538 cm−1 correspond to monoclinic ZrO2 [28]. Raman peaks identified at 269 and 312 cm−1 can be assigned to the presence of tetragonal ZrO2 [29]. Peak identified at 476 corresponds to O─O bond [27]. The inset of Figure 5b represents identified peak of C═O at 1760 cm−1.
\n
The Zr samples after irradiation in deionized water and ethanol consist of a mixture of monoclinic and tetragonal ZrO2 phases. The presence of hydride is confirmed from Raman spectra of samples irradiated in deionized water and the presence of carbon diffusion is confirmed only in case of ethanol. These Raman results are in good agreement with the EDS and XRD results.
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Effect on surface morphology
\n
Figure 6a–e represents the surface morphology of Zr sample after irradiation with various number of overlapping laser pulses at fluence of 3.6 J/cm2 in an ambient environment of deionized water.
\n
Figure 6.
SEM images revealing the surface morphology of (a) overall view of the ablated crater after excimer laser irradiation with 500 laser pulses at a fluence of 3.6 J/cm2, (b–e) magnified SEM images of central-ablated area revealing the variation in surface morphology of zirconium after irradiation under ambient environment of deionized water for various number of overlapping laser pulses, that is, (b) 500, (c) 1000, (d) 1500, and (e) 2000.
\n
Figure 6a exhibits the surface morphology of Zr sample after irradiation with 500 laser pulses. No significant redeposition of the material around the edges of the craters is observed because the ablated species are taken away by the surrounding liquid. Rapid temperature rise during laser-induced plasma expansion/formation generates bubbles in the liquid. The bubble motion is responsible for the removal of ablated particles and hence no redeposition on the target surface is observed [30]. The liquid has played considerable role in ablation of Zr and it effectively cools the target preventing the excessive heat accumulation after laser irradiation.
\n
Figure 6b–e reveals enlarged SEM images of the central-ablated area of Zr in an ambient environment of deionized water for various number of pulses, that is, (b) 500, (c) 1000, (d) 1500, and (e) 2000. Figure 6b reveals the uniform distribution of large number of droplets over the porous surface. Small-sized cavities and cracks are also present with some signs of melting. Further increase in laser pulses up to 1000, few large-sized droplets along with cavities are revealed (Figure 6c). No cracks are observed for 1000 laser pulses. For 1500 number of laser pulses, density of pores and cracks increases significantly (Figure 6d). For 2000 number of pulses, highly porous surface is observed, whereas the droplets and cavities are completely vanished (Figure 6e).
\n
Pulsed laser irradiation of Zr in liquid-confined environment creates high temperature and high pressure plasma, and consequently, high density of excited electrons. These electrons transport their energy to phonons during electron–phonon relaxation. The energy is redistributed during lattice vibrations and as a result, heat is conducted in the Zr target. This heat might melt or vaporize the sample. It is worth noting that the surface morphology of the irradiated Zr consists of large number of pores and cavities. An explosive melt expulsion in the confined environment could be a prevailing process for the laser ablation of Zr in deionized water [31]. These results are well correlated with the change in the crystallinity of the irradiated samples. For 500 number of laser pulses, highly tensile stresses are present (Figure 3b), which are responsible for the presence of cavities and pores over the surface. For 1000 pulses, refilling of cavities by melted and shock-liquefied material causes vanishing of pores and cavities representing the relaxation in tensile stresses [32]. For 2000 laser pulses, highly porous surface shows the presence of enhanced tensile residual stresses after irradiation (Figure 3b).
\n
Figure 7 represents the surface morphology of overall and central-ablated area of Zr samples after irradiation with various overlapping numbers of laser pulses at 3.6 J/cm2 in an ambient environment of ethanol. Figure 7a is an overall view of ablated area exposed to 500 laser pulses. Appearance of the overall ablated area is less distinct or faint as compared to the overall image of ablation spot in case of deionized water. From literature, the observed values of absorbance and absorption coefficient are 0.00086 and 5.05 × 10−3/cm for deionized water [16], whereas 0.0055 and 4 × 10−2/cm for ethanol [17]. This difference in the appearance of ablation spot is attributable to more absorption of energy (0.0055) by ethanol, then deionized water.
\n
Figure 7.
Magnified SEM images of excimer laser-irradiated zirconium at a fluence of 3.6 J/cm2 (a) overall view of sample irradiated with 500 overlapping pulses (b–e) Magnified SEM images of central-ablated area revealing the variation in surface morphology of zirconium after irradiation under ambient environment of ethanol for various number of overlapping laser pulses, that is, (b) 500, (c) 1000, (d) 1500, and (e) 2000.
\n
Figure 7b–e reveals enlarged view of SEM images of the central-ablated area of Zr in an ambient environment of ethanol for various number of pulses, that is, (b) 500, (c) 1000, (d) 1500, and (e) 2000. Figure 7b represents granular morphology with distinct grain boundaries with average grain size of 2.20 μm. With increase in the number of laser pulses up to 1000 increase in size of grains up to 3.06 μm is observed with distinct and wider boundaries (Figure 7c). Further increase in number of pulses up to 1500 shows globules instead of distinct grains. The presence of cracks and large number of pores is also evident (Figure 7d). For 2000 number of laser pulses, material segregates into distinct grains with average grain size of 3.26 μm and much wider grain boundaries (Figure 7e).
\n
Laser-induced heating and cooling, the temperature gradient, and laser-induced residual stresses are responsible for growth of such grains [26]. When the laser pulse is over, the molten material generated by fast heating is supercooled and acts as an effective heat sink that quickly removes any released latent heat and causes the crystal growth. The presence of pores and cracks across the grain boundaries confirms the presence of tensile residual stresses after ablation in ethanol environment.
\n
The presence of various crystal planes is property of the material. Variations in surface morphology can be related to the motion of the crystal planes after laser irradiation due to the production of defects owing to diffusion, which causes the formation of various new crystal planes (ZrO2, Zr3O, ZrH, ZrH2, etc). During irradiation, diffusion of oxygen/carbon/hydrogen caused the increase in density of point defects, stacking faults, and structural disorder, which results in higher angle shifting of planes, which causes the production of compressive stresses. Laser-induced thermal shock causes the peak shift to lower angular position, which confirms the production of tensile residual stresses [25]. Variations in stresses are responsible for the production of various type of surface features, for example, cavities, pores, cracks, droplets, bumps, hillocks, protrusion, etc. after irradiation [21].
\n
In case of ethanol, tensile stresses are present for all laser pulses (from 500 to 2000), but their behavior is not in agreement with the surface morphology especially for 1500 number of laser pulses. We have calculated stress variations for only one plane, that is, ZrO2 (212). But other phases also play role for surface modification after irradiation, for example, with the increase of number of pulses from 500 to 1000 formation of new phases (Zr3O, ZrH2, ZrO2) is observed due to the enhanced diffusion of oxygen/hydrogen across the grain boundaries, which results in increase in grain size (Figure 7b) along with wider grain boundaries. For further increase of number of pulses from 1000 to 1500, some peaks get demolished (ZrO2, Zr3O), whereas growth of some other phases (ZrH, ZrH2, Zr3O) is observed on the target surface. This shows that energy transferred to the target surface after 1500 number of laser pulses causes the laser annealing on target surface. After laser annealing during recovery process, rapid cooling due to the presence of surrounding liquid, some phases do not get sufficient energy to grow, whereas some of them get to grow. This is the reason for different structures over the surface for 1500 pulses (Figure 7c, subsurface boiling, globules, pores, and cracks). For 2000 number of pulses after annealing, due to recrystallization phenomena reduction in peak intensity and increase in FWHM, is observed for almost all phases along with the growth of demolished phases due to the diffusion of oxygen/hydrogen across the boundaries is observed. This variation is responsible for further variation in surface morphology of irradiated zirconium (Figure 7e).
\n
Laser-induced rapid heating, cooling, and a large temperature gradient are considered to be responsible for grain growth. Grain growth occurs as a result of the recrystallization process, which arises during irradiation in order to minimize the absorbed strain and surface energy. The inter planar atomic motion reorients the lattice at the expense of this energy, which leads to the growth of large and smooth grains [33]. Cavities are formed by the liberation of adsorbed gases beneath the surface during laser irradiation, due to volume boiling [34].
\n
Melting of the target surface after laser irradiation activates reaction between the molten surface and surrounding media. After laser irradiation, recrystallization takes place and oxygen, carbon//hydrogen disseminates into the surface (oxygen insertion is confirmed by EDS analysis and hydrogen diffusion is confirmed by XRD analysis) particularly at the grain boundaries, attack and weaken them. The attacked and weakened grain boundary in turn enhances the effect of tensile stress and causes the widening of the grain boundaries [35]. Successive heating by overlapping laser pulses enhances diffusion of oxygen/hydrogen into the molten surface and causing the formation of oxides and hydrides of Zr (confirmed from XRD analysis) [26].
\n
Comparison of two media, deionized water (Figure 6) and ethanol (Figure 7), shows significant dissimilarities. For laser ablation in deionized water porous surface features are observed with large number of pores and cavities over the surface. For ethanol distinct, well defined and small-sized grains are developed. This difference in surface morphology is attributable to the difference in absorption offered by the liquids and difference in chemical reactivity of Zr with both liquids. During irradiation of Zr in liquid environment, plasma plume from the solid target will be generated at the solid-liquid interface and remains confined. A shock wave is created in the plasma plume by the laser-induced plasma due to the confinement of liquid. This shock wave will induce an extra pressure in the laser-induced plasma called plasma-induced pressure [36]. The plasma-induced pressure will lead to an additional temperature increase of the laser-induced plasma. Therefore, the shock wave generated by the expansion of laser-induced plasma, under confinement of liquid pushes the laser-induced plasma into a thermodynamic state of the higher temperature, higher pressure and higher density, and the plume species react with surrounding liquid molecules in this extreme state to form various compounds like ZrO2 (tetragonal and monoclinic), Zr3O, ZrH, and ZrH2 [37].
\n
Intermolecular forces determine the physical and chemical characteristics of a substance, such as boiling and melting points, viscosity, solubility, volatility, and surface tension. Ethanol (C2H6O) is more volatile than water (H2O), and it boils at a much lower temperature (78.24°C) than water (100°C). The strength of the intermolecular forces in ethanol is much less than water. In water, intermolecular hydrogen bonding takes place due to the presence of highly polar O─H bond in the H2O molecule. Ethanol can also participate in hydrogen bonding, but not as successfully as water because it has a non-polar region. Heat of vaporization of water is 44 kJ/mol and its vapor pressure is 3.17 kPa at 25°C, whereas for ethanol, the value of heat of vaporization is 38.56 kJ/mol and its vapor pressure is 5.95 kPa at 25°C. The molar mass of water is 18 g/mol and for ethanol, its value is 46.07 g/mol, which is more than twice the mass of water that means, when 1 g of water evaporates, it absorbs more than two times as much heat as 1 g of ethanol evaporating. So, ethanol boils at a lower temperature than water, and its equilibrium vapor pressure is higher at all temperatures. That is why ethanol is more volatile than water and is responsible for the formation of various compounds of Zr. Physical properties of both liquids are mentioned in Table 2.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Physical properties of liquids
\n
\n
\n
Properties
\n
Deionized water
\n
Ethanol
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Melting point
\n
0°C
\n
−114.14°C
\n
\n
\n
Boiling point
\n
100°C
\n
78.24°C
\n
\n
\n
Viscosity
\n
0.890 mPa·s
\n
1.074 mPa·s
\n
\n
\n
Density
\n
0.9970474 g/cm3
\n
0.7893 g/cm3
\n
\n
\n
Refractive index
\n
1.3330
\n
1.3611
\n
\n
\n
Heat of vaporization
\n
44 kJ/mol
\n
38.56 kJ/mol
\n
\n
\n
molar mass
\n
18 g/mol
\n
46.07 g/mol
\n
\n
\n
Absorption coefficient
\n
5.05 × 10−3/cm
\n
4 × 10−2/cm
\n
\n
\n
Vapor pressure
\n
3.17 kPa (at 25°C)
\n
5.95 kPa (at 25°C)
\n
\n
\n
Strength of the intermolecular forces
\n
High due to presence of highly polar O─H bond
\n
Low due to presence of nonpolar region
\n
\n
\n
Volatility
\n
Low
\n
High
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Physical properties of liquids (deionized water and ethanol).
\n
XRD and Raman results reveal the formation of zirconium oxide (ZrO2, Zr3O), zirconium hydride (ZrH, ZrH2) in case of ablation in deionized water and ethanol. Diffusion of carbon along with oxygen (C═O) is only confirmed through the Raman analysis of samples ablated in ethanol environment (EDS supports the results of XRD and Raman, it confirmed the diffusion of oxygen in case of deionized water and diffusion of oxygen/carbon in case of ethanol). Pulsed laser ablation in liquid is an extremely nonequilibrium process. When the nanosecond laser pulses interact with Zr at the liquid-solid interface, the absorption is granted by electrons in the metal. In terms of time scaling, absorption takes place after 10−14 s. The hot carriers can transfer their energy to the target lattice leading eventually to a solid-liquid phase transition. This energy transfer leads to an equilibrium on a timescale, τE = 10−12 − 10−11 s and the mass removal will occur from equilibrium phase transition [38]. The ejected species will have large kinetic energy after irradiation and a plasma plume is formed at the interface. The plasma plume expands adiabatically while the liquid confines it. The confinement effect of liquids result in much higher temperature and pressure inside the plasma plume [37] and the plume species react with the surrounding liquid molecules in this extreme state. Moreover, the cooling effect of the liquids cause quenching of the plasma plume and the plume species solidifies to preserve materials in the final yield. In our case zirconium oxide ZrO2 (monoclinic and tetragonal phases), Zr3O, and zirconium hydride (ZrH, ZrH2) in case of ablation in both deionized water and ethanol, whereas in case of ethanol C═O are synthesized and redeposited over the surface after fast quenching of the plasma plume at room temperature. Furthermore, the laser energy absorption in case of deionized water is less than ethanol. High absorption in ethanol for 248 nm laser than water implies small rise in surface temperature during irradiation, which supports grain growth. In case of water due to less energy absorption for 248 nm laser, average rise in surface temperature will be high, which causes the melting and resolidification of Zr targets. This results in the formation of cavities, pores, cracks, and droplets over the surface after irradiation. The strength of the intermolecular forces in ethanol is much less than water, that is why ethanol is more volatile than water and is responsible for the diffusion of carbon along with hydrogen and oxygen. The observed diffusion of carbon may also be responsible for different structure in case of ablation in ethanol.
\n
Moreover, the cooling effect of the liquids causes quenching of plasma plume and the plume species will be redeposited over the target surface. This is the reason for variation in concentration of various elements after ablation as compared to unirradiated Zr (EDS analysis, Table 1). The formation of ZrO2 (monoclinic and tetragonal phases), Zr3O, and zirconium hydride (ZrH, ZrH2) in case of ablation in both liquids and formation of C═O in case of ethanol plays considerable role in the formation of various microstructures. During exposure in liquid environments, the sample surface gets cooled in the presence of liquids, which results in less pronounced thermal effects and the surface morphologies become much cleaner and smoother.
\n
\n
\n
3.3. Effect on surface mechanical property
\n
Untreated Zr sample shows hardness value of 850 MPa. Figure 8 shows the variation in hardness of nanosecond laser-irradiated Zr targets as a function of increasing number of laser pulses. Figure 8a shows the variation in hardness after irradiation with nanosecond laser in ambient environment of deionized water. For 500 laser pulses, hardness value of 964 MPa is observed, which increases (up to 1125 MPa) with increase in number of laser pulses up to 1000. Further increase in number of laser pulses up to 2000 shows continuous decrease in hardness (up to 995 MPa).
\n
Figure 8.
The variation in microhardness of excimer laser-irradiated zirconium in ambient environment of (a) deionized water and (b) ethanol.
\n
Variations in the value of hardness depend on a number of factors including the lattice defects, density of oxide contents, phase composition, size and distribution of grains and crystal structure [39]. Increase in hardness is attributable to interstitial diffusion of oxygen into the lattice, which results in decrease in crystallite size and tensile residual stresses (Figure 3b) [40]. Smaller crystallite size is efficient in obstructing the dislocation movement and is responsible for high strength and hardness. Decrease in value of hardness, of irradiated targets can be explained on the basis of increasing crystallite size and enhanced tensile residual stresses. Oxygen diffusion across the grain boundaries results in larger crystallites (Figure 3b) that are more prone to coarsening, leading to lower crystallite density, and hence lower hardness [40, 41].
\n
Figure 8b shows the variation in surface hardness after irradiation in ambient environment of ethanol. For 500 number of laser pulses, hardness of 960 MPa is observed, which increases with the increase in number of laser pulses up to 2000 (up to 1130 MPa).
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusion
\n
The structural modifications of KrF excimer laser-ablated Zr has been investigated in correlation with its surface and mechanical properties after ablation in ambient environments of deionized water and ethanol. Both ambient environments have played significant role in structural, chemical, and mechanical modifications of the irradiated zirconium surface.
\n
XRD results show diffusion of oxygen and hydrogen into the surface, which cause the formation of Zr3O, monoclinic, and tetragonal phases of zirconium oxide (ZrO2) and hydrides of zirconium (ZrH, ZrH2) on the metallic surface. EDS analysis confirmed the increase in content of oxygen for both liquids. Raman analysis supports the EDS and XRD results. It confirms the formation of zirconia and hydrides of zirconium after ablation. The presence of liquids helps in removing the ablation debris and reducing the thermal damages, and offered cleaner surface during laser ablation of Zr. As a result, the surface morphologies of the craters produced are much smoother. For ablation in deionized water, porous surface morphology is observed for whole range of laser pulses, whereas fine grains are formed in case of ethanol environment. Formation of ZrO2 (monoclinic and tetragonal phases), Zr3O, and zirconium hydride (ZrH, ZrH2) in case of ablation in both liquids and formation of C═O in case of ethanol and different absorption offered by both liquids plays considerable role in the formation of various microstructures. Different interacting mechanisms such as recoil pressures, production of bubbles, and laser-induced surface melting of Zr also plays considerable role in the formation of various microstructures. First, increase and then decrease in hardness is observed in case of deionized water, whereas continuous increase in hardness is observed for ethanol. Variations in hardness depend on a number of factors including the lattice defects, density of oxide contents, phase composition, size and distribution of grain, and crystal structure.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"zirconium, laser ablation, ambient environment, crystallinity, surface morphology, hardness",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57660.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57660.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57660",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57660",totalDownloads:1235,totalViews:164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:37,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 26th 2017",dateReviewed:"September 12th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 21st 2017",dateFinished:"November 15th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The structural modifications of KrF excimer laser-ablated zirconium (Zr) have been investigated in correlation with its surface and mechanical properties after ablation in deionized water and ethanol. KrF excimer laser of pulse duration of 20 ns, wavelength of 248 nm, and repetition rate of 20 Hz has been utilized for this purpose. Irradiation of Zr was carried out for varying number of laser pulses ranging from 500 to 2000 for laser fluence value of 3.6 J/cm2. The structural and chemical analyses were performed by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) techniques. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Vickers hardness tester were utilized for the analysis of surface morphology and hardness of laser-irradiated Zr targets. Presence of surrounding liquids played substantial role in structural, chemical, and mechanical modifications of Zr targets after irradiation. Pressure gradients and convective bubble motion owing to the confinement effects of the surrounding liquids, several thermal and chemical phenomena produced by heating through laser at the solid-liquid interface results in the generation of various hydrides and oxides of Zr, which are responsible for the development of various surface features and increase in hardness of irradiated Zr.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57660",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57660",book:{id:"6059",slug:"laser-ablation-from-fundamentals-to-applications"},signatures:"Nisar Ali, Umm-i-Kalsoom, Shazia Bashir and Narjis Begum",authors:[{id:"187018",title:"Dr.",name:"Nisar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",fullName:"Nisar Ali",slug:"nisar-ali",email:"chnisarali@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Engineering and Technology Lahore",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"206471",title:"Dr.",name:"Umm-I-",middleName:null,surname:"Kalsoom",fullName:"Umm-I- Kalsoom",slug:"umm-i-kalsoom",email:"ummikalsoom14@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"206472",title:"Dr.",name:"Shazia",middleName:null,surname:"Bashir",fullName:"Shazia Bashir",slug:"shazia-bashir",email:"shaziabashir@gcu.edu.pk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"206473",title:"Dr.",name:"Narjis",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Narjis Begum",slug:"narjis-begum",email:"narjisgh@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Experimental setup",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Effect on surface microstructure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Effect on surface morphology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Effect on surface mechanical property",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Barmina EV, Serkov AA, Stratakis E, Fotakis C, Stolyarov VN, Stolyarov IN, Shafeev GA. Nano-textured W shows improvement of thermionic emission properties. Applied Physics A. 2012;106:1\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Yang Y, Yang J, Liang C, Wang H. Ultra-broadband enhanced absorption of metal surfaces structured by femtosecond laser pulses. Optical Express. 2008;16:11259-11265\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Vorobyev AY, Makin VS, Guo C. Brighter light sources from black metal: Significant increase in emission efficiency of incandescent light sources. Physics Review Letters. 2009;102:234301\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Yang Y, Yang J, Liang C, Wang H, Zhu X, Zhang N. Surface microstructuring of Ti plates by femtosecond lasers in liquid ambiences: A new approach to improving biocompatibility. Optics Express. 2009;17:21124\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Bekesi J, Kaakkunen J, Michaeli W, Klaiber F, Schoengart M, Ihlemann J, Simon P. Fast fabrication of super-hydrophobic surfaces on polypropylene by replication of short-pulse laser structured molds. Applied Physics A. 2010;99:691\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Bonse J, Koter R, Hartelt M, Spaltmann D, Pentziea S, Höhm S, Rosenfeld A, Krüger J.Tribological performance of femtosecond laser-induced periodic surface structures on titanium and a high toughness bearing steel. Applied Surface Science. 2015;336:21\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Jelani M, Bashir S, Akram M, Yousaf D, Afzal N, Ahmad S. Mechanical behaviour of excimer laser irradiated polycrystalline zirconium. Physica Scripta. 2014;89:025703-025710\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Bashir S, Rafique MS, Husinsky W. Liquid assisted ablation of zirconium for the growth of LIPSS at varying pulse durations and pulse energies by femtosecond laser irradiation. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B. 2015;349:230\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Umm-i-Kalsoom S, Bashir N, Ali M, Rafique S, Husinsky W, Nathala CSR, Makarov SV, Begum N. Effect of fluence and ambient environment on the surface and structural modification of femtosecond laser irradiated Ti. Chinese Physics B. 2016;25(1):0181011-0181017\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Bashir S, Rafique MS, Nathala CS, Husinsky W. Surface and structural modifications of titanium induced by various pulse energies of a femtosecond laser in liquid and dry environment. Applied Physics A. 2014;114:243\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Major A, Aitchison JS, Smith PWE, Druon F, Georges P, Viana B, Aka GP. Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics. 2005;80:199-201\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Barminaa EV, Stratakis E, Barberoglou M, Stolyarove VN, Stolyarove IN, Fotakisb C, Shafeev GA. Laser-assisted nanostructuring of tungsten in liquid environment. Applied Surface Science. 2012;258(15):5898-5902\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Ren J, Kelly M, Heeselink L. Laser ablation of silicon in water with nanosecond and femtosecond pulses. Optics Letters;2005(30):1740-1742\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Bashir S, Vaheed H, Mahmood K. Nanosecond pulsed laser ablation of brass in a dry and liquid-confined environment. Applied Physics A. 2013;110(2):389-395\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Cabalin LM, Lasema JJ. Experimental determination of laser induced break-down thresholds of metals under nanosecond Q-switched laser operation. Spectrochimica Acta B. 1998;53:723-730\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Park HK, Kim D, Grigoropoulos CP, Tam AC. Pressure generation and measurement in the rapid vaporization of water on a pulsed-laser-heated surface. Journal of Applied Physics. 1996;80(7):4072-4081\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Duley WW. UV Lasers: Effects and Applications in Materials Science. New York, United States of America: Cambridge University Press; 2005\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Ashraf M, Akhtar SMJ, Khan AF, Ali Z, Qayyum A. Effect of annealing on structural and optoelectronic properties of nanostructured ZnSe thin films. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2011;509(5):2414-2419\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Shackelford JF, Alexander W. CRC Materials Science and Engineering Handbook. 3rd ed.California, USA: CRC Press; 2000\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Rafique MS, Khaleeq-ur-Rehman M, Firdos T, Aslam K, Shahbaz Anwar M, Imran M,Latif H. XRD and SEM analysis of a laser-irradiated cadmium. Laser Physics. 2007;17(9):1138-1145\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Umm-i-Kalsoom, Bashir S, Ali N, Akram M, Mahmood K, Ahmad R. Effect of ambient environment on excimer laser induced micro and nano-structuring of stainless steel. Applied Surface Science. 2012;261:101-109\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Ikhlaq U, Ahmad R, Saleem S, Shah MS, Kalsoom U, Khan N, Khalid N. Argon gas concentration effects on nanostructured molybdenum nitride layer growth using 100 Hz pulsed dc glow discharge. The European Physical Journal Applied Physics. 2012;59:20801\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Noyan IC, Cohen JB. Residual Stress-Measurement by Diffraction and Interpretation. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1987\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Khan IA, Hassan M, Ahmad R, Qayyum A, Murtaza G, Zakaullah M, Rawat RS.Nitridation of zirconium using energetic ions from plasma focus device. Thin Solid Films. 2008;516(23):8255-8263\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Gurarie VN, Otsuka PH, Jamieson DN, Prawe S. Crack-arresting compression layers produced by ion implantation. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B. 2006;242(1-2):421-423\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Mahmood K, Farid N, Ghauri IM, Afzal N, Idrees Y, Mubarik FE. Effects of laser irradiation on the mechanical response of polycrystalline titanium. Physica Scripta. 2010;82:045606-045613\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Kim BK, Hamaguchi HO. Mode assignments of the Raman spectrum of monoclinic zirconia by isotopic exchange technique. Physica Status Solidi (b). 1997;203:557-563\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Tan D, Lin G, Liu Y, Teng Y, Zhuang Y, Zhu B, Zhao Q, Qiu J. Synthesis of nanocrystalline cubic zirconia using femtosecond laser ablation. Journal of Nanoparticle Research. 2011;13:1183-1190\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Li M, Feng Z, Xiong G, Ying P, Xin Q, Li C. Phase transformation in the surface region of zirconia detected by UV Raman spectroscopy. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2001;105:8107-8111\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Bashir S, Vaheed H, Mahmood Khaliq. Nanosecond pulsed laser ablation of brass in a dry and liquid-confined environment. Applied Physics A. 2012\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Karimzadeh R, Zamir Anvari J, Mansour N. Nanosecond pulsed laser ablation of silicon in liquids. Applied Physics A: Materials Science and Processing. 2009;94:949-955\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Douglas BC, Graham KH. Pulsed Laser Deposition of Thin Films. Singapore, New York, chichester, Brisbane, Toronto: Wiley-interscience Publication; 1994\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Passchier CW, Trouw RAJ. Microtectonics. Berlin: Springer, Verlag; 1998\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Craciun V, Craciun D. Subsurface boiling during pulsed laser ablation of Ge. Physical Review B. 1998;58(11):6787-6790\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Borgstedt HU, editor. Liquid Metal Systems: Material Behavior and Physical Chemistry in Liquid. Springer Science and Business Media; 2012. p. 419\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Yang GW. Laser ablation in liquids: Applications in the synthesis of nanocrystals. Progress in Materials Science. 2007;52:648-698\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Amendola V, Meneghetti M. Laser ablation synthesis in solution and size manipulation of noble metal nanoparticles. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 2009;11:3805-3821\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Lam J. Pulsed Laser Ablation in Liquid: Towards the Comprehension of the Growth Processes, in Physique. 2006, Universit’e Claude Bernard Lyon 1: Ecole Doctorale de Physique et d’Astrophysique de Lyon\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Warcholinski B, Gilewicz A. Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering. 2009;37:498\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Umm-i-Kalsoom S, Ahmad R, Ali N, Khan IA, Saleem S, Ikhlaq U, Khan N. Effect of power and nitrogen content on the deposition of CrN films by using pulsed DC magnetron sputtering plasma. Plasma Science and Technology. 2013;15(7):666-672\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Corengia P, Ybarra G, Moina C, Cabo A, Broitman E. Microstructural and topographical studies of DC-pulsed plasma nitrided AISI 4140 low-alloy steel. Surface and Coatings Technology. 2005;200:2391-2397\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nisar Ali",address:"chnisarali@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Basic Sciences and Humanities, University of Engineering and Technology Lahore, Pakistan
Centre for Advanced Studies in Physics, GC University, Pakistan
Department of Physics, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6059",type:"book",title:"Laser Ablation",subtitle:"From Fundamentals to Applications",fullTitle:"Laser Ablation - From Fundamentals to Applications",slug:"laser-ablation-from-fundamentals-to-applications",publishedDate:"December 21st 2017",bookSignature:"Tatiana E. Itina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6059.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-953-51-3700-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3699-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4022-1",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:34,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"13419",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatiana",middleName:null,surname:"Itina",slug:"tatiana-itina",fullName:"Tatiana Itina"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1222"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"57022",type:"chapter",title:"Experimental and Theoretical Studies on the Dynamics of Transient Plasmas Generated by Laser Ablation in Various Temporal Regimes",slug:"experimental-and-theoretical-studies-on-the-dynamics-of-transient-plasmas-generated-by-laser-ablatio",totalDownloads:1675,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Petru-Edward Nica, Stefan Andrei Irimiciuc, Maricel Agop, Silviu\nGurlui, Michael Ziskind and Cristian Focsa",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"24020",title:"Dr.",name:"Maricel",middleName:null,surname:"Agop",fullName:"Maricel Agop",slug:"maricel-agop"},{id:"205910",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristian",middleName:null,surname:"Focsa",fullName:"Cristian Focsa",slug:"cristian-focsa"},{id:"206918",title:"Dr.",name:"Petru-Edward",middleName:null,surname:"Nica",fullName:"Petru-Edward Nica",slug:"petru-edward-nica"},{id:"207357",title:"MSc.",name:"Stefan Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Irimiciuc",fullName:"Stefan Andrei Irimiciuc",slug:"stefan-andrei-irimiciuc"},{id:"207358",title:"Dr.",name:"Silviu",middleName:null,surname:"Gurlui",fullName:"Silviu Gurlui",slug:"silviu-gurlui"},{id:"207359",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Ziskind",fullName:"Michael Ziskind",slug:"michael-ziskind"}]},{id:"57044",type:"chapter",title:"Nanosecond Laser Ablation: Mathematical Models, Computational Algorithms, Modeling",slug:"nanosecond-laser-ablation-mathematical-models-computational-algorithms-modeling",totalDownloads:1623,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Vladimir I. Mazhukin",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"147856",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Mazhukin",fullName:"Vladimir Mazhukin",slug:"vladimir-mazhukin"}]},{id:"56919",type:"chapter",title:"Protected Laser Evaporation/Ablation and Deposition of Organic/Biological Materials: Thin Films Deposition for Nano- biomedical Applications",slug:"protected-laser-evaporation-ablation-and-deposition-of-organic-biological-materials-thin-films-depos",totalDownloads:1563,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Gianina-Florentina Popescu-Pelin, Carmen-Georgeta Ristoscu,\nMaria Badiceanu and Ion N. Mihailescu",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu"},{id:"60531",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen-Georgeta",middleName:null,surname:"Ristoscu",fullName:"Carmen-Georgeta Ristoscu",slug:"carmen-georgeta-ristoscu"},{id:"219985",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianina-Florentina",middleName:null,surname:"Popescu-Pelin",fullName:"Gianina-Florentina Popescu-Pelin",slug:"gianina-florentina-popescu-pelin"},{id:"219987",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Badiceanu",fullName:"Maria Badiceanu",slug:"maria-badiceanu"}]},{id:"57660",type:"chapter",title:"Structural Modifications of KrF Excimer Laser-Ablated Zirconium Correlated to the Surface and Mechanical Properties",slug:"structural-modifications-of-krf-excimer-laser-ablated-zirconium-correlated-to-the-surface-and-mechan",totalDownloads:1235,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Nisar Ali, Umm-i-Kalsoom, Shazia Bashir and Narjis Begum",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"187018",title:"Dr.",name:"Nisar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",fullName:"Nisar Ali",slug:"nisar-ali"},{id:"206471",title:"Dr.",name:"Umm-I-",middleName:null,surname:"Kalsoom",fullName:"Umm-I- Kalsoom",slug:"umm-i-kalsoom"},{id:"206472",title:"Dr.",name:"Shazia",middleName:null,surname:"Bashir",fullName:"Shazia Bashir",slug:"shazia-bashir"},{id:"206473",title:"Dr.",name:"Narjis",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Narjis Begum",slug:"narjis-begum"}]},{id:"57438",type:"chapter",title:"Sequentially Timed All-Optical Mapping Photography for Real- Time Monitoring of Laser Ablation: Breakdown and Filamentation in Picosecond and Femtosecond Regimes",slug:"sequentially-timed-all-optical-mapping-photography-for-real-time-monitoring-of-laser-ablation-breakd",totalDownloads:1348,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Keiichi Nakagawa, Takakazu Suzuki and Fumihiko Kannari",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"206098",title:"Dr.",name:"Keiichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nakagawa",fullName:"Keiichi Nakagawa",slug:"keiichi-nakagawa"},{id:"206612",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Takakazu",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Takakazu Suzuki",slug:"takakazu-suzuki"},{id:"206613",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumihiko",middleName:null,surname:"Kannari",fullName:"Fumihiko Kannari",slug:"fumihiko-kannari"}]},{id:"57062",type:"chapter",title:"Optical Properties of Complex Oxide Thin Films Obtained by Pulsed Laser Deposition",slug:"optical-properties-of-complex-oxide-thin-films-obtained-by-pulsed-laser-deposition",totalDownloads:1562,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Valentin Ion, Andreea Andrei, Maria Dinescu and Nicu Doinel\nScarisoreanu",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"32241",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Dinescu",fullName:"Maria Dinescu",slug:"maria-dinescu"},{id:"156567",title:"MSc.",name:"Andreea",middleName:null,surname:"Andrei",fullName:"Andreea Andrei",slug:"andreea-andrei"},{id:"181341",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentin",middleName:null,surname:"Ion",fullName:"Valentin Ion",slug:"valentin-ion"},{id:"181362",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicu D.",middleName:null,surname:"Scarisoreanu",fullName:"Nicu D. Scarisoreanu",slug:"nicu-d.-scarisoreanu"}]},{id:"56984",type:"chapter",title:"Nanoparticles, Nanocrystals, and Nanocomposites Produced with Pulsed Laser Ablation and Their Applications",slug:"nanoparticles-nanocrystals-and-nanocomposites-produced-with-pulsed-laser-ablation-and-their-applicat",totalDownloads:1627,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Bülend Ortaç, Elif Uzcengiz Şimşek and Canan Kurşungöz",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"206693",title:"Dr.",name:"Bülend",middleName:null,surname:"Ortaç",fullName:"Bülend Ortaç",slug:"bulend-ortac"},{id:"207728",title:"MSc.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Uzcengiz Şimşek",fullName:"Elif Uzcengiz Şimşek",slug:"elif-uzcengiz-simsek"},{id:"207729",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Kurşungöz",fullName:"Canan Kurşungöz",slug:"canan-kursungoz"}]},{id:"56938",type:"chapter",title:"Matrix-Assisted Pulsed Laser Evaporation of Organic Thin Films: Applications in Biology and Chemical Sensors",slug:"matrix-assisted-pulsed-laser-evaporation-of-organic-thin-films-applications-in-biology-and-chemical-",totalDownloads:1259,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Alexandra Palla Papavlu, Valentina Dinca, Mihaela Filipescu and\nMaria Dinescu",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"32241",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Dinescu",fullName:"Maria Dinescu",slug:"maria-dinescu"},{id:"176781",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinca",fullName:"Valentina Dinca",slug:"valentina-dinca"},{id:"206985",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Palla Papavlu",fullName:"Alexandra Palla Papavlu",slug:"alexandra-palla-papavlu"},{id:"207048",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Filipescu",fullName:"Mihaela Filipescu",slug:"mihaela-filipescu"}]},{id:"56805",type:"chapter",title:"Micro- and Nano-Structuring of Materials via Ultrashort Pulsed Laser Ablation",slug:"micro-and-nano-structuring-of-materials-via-ultrashort-pulsed-laser-ablation",totalDownloads:1413,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Chung-Wei Cheng and Jinn-Kuen Chen",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"206648",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Chung-Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Cheng",fullName:"Chung-Wei Cheng",slug:"chung-wei-cheng"},{id:"206649",title:"Prof.",name:"Jinn-Kuen",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Jinn-Kuen Chen",slug:"jinn-kuen-chen"}]},{id:"56891",type:"chapter",title:"Multi-Beam Multi-Target Pulsed Laser Deposition of AZO Films with Polymer Nanoparticles for Thermoelectric Energy Harvesters",slug:"multi-beam-multi-target-pulsed-laser-deposition-of-azo-films-with-polymer-nanoparticles-for-thermoel",totalDownloads:1420,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Abdalla M. Darwish, Sergey S. Sarkisov, Paolo Mele and Shrikant\nSaini",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"186848",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdalla",middleName:null,surname:"Darwish",fullName:"Abdalla Darwish",slug:"abdalla-darwish"},{id:"212023",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sarkisov",fullName:"Sergey Sarkisov",slug:"sergey-sarkisov"},{id:"217105",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Mele",fullName:"Paolo Mele",slug:"paolo-mele"},{id:"217106",title:"Dr.",name:"Shrikant",middleName:null,surname:"Saini",fullName:"Shrikant Saini",slug:"shrikant-saini"}]},{id:"57116",type:"chapter",title:"Fabrication of a Cell Electrostimulator Using Pulse Laser Deposition and Laser Selective Thin Film Removal",slug:"fabrication-of-a-cell-electrostimulator-using-pulse-laser-deposition-and-laser-selective-thin-film-r",totalDownloads:1180,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Angel Luis Aragón Beloso, María del Carmen Bao Varela, Alejandro\nFernández Rodríguez, Gerard O’connor, Eliseo Pérez Trigo, Antonio\nPazos Álvarez and Daniel Nieto García",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"176988",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Nieto",fullName:"Daniel Nieto",slug:"daniel-nieto"},{id:"198793",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Bao-Varela",fullName:"Carmen Bao-Varela",slug:"carmen-bao-varela"},{id:"217178",title:"Mr.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón",fullName:"Angel Aragón",slug:"angel-aragon"},{id:"217179",title:"Mr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Fernazdez",fullName:"Alejandro Fernazdez",slug:"alejandro-fernazdez"},{id:"217180",title:"Prof.",name:"Gerard",middleName:null,surname:"Oconnor",fullName:"Gerard Oconnor",slug:"gerard-oconnor"}]},{id:"57040",type:"chapter",title:"In Vitro Evaluation of Laser-Induced Periodic Surface Structures on New Zirconia/Tantalum Biocermet for Hard-Tissue Replacement",slug:"in-vitro-evaluation-of-laser-induced-periodic-surface-structures-on-new-zirconia-tantalum-biocermet-",totalDownloads:1155,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Alberto Jorge-Mora, Naroa Imaz, Nekane Frutos, Ana Alonso,\nCarlota García Santiago, Rodolfo Gómez-Vaamonde, Jesús Pino-\nMinguez, Jose Bartolomé, Gerard O’connor and Daniel Nieto",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"176988",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Nieto",fullName:"Daniel Nieto",slug:"daniel-nieto"},{id:"34697",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez",fullName:"Rodolfo Gomez",slug:"rodolfo-gomez"},{id:"177787",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerard",middleName:null,surname:"O'Connor",fullName:"Gerard O'Connor",slug:"gerard-o'connor"},{id:"217172",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Jorge-Mora",fullName:"Alberto Jorge-Mora",slug:"alberto-jorge-mora"},{id:"217173",title:"Dr.",name:"Naroa",middleName:null,surname:"Imaz",fullName:"Naroa Imaz",slug:"naroa-imaz"},{id:"217174",title:"BSc.",name:"Nekane",middleName:null,surname:"Frutos",fullName:"Nekane Frutos",slug:"nekane-frutos"},{id:"217175",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Bartolomé",fullName:"Jose Bartolomé",slug:"jose-bartolome"},{id:"217176",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Pino",fullName:"Jesus Pino",slug:"jesus-pino"}]},{id:"58069",type:"chapter",title:"Laser Ablation of Energetic Materials",slug:"laser-ablation-of-energetic-materials",totalDownloads:1451,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Ruiqi Shen, Lizhi Wu, Wei Zhang and Haonan Zhang",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"215527",title:"Prof.",name:"Ruiqi",middleName:null,surname:"Shen",fullName:"Ruiqi Shen",slug:"ruiqi-shen"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1356",title:"Lasers",subtitle:"Applications in Science and Industry",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"71521c09ad4508038619e4e9b58bbae0",slug:"lasers-applications-in-science-and-industry",bookSignature:"Krzysztof Jakubczak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13731",title:"Dr",name:"Krzysztof",surname:"Jakubczak",slug:"krzysztof-jakubczak",fullName:"Krzysztof Jakubczak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"24736",title:"Nanoparticles and Nanostructures Fabricated Using Femtosecond Laser Pulses",slug:"nanoparticles-and-nanostructures-fabricated-using-femtosecond-laser-pulses",signatures:"Chih Wei Luo",authors:[{id:"52371",title:"Prof.",name:"Chih Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",fullName:"Chih Wei Luo",slug:"chih-wei-luo"}]},{id:"24737",title:"Production of Optical Coatings Resistant to Damage by Petawatt Class Laser Pulses",slug:"production-of-optical-coatings-resistant-to-damage-by-petawatt-class-laser-pulses",signatures:"John Bellum, Patrick Rambo, Jens Schwarz, Ian Smith, Mark Kimmel, Damon Kletecka and Briggs Atherton",authors:[{id:"56477",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:"C.",surname:"Bellum",fullName:"John Bellum",slug:"john-bellum"},{id:"120423",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Rambo",fullName:"Patrick Rambo",slug:"patrick-rambo"},{id:"120424",title:"Dr.",name:"Jens",middleName:null,surname:"Schwarz",fullName:"Jens Schwarz",slug:"jens-schwarz"},{id:"120425",title:"Mr.",name:"Ian",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",fullName:"Ian Smith",slug:"ian-smith"},{id:"120426",title:"Mr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Kimmel",fullName:"Mark Kimmel",slug:"mark-kimmel"},{id:"120427",title:"Mr.",name:"Damon",middleName:null,surname:"Kletecka",fullName:"Damon Kletecka",slug:"damon-kletecka"},{id:"120428",title:"Dr.",name:"Briggs",middleName:null,surname:"Atherton",fullName:"Briggs Atherton",slug:"briggs-atherton"}]},{id:"24738",title:"Effect of Pulse Laser Duration and Shape on PLD Thin Films Morphology and Structure",slug:"effect-of-pulse-laser-duration-and-shape-on-pld-thin-films-morphology-and-structure",signatures:"Carmen Ristoscu and Ion N. Mihailescu",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu"},{id:"60531",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmen-Georgeta",middleName:null,surname:"Ristoscu",fullName:"Carmen-Georgeta Ristoscu",slug:"carmen-georgeta-ristoscu"}]},{id:"24739",title:"Laser Pulse Patterning on Phase Change Thin Films",slug:"laser-pulse-patterning-on-phase-change-thin-films",signatures:"Jingsong Wei and Mufei Xiao",authors:[{id:"62391",title:"Prof.",name:"Mufei",middleName:null,surname:"Xiao",fullName:"Mufei Xiao",slug:"mufei-xiao"}]},{id:"24740",title:"Laser Patterning Utilizing Masked Buffer Layer",slug:"laser-patterning-utilizing-masked-buffer-layer",signatures:"Ori Stein and Micha Asscher",authors:[{id:"62410",title:"MSc.",name:"Ori",middleName:null,surname:"Stein",fullName:"Ori Stein",slug:"ori-stein"},{id:"103855",title:"Prof.",name:"Micha",middleName:null,surname:"Asscher",fullName:"Micha Asscher",slug:"micha-asscher"}]},{id:"24741",title:"Interaction Between Pulsed Laser and Materials",slug:"interaction-between-pulsed-laser-and-materials",signatures:"Jinghua Han and Yaguo Li",authors:[{id:"61522",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinghua",middleName:null,surname:"Han",fullName:"Jinghua Han",slug:"jinghua-han"},{id:"61523",title:"Dr.",name:"Yaguo",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yaguo Li",slug:"yaguo-li"}]},{id:"24742",title:"Pulse Laser Ablation by Reflection of Laser Pulse at Interface of Transparent Materials",slug:"pulse-laser-ablation-by-reflection-of-laser-pulse-at-interface-of-transparent-materials",signatures:"Kunihito Nagayama, Yuji Utsunomiya, Takashi Kajiwara and Takashi Nishiyama",authors:[{id:"62300",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihito",middleName:null,surname:"Nagayama",fullName:"Kunihito Nagayama",slug:"kunihito-nagayama"},{id:"62583",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuji",middleName:null,surname:"Utusunomiya",fullName:"Yuji Utusunomiya",slug:"yuji-utusunomiya"},{id:"62584",title:"Mr",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Kajiwara",fullName:"Takashi Kajiwara",slug:"takashi-kajiwara"},{id:"62585",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishiyama",fullName:"Takashi Nishiyama",slug:"takashi-nishiyama"}]},{id:"24743",title:"Pulsed-Laser Ablation of Au Foil in Primary Alcohols Influenced by Direct Current",slug:"pulsed-laser-ablation-of-au-foil-in-primary-alcohols-influenced-by-direct-current",signatures:"Karolína Šiškova",authors:[{id:"51739",title:"Dr.",name:"Karolina",middleName:null,surname:"Siskova",fullName:"Karolina Siskova",slug:"karolina-siskova"}]},{id:"24744",title:"Application of Pulsed Laser Fabrication in Localized Corrosion Research",slug:"application-of-pulsed-laser-fabrication-in-localized-corrosion-research",signatures:"M. Sakairi, K. Yanada, T. Kikuchi, Y. Oya and Y. Kojima",authors:[{id:"61505",title:"Dr.",name:"Masatoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakairi",fullName:"Masatoshi Sakairi",slug:"masatoshi-sakairi"},{id:"61511",title:"Mr.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Yanada",fullName:"Kenji Yanada",slug:"kenji-yanada"},{id:"61512",title:"Mr.",name:"Tatsuya",middleName:null,surname:"Kikuchi",fullName:"Tatsuya Kikuchi",slug:"tatsuya-kikuchi"},{id:"61513",title:"Mr.",name:"Yoshiyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Ooya",fullName:"Yoshiyuki Ooya",slug:"yoshiyuki-ooya"},{id:"61514",title:"Mr.",name:"Yoichi",middleName:null,surname:"Kojima",fullName:"Yoichi Kojima",slug:"yoichi-kojima"}]},{id:"24745",title:"Laser Pulse Application in IVF",slug:"laser-pulse-application-in-ivf",signatures:"Carrie Bedient, Pallavi Khanna and Nina Desai",authors:[{id:"55004",title:"Dr.",name:"Nina",middleName:null,surname:"Desai",fullName:"Nina Desai",slug:"nina-desai"},{id:"127713",title:"Dr.",name:"Carrie",middleName:null,surname:"Bedient",fullName:"Carrie Bedient",slug:"carrie-bedient"},{id:"127714",title:"Dr.",name:"Pallavi",middleName:null,surname:"Khanna",fullName:"Pallavi Khanna",slug:"pallavi-khanna"}]},{id:"24746",title:"Dynamic Analysis of Laser Ablation of Biological Tissue by Optical Coherence Tomography",slug:"dynamic-analysis-of-laser-ablation-of-biological-tissue-by-optical-coherence-tomography",signatures:"Masato Ohmi and Masamitsu Haruna",authors:[{id:"62521",title:"Dr.",name:"Masato",middleName:null,surname:"Ohmi",fullName:"Masato Ohmi",slug:"masato-ohmi"},{id:"102169",title:"Prof.",name:"Masamitsu",middleName:null,surname:"Haruna",fullName:"Masamitsu Haruna",slug:"masamitsu-haruna"}]},{id:"24747",title:"Polarization Detection of Molecular Alignment Using Femtosecond Laser Pulse",slug:"polarization-detection-of-molecular-alignment-using-femtosecond-laser-pulse",signatures:"Nan Xu, Jianwei Li, Jian Li, Zhixin Zhang and Qiming Fan",authors:[{id:"55428",title:"Dr.",name:"Nan",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Nan Xu",slug:"nan-xu"},{id:"55440",title:"Dr.",name:"Jian",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Jian Li",slug:"jian-li"},{id:"55441",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianwei",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Jianwei Li",slug:"jianwei-li"},{id:"55442",title:"Mr.",name:"Zhixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Zhixin Zhang",slug:"zhixin-zhang"},{id:"61729",title:"Mr",name:"Qiming",middleName:null,surname:"Fan",fullName:"Qiming Fan",slug:"qiming-fan"}]},{id:"24748",title:"Deconvolution of Long-Pulse Lidar Profiles",slug:"deconvolution-of-long-pulse-lidar-profiles",signatures:"Ljuan L. Gurdev, Tanja N. Dreischuh and Dimitar V. Stoyanov",authors:[{id:"55686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ljuan",middleName:null,surname:"Gurdev",fullName:"Ljuan Gurdev",slug:"ljuan-gurdev"},{id:"61273",title:"Dr.",name:"Tanja",middleName:null,surname:"Dreischuh",fullName:"Tanja Dreischuh",slug:"tanja-dreischuh"},{id:"61274",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitar",middleName:"Vassilev",surname:"Stoyanov",fullName:"Dimitar Stoyanov",slug:"dimitar-stoyanov"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8873",title:"Optical Coherence Tomography and Its Non-medical Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"04048c4d925e4a7256014a26cf19c40c",slug:"optical-coherence-tomography-and-its-non-medical-applications",bookSignature:"Michael R. Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8873.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6356",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Wang",slug:"michael-wang",fullName:"Michael Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10672",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:"Nonlinear Nanophotonics and Novel Materials for Nonlinear Optics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cfe87b713a8bee22c19361b86b03d506",slug:"nonlinear-optics-nonlinear-nanophotonics-and-novel-materials-for-nonlinear-optics",bookSignature:"Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10672.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-i.-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris I. Lembrikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10767",title:"Fiber Optics",subtitle:"Technology and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b8ef72a4a369383a4b719bba2a4",slug:"fiber-optics-technology-and-applications",bookSignature:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10767.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237167",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Huerta-Cuellar",slug:"guillermo-huerta-cuellar",fullName:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"78563",title:"Biowastes as a Potential Energy Source in Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99992",slug:"biowastes-as-a-potential-energy-source-in-africa",body:'
1. Introduction
Energy has been a critical issue in most African countries where most of their populations are deprived of it. With the current population growth, the situation is alarming and needs serious intervention to rescue. It is predicted that one-in-two people added to the global population between 2019 and 2040 will be African. In 2025, Africa’s population is predicted to exceed that of both India and China [1]. This increase in the population, combined with an increase in purchasing power, will put additional strain on the existing energy supply, resulting in a significant increase in energy demand. With the current trend of industrialization and population growth, the energy demand is expected to rise and put high pressure on the current fossil fuel resources. In 2018, Africa’s energy demand was estimated at 700 TWh of which 70% was consumed by south and northern countries. This energy consumption is forecasted to reach 1600-2300 TWh by 2040 [1]. Such a huge increase in energy demand requires African countries to be prepared for a sustainable solution. The globe’s energy resources have mainly been dominated by fossil fuels, which cover around 81% of the total energy supply in 2018 [2]. High dependency on fossil fuels not only brings uncertainty but also leads to global warming and environmental pollution. Therefore, the appropriate use of fossil fuels and the introduction of renewable energy technologies are required for sustainable energy and the environment.
The use of some renewables may be associated with high cost and occurrence, but bioenergy sources are expected to be the most promising option for meeting future energy demands [3]. Its conversion cost is expected to be lowered due to the availability of biomass, low cost, and high energy demand. Due to the global goal to departing from fossil fuels, the incorporation of bioenergy in energy generation has gained attention, mostly in developed countries. Although Africa is blessed with biomass, its use in electricity generation is still low, but expectations in the future are high [1]. The biomass potential is expected to continue to increase due to available cultivatable and fertile land, unutilized wastes, and cheap and simple conversion methods. Also, the utilization of biomass will continue to grow due to initiatives of African countries to intensify energy security. The African Union has the 2063 agenda that aims to have modern, efficient, reliable, and cost-effective renewable energy for all households, businesses, industries, and institutions [4]. This agenda has gained support with investments, among them being the African Development bank since 2016 [4]. High investment of USD $43-55 billion per year compared to USD $ 8-9.2 billion that is currently invested, will continue to stimulate incorporation of renewable energy, among them being biomass. To achieve this goal, understanding the type, quality, quantity, and distribution is necessary.
Although utilization of fresh biomass for energy has a great potential in unlocking energy demand challenges in Africa, it tends to bring competition for land with food crop cultivation. Furthermore, it leads to high utilization of fertilizers and high investment costs. To reduce the dependency of fresh biomass, alternative biomass sources should be considered. The possible sources that have gained attention not only for energy generation, but also for environmental concerns, are; crops and forest residue, non-edible biomass, animal wastes, and Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW). The application of biowaste for energy generation will not only solve the forecasted energy demand but also improve waste management in Africa. Africa is faced with ever-increasing waste management and utilization challenges. Among the challenges that hinder biowastes utilization are poor management, weak legislation, lack of enforcement, low public awareness, corruption, conflict and political instability. While the amount of waste produced in Africa is minimal in comparison to developed nations, waste mismanagement in Africa is already having an impact on human and environmental health [5]. It is estimated that an additional USD$8 billion could be injected into the African economy each year by just diverting waste away from dumpsites or landfills for reuse, recycling, and recovery [5].
Converting biomass waste to energy necessitates a thorough understanding of the potential type and availability of waste feedstock, as well as the potential application of the chosen technology. The knowledge of energy potential and possible appropriate conversion technology affects investors and policymakers. Therefore, there is a need to expose the huge potential of biowaste as an energy source for Africa to shift the alignment from fossil fuels to biowaste energy for sustainable energy and the environment. This chapter mainly focused on biowastes as a potential energy source in Africa. It describes the potential biowaste sources, such as crop and forest residue, MSW, and animal waste, and the potential energy present. Different technologies available for converting have also been discussed. Finally, this chapter proposes a way forward towards sustainable biowaste energy generation for Africa.
2. Energy status and challenges in Africa
Energies in Africa change, but not uniformly. Although new oil and gas discoveries are now accompanying the expansion of renewable energy generation, yet Africa as a whole is straightly above Germany as a country in electricity generation and consumption [6, 7]. The mean energy consumption per capita in most African countries is well below the world average and is equivalent to that of India. Biomass energy is currently Africa’s most important source of energy, supplying 47.2% of primary energy demand and more than half of total energy consumption [8]. In 2017, Africa had a total primary energy supply (TPES) of 1,148,475 Mtoe in which biomass, oil, natural gas, and coal contributed 37.93, 37.99, 15.3, and 12.7%, respectively [7]. Of all the energy available, Africa imported 184,768 Mtoe (16%). Transportation, household, and industrial consumers, share were about 70.1, 8.9, and 8.5%, respectively [7]. This indicates that transportation consumes a large percentage of energy, with 29,461 Mtoe imported. Furthermore, in 2017, electricity that was available for use was 1.71% of TPES, which amounted to 1,058.74 TWh from thermal conversion of biomass, natural gas, and coal at 78.55%. It was noted also in the same year, the total energy supplied was 928.051 Mtoe, which is equivalent to 123.75% energy dependency. The energy consumed was sourced from biomass, crude oil and natural gas at percentage shares of 47, 11.3, and 13, respectively.
There has been an increase in electrical energy consumption worldwide from 10,897.94 to 24,738.92 TWh from 1990 to 2018, while Africa increased from 286.04 to 722.84TWh in the same period [9]. Global primary consumption for the same period increased from 83,830 to 123,695 TWh, meaning the electricity consumption share changed from 13–20%. This increase has been attributed to the development and an increase in population. This means that the increase in electricity in the energy mix in Africa should be increased. In 2017, the electricity share was only 9% [7], meaning electricity consumption is below the global average. Globally, energy comes from a range of sources, ranging from biomass, nuclear, fossil, and other renewables. The main source of energy has been fossil fuels.
Biomass has emerged as a viable and sustainable renewable energy source, with an 11% global contribution. According to reports, biomass provided 95% of world heat production in 2019 [2] and generated 637 TWh of electricity. Biomass also accounted for 3% of worldwide transportation energy. Domestic consumption accounts for roughly 85% of its contribution [2]. By 2030, it is estimated that 720-920 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa will rely on biomass and 2.7 billion people worldwide. According to UN Environment Programme research, 65% of countries in Sub-Saharan Africa will still rely on biomass in 2050 [10]. This is the indication that biomass is the main energy source and should well be used efficiently and sustainably.
2.1 Energy mix in Africa
Africa has low energy consumption per person when compared to other countries, falling below the global average of 2 toe. For example, in 2018, with except South Africa, the consumption was below 0.8 toe, with sub-Sahara Africa having lower than 0.4 toe [1]. Energy is derived from a variety of sources, including coal, oil, gas, nuclear power, biomass, and other renewables. Figure 1 depicts the energy mix by energy source. Biomass is still the main source of primary energy mostly used in cooking. Except north Africa, biomass contributes around 60% by which no any part of the global depends [1]. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, biomass consumption is currently above 80% [4]. Oil is the next energy source in Africa after biomass. In 2018, oil consumption was over 4 million barrels per day, with 60% of that consumed in transportation and diesel used as a generator backup. Figure 2 depicts energy consumption in Sub-Saharan Africa by sector in 2017. Household is the main consumer of energy of about 64% and mostly depend on biomass.
Figure 1.
% share of energy sources 2017 [7].
Figure 2.
Energy source consumption by sector in sub-Sahara Africa 2018 [1].
Africa continues to rely on fossil fuels for electrical generation (92%); oil (42%), natural gas (28%), coal (22%), hydropower (6%), nuclear (1%), and other renewable energy (1%). Figure 3 shows electricity production sources through thermal heat technology. The resources are limited, and the deposits will be depleted as quickly as possible as the population grows. Since fossil sources do not rejuvenate, the sustainability of them is in compromise. To solve dependency of fossil fuel, Africa should focus on other resources. Apart from biomass, she still has other potentials such as; 10 TW of solar, 350 GW of hydro, 110 GW of wind, and 15 GW of geothermal energy. Due to high investment costs and distribution of other renewable resources, biomass is and will continue to be a significant source of energy due to wide distribution, modular and simple conversion technologies, and appropriate production land. The population growth leads to large production of biowastes. Due to high increase in energy demand, there comes a need to develop the utilization process of wastes for energy generation. Therefore, in future, biowastes are expected to contribute highly to the energy mix and hence lead to energy and environmental sustainability.
Figure 3.
Contribution of energy sources in electricity production [7].
2.2 Challenges of energy sources and stability
As reported earlier, Africa energy consumption per capital is the lowest in the world. But also it was stated that the population and development in the future will lead to high energy demand. From earlier analysis, still Africa relies on fossil fuel in electricity generation and biomass in other uses. Transport sector has been identified to consume 64% of total energy consumed. Unfortunately, the production of transportation energy is still low with large importation of oil. The utilization of electricity and natural gas in the transportation sector is still low. This implies that much of transportation energy source is dependent on global oil stability. Lack of local and alternative sources puts uncertainty of both energy production and supply. Unluckily, available renewable sources are not well utilized due to obstacles such as investments. These entire situations put a big challenge of energy stability.
It has been also identified that biomass is the main source of energy. Biomass sources such as forest have challenges on utilization when it comes to deforestation. The study report in 2018 has shown that East and West Africa deforestation since 1900 was 93 and 83%, respectively [11]. Thus, the sustainability of biomass as the source of energy is hindered by deforestation. Furthermore, the competition of land and food crops still hinder the sustainability of biomass. In case of biowaste utilization, high investment, knowledge, and technology make them unfavorable resources. Also the poor governmental policy on sourcing local sources are also a challenge. To avoid instability of energy sources from external situation such as environmental movement and global oil market, Africa should find suitable sources. The dependency of virgin biomass and competition of area for food and energy crops, utilization of less used energy resources should be implemented. The policy and investment should be the priority in utilizing sources that lead to sustainable energy and environment.
Thus, to have energy and environmental stability, the use of biowastes is important. To implement biomass challenges such as variation of composition, large distribution, low energy density and poor energy conversion, appropriate technology should be implemented (Figure 3).
3. Status of biowastes potentials and utilization in Africa
The global biowastes production is currently estimated to be over 140 Gt per annum [12]. On global scale, more than 2 Gt of garbage is burned inefficiently, accounting for 18% of total global CO2 emission and significant amount of particulate [12]. Africa produces biowastes, which can be turned into useful energy, from agriculture, forest, and animal residues, as well as MSW. Table 1 reports the FAO estimate of biowastes. Africa is located in tropical and sub-tropical region and due to good climate conditions; production rate of biomass is 4-5 times the other regions [14] leading to high agricultural and forest wastes. In 2012, 11.519 Gt was produced and 5.098 Gt was collected and in 2025, 28.155 Gt and 18.232 Gt are expected to be produced and collected every year [4]. In 2025, Africa is anticipated to generate 20.1 TWh of biomass waste and collect 12.5 TWh of garbage, compared to 8.4 TWh of biomass waste generation and 3.5 TWh of rubbish collection in 2012 [4]. This still shows low utilization of these biowastes. These wastes can be a good source of energy if they are successfully transformed. For example, in 2019 Barz et al. reported that if agricultural wastes are properly handled, they can contribute 20-40%ofprimaryenergy [14], demonstrating that all biowastes can contribute significantly. According to estimates, processing crop and agro-processing leftovers might provide 4.2 EJ in 2030, forest Residue 1.1 EJ, and animal residue 1.5 EJ. To reduce competing with food in the production of fuel, boost waste economic value, and safeguard the environment (lower GHG), biowastes should be successfully employed as an energy source [14]. The most difficult challenge is to invest in an efficient method of collecting and converting it. As a result, Africa should invest in an efficient method of collecting and converting these wastes to reduce the use of traditional energy sources. Agricultural wastes have the potential for energy production, but they compete with other uses, such as fodder, fertilizer, fiber, and construction, so an effective balance is required.
3.1 Biowastes sources
In Africa, where the main activity is agriculture and forestry with abundant cultivatable land, the biomass wastes are in abundance. The sources of wastes range from crop, forest, and animal residues, and MSW. There is a huge potential with high organic components. The MSW in Africa has high organic components of around 70% and thus making them potential for energy conversion. Unfortunately, these wastes are poorly managed and hence become environmental concern. Effective utilization can significantly offset the use of fossil fuel.
3.1.1 Municipal solid wastes
MSW has emerged worldwide as the source of energy. Report by IEA [9], electricity generated from MSW worldwide increased from 8,313 GWh in 1990 to 38,648 GWh in 2018. Africa is also generating MSW. In 2012 analysis, it was reported that Africa generated 125 million tones with 1,125 PJ but only collected 68 million tones [15]. It is projected that in 2025, 244 million tones with 2,199 PJ will be generated and 168 million tones will be collected [15]. Furthermore, it was reported that if landfill energy recovery technology is used, in 2012, 155 PJ would have been recovered while in 2025, 363 PJ will be recovered. If all wastes are collected and converted to electricity, 62.5TWh could be generated in 2012 and expectation to be 122.2 TWh. With targeted collection, 34.1 TWh and 83.8 TWh could be generated in 2012 and 2025 [4]. The increase in African population and purchasing power will lead to high generation of MSW. For example, in sub-Saharan region, MSW was predicted to increase from 300,000 t/day in 2010 to 3,250,000 t/day in 2100 [16]. This is the huge potential for use.
Apart from high potential, MSW also have high organic contents that become good source of energy. Their poor management leads to environmental pollution through degradation. The average composition of MSW in Africa, for example of sub- Saharan Africa, is about 57-78% organic, 9% paper/cardboard, 13% plastic, 4% glass, 4% metal and 13% other materials. This gives advantages on separation and treatment since large amount is energy part. Fewer amounts of plastics and metals indicate the applicability of low technologies such as anaerobic digestion can be utilized since organic parts are easily degradable. Although of high energy potential from these biodegradable organic waste, MSW remains largely an untapped resource for the continent [5]. Therefore, good policy, investment, and technology are important factor to utilize this energy.
3.1.2 Forest residue
During forest harvesting, up to 60% is left as residue which can be source of energy and soil stabilization. Furthermore, residue continues accumulating due process of forest products, such as production of saw dust. Forest residue can be used as energy source and in production of products such plywood. In 2019, Africa produced 1.02 million cubic meters (0.4% of globe) forest residue [17]. This low globe percentage is due to export of unprocessed forest products. This is the potential source of energy. The 2020 energy potential analysis in forest residue for Africa can produce energy of 10 to 5,254 PJ/yr. [18]. Low investment on technology and facilities, and poor government policy hinders their conversion. Therefore, it is important to invest in collection and conversion technologies for effective energy recovery.
3.1.3 Crop residue
In every crop harvested, the residue obtained is 25-50% (Residue to Product ratio) of the product and sometime is above 100%. These organic parts mostly are left behind to regenerate the soil, as animal feed and source of energy. In 2010, agricultural residues with an energy content of some 90 EJ were reported to have been generated worldwide and is expected to reach 128 EJ in 2050 [19]. These materials are potential for energy although compete with animal feed and soil stabilization. The analysis of 19 crops mostly grown found that crop wastes of production rate of 697.87 million tons per year can generate 10.52 EJ. This potential is enough to support 366 million population (around 33% of 2019 Sub-Saharan Africa population) that had 28.76 GJ per capital [20]. If this energy from crop residue is well utilized and assuming mean biomass energy of 20 GJ/t, the wood biomass that can be saved is around 526 million tons of wood which is equal to 122 million hectare of forest area saved. The controversy of utilizing these wastes is the removal of nutrients from the soil. Currently, uncontrolled burning of these wastes onsite leads to the nutrients loss. A good control of burning and generating energy can generate ashes that can be used as fertilizers.
Table 2 has summarized available data of biowaste from crop, forest and animal residue and MSW of six countries according to reported estimations. Furthermore the primary energy consumption for 2017 has been also recorded. Since the incorporation of biowaste analyzed is almost negligible, it can be said that the biomass contribution comes from fresh biomass. The use of biowastes can reduce this dependency.
The assumption made is that biowastes are used at small percentages; hence energy contributed by biomass mostly comes from fresh biomass.
3.2 Current management and utilization of biowastes in Africa
Biowaste resources are important for energy, animal feed, and soil stabilization. The level of utilization depends on the investment and technology. In developed countries, the collection, treatment, and conversion have been a priority for incorporation in renewable energies and protection of environment. In Africa, the utilization of biowastes is still at low level. Very small investment and conversion technologies have been implemented. In rural areas, biowastes have been little used as animal feed and sources of energy. Due to poor technology and investment, biowastes use as sources of energy has been poor. The availability of fresh biomass for animal feed, biowastes have also found little use. These wastes have been accumulating continuously. The main method of handling has been unplanned dumping and uncontrolled combustion. Crop residue burning is more regular feature and a source of greenhouse gas emissions. Crop residue burning is driven by factors like labour scarcity, short turn-around time, socio-economic constraints, ignorance of farmers towards public health issues, and low nutritive value of crop residues. Crop residue burning causes loss of valuable soil nutrients, pollution episodes, and public health issues [28]. Unplanned damping may cause pollution especially when decomposition takes place and produces methane. Improper use of biowastes such as animal wastes especially cooking and heating leads to health problems. It has been reported by WHO that 4.3 million deaths have occurred due to use of these wastes in cooking and heating [29]. The only advantage of poor handling of biowastes in rural area is to maintain soil quality. In rural areas, the generation of MSW is low while forest, animal, and crop wastes are high. Animal waste is commonly used as organic fertilizer and hence maintain soil ecosystem.
In urban area, the production of MSW is high while animal, forest, and crop residue is low. The big problem has been handling of MSW. Some efforts have been made in the collection and dumping of MSW. In Africa, most of collected MSW are unsorted and hence if energy conversion is decided to be done gets the challenge. In Africa, only a small amount of MSW is collected and dumped in landfill with no plan of energy recovery. There has been uncontrolled dumping and combustion which all lead to energy loss and environmental pollution.
Although there has been little effort to effectively utilize biowastes in Africa, some uses such as cooking, electricity generation, and transport fuel have been realized [30]. Table 3 summarizes some of the plants generating electricity. Energy recovery technologies, such as landfill gas recovery and bio digesters for the organic fraction of MSW and industrial biomass are currently very limited in their implementation in Africa [31]. Gasification, direct combustion, and carbonization technologies have been in low utilization. Only noticeable biowaste waste to energy conversion has been in the use of bagasse in sugar plantation. In Tanzania, Kilombero, Mtibwa, TPC, and Kagera sugar companies have daily generation of 21,914 tons per day of bagasse and electricity installation of 40 MW [32]. The use of forest residue and sisal in Tanzania has led to the production of 21 MW. Currently, African only recycles 4% of waste produced and the African Union plans by 2023, 50% should be recycled. Other ways of managing biowaste have been producing composite manure, and animal feed.
The use of biowastes in energy mix has not been fully done. Lack of appropriate technologies, investment, knowledge, and policy has hindered its utilization. Poor realization of biowaste potential has led to low investment and hence utilization. The wide large of properties of biowaste due to low level of farming, production of variety of biowastes, still brings challenges in the choice of universal technology and hence need segregation stages. Furthermore, government and financial institution have little interest in funding of innovation, purchasing, and utilization of appropriate technologies [33]. Therefore, efforts are needed to increase investment, education, and introduction of appropriate conversion technology.
To increase the use of biowastes in energy mix, the following can be done. The government should have appropriate policy that promotes use of biowastes. These includes; increase of incentives, removal of fossil fuel subsides, promotion of a net zero emission, and promotion research and development of appropriate technology. Education should be made to population on the need of using biowastes, separation of components of MSW in the disposal, discourage uncontrolled burning, introduction of simple and cheap conversion technology at household level. The peasants and farmers should be educated on the effective ways of preparation, collection, disposal, and utilization of wastes. To reduce variation obstacle, the co-generation and small processing plants should emphasized. To increase awareness, organization or companies that add value should be created.
4. Current conversion technologies of bio wastes to energy
Conversion of biowaste aims to recover energy, remove residues, and increase material value [3]. Effective conversion technologies should address financial requirements, effective recovery of energy, waste removal, and environmental protection. The development, improvement, and implementation of conversion technologies have been made due to surge in wastes that pollute environment and need for energy sustainability. The need for land has emerged as another challenge. For example, Waste to Energy (WTE) plant that can treat 30 million tons of MSW for 30 years only will use 10 hectare compared to landfill that needs 30 hectare [34].
A number of conversion technologies have been developed and applied in many parts of the world. Advanced waste to energy conversion has led the increase of energy mix from biowastes. The technologies range from direct energy conversion to more upgraded fuel. The technologies have advanced in a way that they produce energy efficiently and meet the requirements for public health while reducing air pollution and obligatory number of dumping locations [3]. These methods include direct combustion/incineration, carbonization, pyrolysis, gasification, anaerobic digestion, and oil pressing for biodiesel production. Some conversion leads to production of feedstock for chemical production. Each method has the advantages and disadvantages and thus limitation in use in African countries. The common and simple technologies in biowaste conversion have been anaerobic digestion and incineration.
4.1 Direct combustion/incineration
This is the oldest and simple, and well utilized conversion technology [34]. It deals with direct heating of fuel in presence of oxygen. It takes place at high temperature (850-1200°C) and release energy in form of heat [3]. It has been used in many biowaste plants ranging from bagasse, MSW to saw dust. Apart from energy recovery, the bottom and fly ashes can be used in other applications such as construction. The challenges of this technology are that feedstock should be of low moisture content and thus limiting many of African MSW which have high moisture content to above 40% [35]. It also may lead to pollution if poorly controlled, since it operates at high temperatures and thus releasing pollutant gases and dust. Its advantages and appropriateness in African biowastes are that it is simple, mature, and low investment cost especially if heat is the final conversion. It is also appropriate in dry biowastes such as forest residue since no pretreatment costs [3] and thus utilizing wood and crop residues produced in Africa.
4.2 Carbonization
It is the process of heating biowaste at low temperature in the absence of oxygen [36]. This process upgrades biowastes to produce usable charcoal. It is mature, cheap, and simple technology that has been used on other biomass for years and years [37, 38]. The technology works efficiently for large size and low moisture contents. Most of biowastes such as forest and crop residues have been converted into charcoal by this process. Its advantages include the cheapness, simplicity, and ability to handle variety of feedstock including lignocellulosic biomass. This method is appropriate for African biowastes although for fine materials such as sawdust and a wet material such as MSW becomes inappropriate. It is applicable in every part of Africa.
4.3 Gasification
Gasification is a mature technology and a thermochemical conversion of biomaterials in limited oxygen at high temperature (800-1600°C [39, 40]. It produces syngas that can be burnt to produce heat or used as the source of chemicals. The major constituents of syngas are carbon monoxide which poses a lot safety challenges in its handling. It requires high knowledge and thus is not appropriate for household. It is appropriate to Africa when dealing with lignocellulosic and fine biowaste although inappropriate to MSW due to high moisture content. It is appropriate to every part in Africa although due to low investment, sub-Saharan countries may not effectively fit.
4.4 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is the thermochemical conversion technology that operates at moderate temperature to produce solid, liquid, and gas at different composition [41, 42]. It can treat waste to produce char, oil, and gas for further energy conversion. The fast pyrolysis is favored in fine feed and operates at high temperature to produce bio oil [43]. Intermediate pyrolysis operates at moderate temperature to produce both char, oil, and gas [44]. It has an ability to handle large size, moderate moisture, and different compositions [45]. It is a technology that fits biowastes including MSW. Its appropriateness in Africa is challenged since it is sophisticated and requires high investment, and thus unfavorable in small scale. Intermediate pyrolysis has a big chance in Africa since it flexible, modular, and operates at moderate temperatures.
4.5 Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is process that uses microorganism to breakdown organic biodegradable matter in the absence of oxygen to produce biogas [46]. It is a common technology that has been used in conversion of sugar biomass. It is simple, cheap, and works under low temperature. Its size ranges from small household to large plant. The technology is appropriate in Africa biowaste treatment since it requires small investment, mature technology, and presence of sugar biowastes especially in MSW and animal wastes. Large presence of animal residue in Africa, 25% globe, this technology is the one to be applied in all parts of Africa. Its use in lignocellulosic materials such as forest residue is inappropriate. It also has low kinetics and hence requiring larges reactors and hence investments. The residues after digestion can also be used as farm manure and thus giving it an added advantage.
4.6 Microbial fuel cell (MFC)
Microbial fuel cells use microbes as a biocatalyst and changes directly the chemical energy deposited in chemical compounds into an energy current [3]. This alternative technology reduces sludge formation, refine odor, and remove aeration supplies, all at the rate of waste reaction for electricity creation. Its advantage is the direct conversion to electricity although it has low efficiency. Due to challenges such as more sophisticated ion exchange membranes [47], this method is not appropriate in Africa especially in sub-Saharan African countries.
4.7 Landfilling
This is the technology in which biowastes are deposited and may be connected to biogas recovery and leachate processing system [3]. This method simple and cheap although may lead to environmental pollution and degradation if planning is not well done [3, 48]. This technology is appropriate in Africa since the technology is cheap, mature, and simple.
4.8 Agglomeration
This is the technology of increasing energy density by converting small particle to large particles. This increases energy density and effectiveness in conversion processes such as combustion [49]. This involves the formation of pellets and briquettes from fine biowastes that can be usable household [50]. Its challenge is the use of high energy in compressing the materials. This technology is appropriate in Africa since the technology is simple, presence of binding materials in biowaste, presence of fine materials such as charcoal dust, and cheap. All countries in Africa can utilize it due to presence of fine materials especially during charcoal production.
5. Potential of pyrolysis in biowaste conversion
Pyrolysis is the decomposition of organic materials using heat in the absence of oxygen to produce solid, liquid, and gases [51, 52]. It is said to have lower operating temperatures and emissions of air pollutants compared to combustion and gasification [52]. Pyrolysis has emerged as technology for current and future conversion technology of biomass [53]. The type, quality, and quantity of product depend on how operating parameters are controlled [52]. Its ability to treat almost all types of organic and production of solid, liquid, and gas fuel has made it a prospective technology of biomass conversion. The innovations on reactors, catalysts, and upgrading technologies have increased the importance of pyrolysis. Its level of development has made it a prospective technology for biowastes especially lignocellulosic biowastes. Therefore, pyrolysis is the current and future appropriate technology in the conversion of biowastes in Africa.
5.1 Categories of pyrolysis
Depending on the heating rate, operating temperature, and product distribution, pyrolysis can be classified as Table 4. It can be seen that slow pyrolysis targets char, fast and flash pyrolysis target targets bio oil while intermediate targets all. Intermediate pyrolysis has emerged as an alternative pyrolysis that is flexible, modular, economic, and ability to handle different biomass materials. It is appreciated to favor well the treatment of biowastes (Table 4).
Property
Slow
Intermediate
Fast
Flash
Heating rate (°C/s)
1
1-10
10-200
>1000
Feed size (mm)
5-50
1-5
<1
<0.5
Reaction temperature (°C)
400-500
400-650
850-1250
>1000
Vapor Residence time (s)
300-550
0.5-20
0.5-10
<1
Feed Water content (%)
Up to 40
Up to 40
<<10
<<10
Bio-oil Yield (%)
20-50
35-50
60-75
60-75
Bio-char Yield (%)
25-35
25-40
10-25
10-25
Gas Yield (%)
20-50
20-30
10-30
10-30
Table 4.
Classification of pyrolysis processes [54, 55, 56].
The quality and distribution of products depends on a well control of parameters. Among important parameters as such as feed composition, temperature, heating rate, catalysts, feed residence time, vapor residence time, particle size, and moisture contents. The composition of feedstock should be made of organic components to lead to effective conversion. For example, cellulose and hemicelluloses produce high bio-oil while lignin can yield up to 40% of its weight as char [57]. The presence of non-organic materials reduces the amount of useful products.
Temperature also dictates the composition and yield of the products [58]. Generally, an increase in temperature increases the amount of bio-oil and gas. Higher pyrolysis temperature favors production of hydrogen, while low temperatures produces more char [59]. The increase in temperature reduces the amount of char but increases its quality due to decrease of the volatile matter in char.
The residence time determines the quality of the products. For example, longer residence time at low temperature favors production of biochar and its quality increases due to favoring the development of micro-and macro-pores of bio-char [60, 61]. Reduced residence time reduces the re-polymerization thus reducing the amount of char [62]. Heating rate affects the quantity, quality, and composition of products. Rapid heating gives higher volatiles and more small reactive char than those produced by a slower heating process [52]. Slower heating rate increases the amount of char due to the secondary char produced from a reaction between the primary char and the volatiles [57].
Water content affects the quality and quantity of products. It promotes the reduction of species in bio-oil and improves the production of light aromatic [63]. Water can also catalyze char formation by acting as steam activator [64, 65]. Large amount of water reduces energy content in the feed; and hence, an optimal content is required. Particle size affects the quality and quantity of products by affecting the heat transfer. The decrease in size increases heating rate and easy escape of condensable products. In addition, small size favors liquid formation, hydrogen and carbon monoxide; while large size favors the formation of char and its quality due to secondary cracking [66, 67, 68].
Inert gas carrier (sweeping gas) controls the vapor residence time. Higher flow rates cause rapid removal of products that leads to minimization of secondary reactions such as char formation, thus increasing gas production [67, 69]. Poor properties of bio-oil such as high viscosity, non-volatility, high acidity, corrosiveness, instability upon storage, lower energy density, and immiscibility with fossil fuels caused by the presence of oxygen can be improved using catalysts [70]. The catalyst increases the quality of products through increased cracking, selectivity, and de-oxygenation [71]. This increases the quality of bio-oil and biochar while decreasing their quantities [51, 72]. It has been reported that, the presence of catalyst HZSM−5 reduced the amount of oxygenated compounds and thus increased the quality of bio-oil [72, 73]. Studies have also found out that bio-char production increases with an increase of NaOH, NaCl, CaO, and Na2SiO3 [74, 75].
5.2 Pyrolysis in biowaste conversion
Pyrolysis has emerged as the appropriate technology in biowaste conversion although its applicability in household in difficult [52]. It can convert almost all materials; small and large size, lignocellulosic and non-lignocellulosic, wet and dry, and variety of compositions. It has the ability to produce usable product with little or no upgrading. For example, intermediate and fast can produce bio oil which can be used with little or no upgrading. Hydrothermal pyrolysis can convert wet materials to produce usable solid and liquids. Its high reaction rate compared to anaerobic digestion leads to small reactor. Its main challenges to be used biowaste conversion are the investment and operation cost, sensitivity of the process, and difficulty in operation. For Africa, this becomes a promising technology but difficult conversion technology for small and household users.
6. Prospect of biowaste and conversion technologies in Africa
Bioenergy utilization in African is favored by; feedstock availability, availability of proven conversion technologies, large required land for production and plant setting, and increased value chain of bioenergy [33]. Africa aims to incorporate primary sources such as biogas, biodiesel, bioethanol and other biochemicals produced from agricultural, domestic and industrial resources and with the application of simple and indigenous technologies. With increase in population which leads to high demand of energy and pollution of biowaste, the necessity for effective conversion of biowastes is important. An important issue is to have effective conversion technologies that provide required energy at minimum cost. The technologies should be simple and flexible that household can apply. The study and investment of appropriate technologies should be emphasized for sustainable energy and environment.
7. Prospect of biowaste potentials Africa
The biowastes have the opportunity to produce different types of energy resources that can replace fossil fuel. The production of liquid fuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel is important to replace/reduce importation of petrol and diesel, respectively. The following are possible products that can be produced from biowastes.
7.1 Liquid biofuel
From 2017 African energy analysis, 70.1% of 928.051 Mtoe of energy consumed was through transportation. Many of African transportation sectors depend on liquid fuel. This highlights the high demand of liquid fuel. The introduction of biofuel from biowaste can be the solution on importation of liquid fuels. Africa has little use of liquid biofuel such as biodiesel, and ethanol. Up to 2020, no electricity has been produced from liquid biofuel compared to globe 3211 MW. The potential of producing liquid biofuel from waste is high since most of wastes are sugary biomass. The use of technologies such as pyrolysis, especially fast and intermediate pyrolysis, can convert biowaste into liquid fuel. Other technologies such as gasification and anaerobic digestion can produce syngas and biogas, respectively, as feedstock for gas to liquid conversion. The fermentation process can also produce bioethanol. The production of bioethanol from biowaste can reduce the competition with food in bioethanol production. Liquid fuel can also be produced from pressing of waste shells such as coconut and cashew nut shells. Liquid biofuel has a potential of replacing fossil fuel. IRENA 2017 report of five sub-Saharan countries (Ghana, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa, and Uganda) [19] has predicted biomass including biowastes can produce all liquid fuel for transportation and twice for industrial electricity and heat by 2050.
7.2 Solid fuel production
African has been depending on solid fuel especially wood charcoal in household needs. Most of charcoal has been produced from forest and thus leading to deforestation. The utilization of biowastes can increase the production of charcoal while reducing deforestation. Forest and crop residues are potential feedstock for charcoal production. The agglomeration such as pelleting has the potential of increase energy quantity in the biowastes. The products can increase the efficiency of other conversion processes such as combustion.
7.3 Economic and environmental sustainability
The use of biowaste in the production of useful energy leads to creation of jobs and increased value of agriculture and forest activities [31]. This can encourage people working in these areas to increase production and hence increase in biowastes and latter economic improvement. The use of biowaste will also increase environmental protection since uncontrolled burning and dumping will be avoided.
8. Prospect of conversion technologies in Africa
There are different technologies that can help to convert biowastes to useful energy. Study done by LTS team in 2017 [76] identified possible suitable conversion technologies for Africa. In applicability efficiency sequence, anaerobic digestion, gasification, direct combustion, fast pyrolysis, slow pyrolysis, and fermentation was observed [76]. Intermediate pyrolysis can be a good candidate in converting biowastes due to its advantages including; flexibility, ability to handle variety of feedstock, modular, ability to handle high moisture content, and productions of products with good quality [44]. Africa with biowastes that have variety of properties can effectively be handled using intermediate pyrolysis. Table 5 summarizes possible effective conversion technologies of biowastes in Africa.
List of appropriate biowaste to energy conversion technologies in Africa.
CHP means combined heat and electric power.
Biowaste is now regarded as source of energy for both energy and environment sustainability in Africa. Some polices have been formulated to increase biowaste energy in energy mix. Some funding from both government and private has been provided. Noticeable funding has come from African Development Bank Group. Example of such projects are; USD$ 1 million for Kenya for 10 MW from MSW in 2017, Bioethanol from waste for UDS$ 66 million in 2012, among others [77].
9. Conclusion
Africa is a continent that is undergoing rapid population and economic growth that require sustainable energy sources. Currently, energy production and consumption being below the global average of 2 toe per capital. The energy demand is expected to be 1600-2300 TWh by 2040 compared to 700 TWh in 2018. Increase in population from 1.2 billion in 2017 to 2.07 billion by 2040 and rapid industrialization will increase the energy demand and waste production, leading to the challenge of attaining economic and environment sustainability. Currently, energy comes from biomass at 42% and electricity is mostly from fossil fuels, leading to deforestation and pollution. The introduction of renewables in energy mix has been at low rate due to poor investment, knowledge, policy, location, and technology. Biomass is seen as the appropriate renewable energy due to abundance, affordable conversion technology, and widely distributed. To reduce deforestation and pollution, use of biowaste is appropriate solution. Although biowastes are not widely used, their use is a potential source of energy. The MSW, animal, crop, and forest residues are currently abundant in Africa and their use is a good solution for sustainable energy and environment. It is predicted that these wastes can have 20.1 TWh in 2025. Although biowastes are sources of energy, poor management, technology, and investments have hindered their use. This has led to unplanned dumping and site combustion leading to loss of energy and pollution. The introduction of appropriate technologies such as pyrolysis, gasification, and anaerobic digestion has the potential to produce solid and liquid fuels while increasing value of agriculture. Effective utilization of biowastes with other biomass will lead to energy dependency, for example by 2050; liquid biofuel can be enough for transport needs in countries such as Uganda, Nigeria, and Ghana. It is therefore important for government to formulate policy for biowastes utilization while investing on both private and public utilization plants. Education on the handling of biowastes should also be given to local population. This gives the hope that future energy and environmental sustainability in Africa can be contributed by effective utilization of biowastes.
Acknowledgments
It is our pleasure to give our appreciation to The University of Dodoma through Deodatus Kazawadi PhD funding. This has been a great enforcer in preparing this book chapter.
Conflict of interest
This book chapter has used data from reliable organization and data used are open data. This chapter has not been submitted or published to any publisher.
\n',keywords:"municipal solid wastes, crop and forest residues, biowaste, renewable energy",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78563.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78563.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78563",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78563",totalDownloads:133,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"August 8th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 19th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 12th 2021",datePublished:"April 13th 2022",dateFinished:"September 12th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"High population and industrialization have brought the need for a reliable and sustainable source of energy and protection of the environment. Although Africa has a low energy consumption capacity (3.4% of the global share in 2019), its high population growth rate and industrialization predict high energy demand in the future. Reliable and available energy resources are required to protect the environment and create energy dependency. Despite Africa’s low energy consumption capacity (3.4% of global consumption in 2019), its rapid population growth rate and industrialization indicate future significant energy demand. The current high production of biowastes with high energy content and their low utilization provides an opportunity for energy dependency, crop value addition, creation of jobs, and protection of the environment. The chapter has identified that the African population of 1.203 billion in 2017 consumed 928 Mtoe of energy and this demand is expected to increase in years to come. The energy mix has been identified to depend on fossil fuels with little consideration of biowastes. The biowaste is reported to contain 20.1 TWh in 2025. Biowaste is currently underutilized, and there are few conversion methods available. Government and non-government investments have been reported to be making efforts to improve bioenergy and biowaste usage. The prevailing challenges have been low proven technologies, poor energy policy, low population knowledge, and poor investments. Biowastes use can be increased when environmental laws and legislation are tightened, energy policy strengthened and enforced, cheap and appropriate technologies are introduced, and the population Education is provided. It is expected that when biowastes are well utilized, energy will be available even in disadvantaged (remote) areas at an affordable price for the developing continent of Africa.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78563",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78563",signatures:"Deodatus Kazawadi, Justin Ntalikwa and Godlisten Kombe",book:{id:"10862",type:"book",title:"Recent Perspectives in Pyrolysis Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Perspectives in Pyrolysis Research",slug:"recent-perspectives-in-pyrolysis-research",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",bookSignature:"Mattia Bartoli and Mauro Giorcelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10862.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-915-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-914-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-916-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"422096",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Deodatus",middleName:null,surname:"Kazawadi",fullName:"Deodatus Kazawadi",slug:"deodatus-kazawadi",email:"dkazawadi@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"424982",title:"Prof.",name:"Justin",middleName:null,surname:"Ntalikwa",fullName:"Justin Ntalikwa",slug:"justin-ntalikwa",email:"jntalikwa@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"424983",title:"Dr.",name:"Godlisten",middleName:null,surname:"Kombe",fullName:"Godlisten Kombe",slug:"godlisten-kombe",email:"kombe.g@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Energy status and challenges in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Energy mix in Africa",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Challenges of energy sources and stability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Status of biowastes potentials and utilization in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Biowastes sources",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.1 Municipal solid wastes",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.2 Forest residue",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2 Current management and utilization of biowastes in Africa",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3 Challenges of utilizing biowastes in Africa",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. Current conversion technologies of bio wastes to energy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1 Direct combustion/incineration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2 Carbonization",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.3 Gasification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.4 Pyrolysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.5 Anaerobic digestion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.6 Microbial fuel cell (MFC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.7 Landfilling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.8 Agglomeration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"5. Potential of pyrolysis in biowaste conversion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.1 Categories of pyrolysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.2 Pyrolysis in biowaste conversion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24",title:"6. Prospect of biowaste and conversion technologies in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"7. Prospect of biowaste potentials Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"7.1 Liquid biofuel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"7.2 Solid fuel production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"7.3 Economic and environmental sustainability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29",title:"8. Prospect of conversion technologies in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"9. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_31",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_34",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Birol, Fatih, Africa Energy Outlook 2019. 2019, IEA'},{id:"B2",body:'Wba, Global Bioenergy Stastics 2020. 2020, World Bioenergy Association: Sweden'},{id:"B3",body:'Awasthi, Mukesh Kumar, Surendra Sarsaiya, Hongyu Chen, Quan Wang, Meijing Wang, Sanjeev Kumar Awasthi, Jiao Li, Tao Liu, Ashok Pandey, and Zengqiang Zhang, Global Status of Waste-to-Energy Technology, in Current developments in biotechnology and bioengineering. 2019, Elsevier. p. 31-52'},{id:"B4",body:'Gyde Lund, Frank Mabirizi, Atlas of Africa Energy Resources. 2017, United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi Kenya'},{id:"B5",body:'Godfrey, Linda, Mohamed Tawfic Ahmed, Kidane Giday Gebremedhin, Jamidu Hy Katima, Suzan Oelofse, Oladele Osibanjo, Ulf Henning Richter, and Arsène H Yonli, Solid waste management in Africa: governance failure or development opportunity. Regional Development in Africa, 2019: p. 235'},{id:"B6",body:'Schiffer, Hans-Wilhelm and Johannes Trüby, A review of the German energy transition: taking stock, looking ahead, and drawing conclusions for the Middle East and North Africa. Energy Transitions, 2018. 2(1): p. 1-14'},{id:"B7",body:'Abdalah, Rashid Ali, Key Africa Energy Statistics Edition 2019. 2019, African Energy Comission: Algeria'},{id:"B8",body:'Iea, Africa Energy Outlook 2019: World Energy Outlook Special Report. 2019, IEA: Paris'},{id:"B9",body:'Iea. Electricity generation from biofuels and waste by source, World1990-2018. 2018 [cited 2021 14/7]; Available from: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-browser/?country=WORLD&fuel=Renewables%20and%20waste&indicator=WasteGenBySource'},{id:"B10",body:'Gordon, Philip. UN study: ‘Urgent action’ needed to reduce biomass use in Africa. 2019 [cited 2021 8/7]'},{id:"B11",body:'Aleman, Julie C, Marta A Jarzyna, and A Carla Staver, Forest extent and deforestation in tropical Africa since 1900. Nature ecology & evolution, 2018. 2(1): p. 26-33'},{id:"B12",body:'Tripathi, Nimisha, Colin D Hills, Raj S Singh, and Christopher J Atkinson, Biomass waste utilisation in low-carbon products: harnessing a major potential resource. NPJ climate and atmospheric science, 2019. 2(1): p. 1-10'},{id:"B13",body:'Fao. Livestock manure. 2021 [cited 2021 17 August]; estimation of livestock manure]. Available from: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/EMN'},{id:"B14",body:'Barz, Mirko, Mitra Kami Delivand, and Konstantin Dinkler, Agricultural Wastes–a Promising Source for Biogas Production in Developing Countries of the Tropical and Subtropical Regions. Revista Forestal Mesoamericana Kurú, 2019. 16(38): p. 2-12'},{id:"B15",body:'Scarlat, Nicolae, Vincenzo Motola, Jean François Dallemand, Fabio Monforti-Ferrario, and Linus Mofor, Evaluation of energy potential of municipal solid waste from African urban areas. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2015. 50: p. 1269-1286'},{id:"B16",body:'Hoornweg, Daniel, Perinaz Bhada-Tata, and Christopher Kennedy, Peak waste: When is it likely to occur? Journal of Industrial Ecology, 2015. 19(1): p. 117-128'},{id:"B17",body:'Fao. Forestry Production and Trade. 2019 [cited 2021 15/7]; Available from: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FO/visualize'},{id:"B18",body:'Thrän, K. Stechera. Brosowski D., Biomass Potential in Africa. 2013, IRENA: German'},{id:"B19",body:'Jeffrey Skeer, Rodrigo Leme and Yasuko Inoue, Biofuel Potential in Sub-Saharan Africa: Raising food yields, reducing food waste and utilising residues. 2017, IRENA: Abu Dhabi'},{id:"B20",body:'Duguma, Lalisa, Esther Kamwilu, Peter A Minang, Judith Nzyoka, and Kennedy Muthee, Ecosystem-Based Approaches to Bioenergy and the Need for Regenerative Supply Options for Africa. Sustainability, 2020. 12(20): p. 8588'},{id:"B21",body:'Mboumboue, Edouard and Donatien Njomo, Biomass resources assessment and bioenergy generation for a clean and sustainable development in Cameroon. Biomass and bioenergy, 2018. 118: p. 16-23'},{id:"B22",body:'Shane, Agabu, Shabbir H Gheewala, Bundit Fungtammasan, Thapat Silalertruksa, Sébastien Bonnet, and Seveliano Phiri, Bioenergy resource assessment for Zambia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016. 53: p. 93-104'},{id:"B23",body:'Okello, Collins, Stefania Pindozzi, Salvatore Faugno, and Lorenzo Boccia, Bioenergy potential of agricultural and forest residues in Uganda. Biomass and bioenergy, 2013. 56: p. 515-525'},{id:"B24",body:'Jekayinfa, Simeon Olatayo, Joseph Ifeolu Orisaleye, and Ralf Pecenka, An assessment of potential resources for biomass energy in Nigeria. Resources, 2020. 9(8): p. 92'},{id:"B25",body:'Gabisa, Elias W and Shabbir H Gheewala, Potential of bio-energy production in Ethiopia based on available biomass residues. Biomass and bioenergy, 2018. 111: p. 77-87'},{id:"B26",body:'Gelan, Eshetu, Municipal Solid Waste Management Practices for Achieving Green Architecture Concepts in Addis Ababa,Ethiopia. Technologies, 2021. 9(3): p. 48'},{id:"B27",body:'Aslam, Zahida, Hu Li, James Hammerton, Gordon Andrews, Andrew Ross, and Jon C Lovett, Increasing Access to Electricity: An Assessment of the Energy and Power Generation Potential from Biomass Waste Residues in Tanzania. Energies, 2021. 14(6): p. 1793'},{id:"B28",body:'Venkatramanan, V, Shachi Shah, Shiv Prasad, Anoop Singh, and Ram Prasad, Assessment of Bioenergy Generation Potential of Agricultural Crop Residues in India. Circular Economy and Sustainability, 2021: p. 1-14'},{id:"B29",body:'Dahunsi, So, At Adesulu-Dahunsi, Co Osueke, Ai Lawal, Tma Olayanju, Jo Ojediran, and Jo Izebere, Biogas generation from Sorghum bicolor stalk: effect of pretreatment methods and economic feasibility. Energy Reports, 2019. 5: p. 584-593'},{id:"B30",body:'Surroop, Dinesh, Zumar Ma Bundhoo, and Pravesh Raghoo, Waste to energy through biogas to improve energy security and to transform Africa\'s energy landscape. Current opinion in green and sustainable chemistry, 2019. 18: p. 79-83'},{id:"B31",body:'Godfrey, Linda, Anton Nahman, Arsène H Yonli, Fisseha Gebru Gebremedhin, Jamidu Hy Katima, Kidane Giday Gebremedhin, Mohamed Abdelnaem M Osman, Mohamed Tawfic Ahmed, Mohammed Mohammedbrhan Amin, and Naglaa M Loutfy, Africa waste management outlook. 2018'},{id:"B32",body:'Bishoge, Obadia Kyetuza, Lingling Zhang, and Witness Gerald Mushi, The potential renewable energy for sustainable development in Tanzania: A review. Clean Technologies, 2019. 1(1): p. 70-88'},{id:"B33",body:'Dahunsi, Samuel Olatunde, Omololu Oluwatobi Fagbiele, and Esther Ojima Yusuf, Bioenergy technologies adoption in Africa: A review of past and current status. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2020. 264: p. 121683'},{id:"B34",body:'Kumar, Atul and Sukha Ranjan Samadder, A review on technological options of waste to energy for effective management of municipal solid waste. Waste Management, 2017. 69: p. 407-422'},{id:"B35",body:'Fobil, Julius N, Derick Carboo, and Nathaniel A Armah, Evaluation of municipal solid wastes (MSW) for utilisation in energy production in developing countries. International journal of environmental technology and management, 2005. 5(1): p. 76-86'},{id:"B36",body:'Ogawa, Makoto, Yasuyuki Okimori, and Fumio Takahashi, Carbon sequestration by carbonization of biomass and forestation: three case studies. Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change, 2006. 11(2): p. 429-444'},{id:"B37",body:'Hosier, Richard H, Charcoal production and environmental degradation: environmental history, selective harvesting, and post-harvest management. Energy Policy, 1993. 21(5): p. 491-509'},{id:"B38",body:'Guo, Mingxin, Weiping Song, and Jeremy Buhain, Bioenergy and biofuels: History, status, and perspective. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 2015. 42: p. 712-725'},{id:"B39",body:'Siedlecki, Marcin, Wiebren De Jong, and Adrian Hm Verkooijen, Fluidized bed gasification as a mature and reliable technology for the production of bio-syngas and applied in the production of liquid transportation fuels—a review. Energies, 2011. 4(3): p. 389-434'},{id:"B40",body:'Kirkels, Arjan F and Geert Pj Verbong, Biomass gasification: Still promising? A 30-year global overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2011. 15(1): p. 471-481'},{id:"B41",body:'Wampler, Thomas P, Applied pyrolysis handbook. 2006: CRC press'},{id:"B42",body:'Soltes, Ed J and Thomas J Elder, Pyrolysis, in Organic chemicals from biomass. 2018, CRC Press. p. 63-99'},{id:"B43",body:'Venderbosch, Robbie H, Fast pyrolysis. Thermochemical processing of biomass: conversion into fuels, chemicals and power, 2019: p. 175-206'},{id:"B44",body:'Kazawadi, Deodatus, Justin Ntalikwa, and Godlisten Kombe, A Review of Intermediate Pyrolysis as a Technology of Biomass Conversion for Coproduction of Biooil and Adsorption Biochar. Journal of Renewable Energy, 2021. 2021'},{id:"B45",body:'Tinwala, Farha, Pravakar Mohanty, Snehal Parmar, Anant Patel, and Kamal K Pant, Intermediate pyrolysis of agro-industrial biomasses in bench-scale pyrolyser: product yields and its characterization. Bioresource Technology, 2015. 188: p. 258-264'},{id:"B46",body:'Khoshand, Afshin, Ali Hasani Bafrani, Mohammad Zahedipour, Seyed Ahmad Mirbagheri, and Majid Ehtehsami, Prevention of landfill pollution by multicriteria spatial decision support systems (MC-SDSS): development, implementation, and case study. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2018. 25(9): p. 8415-8431'},{id:"B47",body:'Kim, Byung Hong, In Seop Chang, and Geoffrey M Gadd, Challenges in microbial fuel cell development and operation. Applied microbiology and biotechnology, 2007. 76(3): p. 485-494'},{id:"B48",body:'El-Fadel, Mutasem, Angelos N Findikakis, and James O Leckie, Environmental impacts of solid waste landfilling. Journal of environmental management, 1997. 50(1): p. 1-25'},{id:"B49",body:'Munawar, Sasa Sofyan and Bambang Subiyanto, Characterization of biomass pellet made from solid waste oil palm industry. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 2014. 20: p. 336-341'},{id:"B50",body:'Gaqa, Sibongiseni and Paul Watts, The agglomeration of coal fines using wet microalgae biomass. Journal of Energy in Southern Africa, 2018. 29(2): p. 43-50'},{id:"B51",body:'Brown, Robert C and Kaige Wang, Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass: Advances in Science and Technology. 2017, Royal Society of Chemistry: Croydon. p. 300'},{id:"B52",body:'Czajczyńska, D. , L. Anguilano, H. Ghazal, R Krzyżyńska, A.J. Reynolds, N. Spencer, and H. Jouhara, Potential of pyrolysis processes in the waste management sector. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 2017. 3: p. 171-197'},{id:"B53",body:'Wang, Guanyu, Yujie Dai, Haiping Yang, Qingang Xiong, Kaige Wang, Jinsong Zhou, Yunchao Li, and Shurong Wang, A review of recent advances in biomass pyrolysis. Energy & Fuels, 2020. 34(12): p. 15557-15578'},{id:"B54",body:'Jouhara, Hussam, Darem Ahmad, Inge Van Den Boogaert, Evina Katsou, Stefaan Simons, and Nik Spencer, Pyrolysis of domestic based feedstock at temperatures up to 300 C. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 2017. 5(2018): p. 117-143'},{id:"B55",body:'Tripathi, Manoj, Jaya Narayan Sahu, and P Ganesan, Effect of process parameters on production of biochar from biomass waste through pyrolysis: a review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2016. 55: p. 467-481'},{id:"B56",body:'Torri, Isadora Dalla Vecchia, Ville Paasikallio, Candice Schmitt Faccini, Rafael Huff, Elina Bastos Caramão, Vera Sacon, Anja Oasmaa, and Claudia Alcaraz Zini, Bio-oil production of softwood and hardwood forest industry residues through fast and intermediate pyrolysis and its chromatographic characterization. Bioresource technology, 2016. 200: p. 680-690'},{id:"B57",body:'Basu, Prabir, Biomass gasification, pyrolysis and torrefaction: practical design and theory. 2013, Elsevier: India'},{id:"B58",body:'Akhtar, Javaid and Noraishah Saidina Amin, A review on Operating Parameters for Optimum Liquid Oil Yield in Biomass Pyrolysis. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012. 16(7): p. 5101-5109'},{id:"B59",body:'Agarwal, Manu, An Investigation on the Pyrolysis of Municipal Solid Waste, in School of Applied Sciences. 2014, RMIT University: Hyderabad'},{id:"B60",body:'Encinar, Jm, Fj Beltran, A Bernalte, A Ramiro, and Jf Gonzalez, Pyrolysis of two agricultural residues: olive and grape bagasse. Influence of particle size and temperature. Biomass and Bioenergy, 1996. 11(5): p. 397-409'},{id:"B61",body:'Tsai, Wt, Cy Chang, and Sl Lee, Preparation and characterization of activated carbons from corn cob. Carbon, 1997. 35(8): p. 1198-1200'},{id:"B62",body:'Park, Hyun Ju, Young-Kwon Park, and Joo Sik Kim, Influence of reaction conditions and the char separation system on the production of bio-oil from radiata pine sawdust by fast pyrolysis. Fuel Processing Technology, 2008. 89(8): p. 797-802'},{id:"B63",body:'Huang, Zhihang, Linbo Qin, Zhe Xu, Wangsheng Chen, Futang Xing, and Jun Han, The effects of Fe2O3 catalyst on the conversion of organic matter and bio-fuel production during pyrolysis of sewage sludge. Journal of the Energy Institute, 2018'},{id:"B64",body:'Gray, Murray R, William H Corcoran, and George R Gavalas, Pyrolysis of a wood-derived material. Effects of moisture and ash content. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Process Design and Development, 1985. 24(3): p. 646-651'},{id:"B65",body:'Antal, Michael Jerry, Eric Croiset, Xiangfeng Dai, Carlos Dealmeida, William Shu-Lai Mok, Niclas Norberg, Jean-Robert Richard, and Mamoun Al Majthoub, High-yield biomass charcoal. Energy & Fuels, 1996. 10(3): p. 652-658'},{id:"B66",body:'Fassinou, Wanignon Ferdinand, Laurent Van De Steene, Siaka Toure, Ghislaine Volle, and Philippe Girard, Pyrolysis of Pinus pinaster in a two-stage gasifier: Influence of processing parameters and thermal cracking of tar. Fuel processing technology, 2009. 90(1): p. 75-90'},{id:"B67",body:'Zhang, Huiyan, Rui Xiao, He Huang, and Gang Xiao, Comparison of non-catalytic and catalytic fast pyrolysis of corncob in a fluidized bed reactor. Bioresource Technology, 2009. 100(3): p. 1428-1434'},{id:"B68",body:'Choi, Hang Seok, Yeon Seok Choi, and Hoon Chae Park, Fast pyrolysis characteristics of lignocellulosic biomass with varying reaction conditions. Renewable Energy, 2012. 42: p. 131-135'},{id:"B69",body:'Pütün, Ersan, Catalytic pyrolysis of biomass: Effects of pyrolysis temperature, sweeping gas flow rate and MgO catalyst. Energy, 2010. 35(7): p. 2761-2766'},{id:"B70",body:'Imran, Ali, Eddy Bramer, Kulathuiyer Seshan, and Gerrit Brem, Catalytic flash pyrolysis of biomass using different types of zeolite and online vapor fractionation. Energies, 2016. 9(3): p. 187'},{id:"B71",body:'Al-Salem, Sm, A Antelava, A Constantinou, G Manos, and A Dutta, A review on Thermal and Catalytic Pyrolysis of Plastic Solid Waste (PSW). Journal of environmental management, 2017. 197: p. 177-198'},{id:"B72",body:'Miandad, R, Ma Barakat, Asad S Aburiazaiza, M Rehan, and As Nizami, Catalytic pyrolysis of plastic waste: a review. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 2016. 102: p. 822-838'},{id:"B73",body:'Li, Xiangyu, Lu Su, Yujue Wang, Yanqing Yu, Chengwen Wang, Xiaoliang Li, and Zhihua Wang, Catalytic fast pyrolysis of Kraft lignin with HZSM-5 zeolite for producing aromatic hydrocarbons. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 2012. 6(3): p. 295-303'},{id:"B74",body:'Encinar, José M, Fernando J Beltran, Antonio Ramiro, and Juan F Gonzalez, Catalyzed pyrolysis of grape and olive bagasse. Influence of catalyst type and chemical treatment. Industrial & engineering chemistry research, 1997. 36(10): p. 4176-4183'},{id:"B75",body:'Yu, Ying, Junqing Yu, Bing Sun, and Zhiyu Yan, Influence of catalyst types on the microwave-induced pyrolysis of sewage sludge. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 2014. 106: p. 86-91'},{id:"B76",body:'Lts, Bioenergy for Sustainable Energy Access in Africa. 2017, LTS International Limited: Edinburgh'},{id:"B77",body:'Adbg. Nigeria - Green Energy & Biofuels (Geb) Bio-Refinery Project - SEFA Project Summary Note. 2021 [cited 2021 20/7]; Available from: https://www.afdb.org/en/about-us/organisational-structure/complexes/country-regional-programs-policy/country-office-contacts'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Deodatus Kazawadi",address:"dkazawadi@gmail.com",affiliation:'
College of Earth Sciences and Engineering, University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania
College of Earth Sciences and Engineering, University of Dodoma, Dodoma, Tanzania
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10862",type:"book",title:"Recent Perspectives in Pyrolysis Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Perspectives in Pyrolysis Research",slug:"recent-perspectives-in-pyrolysis-research",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",bookSignature:"Mattia Bartoli and Mauro Giorcelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10862.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-915-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-914-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-916-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"59983",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",middleName:null,surname:"Uehara",email:"uesinn0116@yahoo.co.jp",fullName:"Shinya Uehara",slug:"shinya-uehara",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"19320",title:"Biofilm and Urogenital Infections",slug:"biofilm-and-urogenital-infections",abstract:null,signatures:"Peter Tenke, Bela Koves, Karoly Nagy, Shinya Uehara, Hiromi Kumon, Scott J. Hultgren, Chia Hung and Werner Mendling",authors:[{id:"51049",title:"Prof.",name:"Scott",surname:"Hultgren",fullName:"Scott Hultgren",slug:"scott-hultgren",email:"hultgren@borcim.wustl.edu"},{id:"59747",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Tenke",fullName:"Peter Tenke",slug:"peter-tenke",email:"tenke.peter@jahndelpest.hu"},{id:"59911",title:"Dr.",name:"Bela",surname:"Koves",fullName:"Bela Koves",slug:"bela-koves",email:"bkoves@gmail.com"},{id:"59961",title:"Dr.",name:"Karoly",surname:"Nagy",fullName:"Karoly Nagy",slug:"karoly-nagy",email:"dr.nkaroly@gmail.com"},{id:"59983",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",surname:"Uehara",fullName:"Shinya Uehara",slug:"shinya-uehara",email:"uesinn0116@yahoo.co.jp"},{id:"59990",title:"Dr.",name:"Chia",surname:"Hung",fullName:"Chia Hung",slug:"chia-hung",email:"chiacha@gmail.com"},{id:"60048",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiromi",surname:"Kumon",fullName:"Hiromi Kumon",slug:"hiromi-kumon",email:"kumon@gmail.com"},{id:"95905",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",surname:"Mendling",fullName:"Werner Mendling",slug:"werner-mendling",email:"wmendling@freemail.com"}],book:{id:"370",title:"Clinical Management of Complicated Urinary Tract Infection",slug:"clinical-management-of-complicated-urinary-tract-infection",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"45184",title:"Prof.",name:"Salvatore",surname:"Siracusano",slug:"salvatore-siracusano",fullName:"Salvatore Siracusano",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"45333",title:"Dr.",name:"Suresh",surname:"Antony",slug:"suresh-antony",fullName:"Suresh Antony",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"45849",title:"Dr.",name:"Glen",surname:"Ulett",slug:"glen-ulett",fullName:"Glen Ulett",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"45860",title:"Mr.",name:"Chee Keong",surname:"Tan",slug:"chee-keong-tan",fullName:"Chee Keong Tan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Griffith University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"45861",title:"Dr.",name:"Alison",surname:"Carey",slug:"alison-carey",fullName:"Alison Carey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Griffith University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"50650",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonella",surname:"Agodi",slug:"antonella-agodi",fullName:"Antonella Agodi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"50682",title:"Dr.",name:"Martina",surname:"Barchitta",slug:"martina-barchitta",fullName:"Martina Barchitta",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"58980",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjanca",surname:"Starčič Erjavec",slug:"marjanca-starcic-erjavec",fullName:"Marjanca Starčič Erjavec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58980/images/system/58980.jpeg",biography:"Marjanca Starčič Erjavec, PhD, is a professor of Molecular Biology at the Department of Biology, Biotechnical faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, EU. She studied biology (undergraduate course) and biochemistry and molecular biology (graduate course) at the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. She defended her PhD thesis in the field of bacterial molecular genetics at the University of Utrecht, Netherlands. She was a visiting professor at University of Maribor, Slovenia, University of Graz, Austria, University of Modena, Italy, Duke University, Durham, USA and at the Institute of Ecology and Genetics of Microorganisms, Perm, Russia. At the University of Ljubljana, she is involved in teaching different subjects for students of microbiology and molecular and functional biology. She conducts research on horizontal gene transfer, including plasmids, natural and clinical E. coli strains.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"59980",title:"Prof.",name:"Darja",surname:"Žgur-Bertok",slug:"darja-zgur-bertok",fullName:"Darja Žgur-Bertok",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"91301",title:"Mr.",name:"Deepak",surname:"Ipe",slug:"deepak-ipe",fullName:"Deepak Ipe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Completed Masters of Research in Biomedical Sciences with merit from University of Glasgow, Scotland, UK. Currently doing PhD at Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia with Dr. Glen Ulett.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Griffith University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"refund-policy",title:"Refund Policy",intro:"
IntechOpen will act in accordance with its published Refund Policy if requests for refunds are made.
",metaTitle:"Refund Policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen will act in accordance with its Refund Policy if requests for refunds are made.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/refund-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
Refunds are possible in the following cases:
\\n\\n
1. A double payment, in which case a full refund will be made.
\\n\\n
2. A justified withdrawal of work by the Author, which had already been accepted during or after production but prior to publication. In this situation, a 50% refund will be made. (IntechOpen reserves the right to determine, at its discretion, whether withdrawal is justified and, consequently, whether a refund should be issued).
\\n\\n
3. In those rare instances where IntechOpen declines to publish a book that had been previously accepted, full refunds will be made to the same account or credit card from which the Author made the original payment.
\\n\\n
Please note that refunded amounts will not always be exactly the same as original payment amounts due to bank transaction fees and expenses. Any such costs will be split evenly between IntechOpen and the Author.
1. A double payment, in which case a full refund will be made.
\n\n
2. A justified withdrawal of work by the Author, which had already been accepted during or after production but prior to publication. In this situation, a 50% refund will be made. (IntechOpen reserves the right to determine, at its discretion, whether withdrawal is justified and, consequently, whether a refund should be issued).
\n\n
3. In those rare instances where IntechOpen declines to publish a book that had been previously accepted, full refunds will be made to the same account or credit card from which the Author made the original payment.
\n\n
Please note that refunded amounts will not always be exactly the same as original payment amounts due to bank transaction fees and expenses. Any such costs will be split evenly between IntechOpen and the Author.
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5945},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17701}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133951},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{fbclid:"IwAR0NJ2alrDWjMgiYCpM0OpJRdcejo2f9WwtXhUVr7cpCVChnJ9ct2NjO5dY",sort:"title",topicId:"15"},books:[{type:"book",id:"12021",title:"Applied Probability Theory - New Perspectives, Recent Advances and Trends",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f6f474da3dbb92cb35aeabdcbbf8498e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Abdo Abou Jaoudé",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12021.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12376",title:"Asymptotics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7e4dba0cf5d111f1f4caf59cf61c1baa",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12376.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12019",title:"Chaos Theory - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"38f0946fe1dd3314939e670799f88426",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mykhaylo I. Andriychuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12019.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"57755",title:"Dr.",name:"Mykhaylo",surname:"Andriychuk",slug:"mykhaylo-andriychuk",fullName:"Mykhaylo Andriychuk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12020",title:"Fixed Point Theory and Chaos",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"256aaeeb2cfa765c6a37c73e4fe7402f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12020.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"237167",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Huerta-Cuellar",slug:"guillermo-huerta-cuellar",fullName:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12018",title:"Fourier Transform and Its Generalizations",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"16c4a70b7adc13641a21d30bb79b7d0f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mohd Younus Bhat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12018.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"272214",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Younus",surname:"Bhat",slug:"mohd-younus-bhat",fullName:"Mohd Younus Bhat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11864",title:"Game Theory - From Idea to Practice",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"17db7dc9ca5813b2e1c7cd9d8ded210d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Branislav Sobota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11864.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"109378",title:"Dr.",name:"Branislav",surname:"Sobota",slug:"branislav-sobota",fullName:"Branislav Sobota"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11863",title:"Inverse Problems - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"778be380846c917e320eceaf5d7a5983",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ivan Kyrchei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11863.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"226980",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Kyrchei",slug:"ivan-kyrchei",fullName:"Ivan Kyrchei"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11504",title:"Kalman Filter - Engineering Applications\ufeff",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4c3e68adcaeaa44f9fbfe9bb19bdd55b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Yuri Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11504.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",surname:"Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11500",title:"Multi-Objective Optimization - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"842f84f308439c0a55c4e8e6a8fd9c01",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Adel El-Shahat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11500.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"193331",title:"Dr.",name:"Adel",surname:"El-Shahat",slug:"adel-el-shahat",fullName:"Adel El-Shahat"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11865",title:"Operator Theory - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"acb2875b3bfc189c9881a9b44b6a5184",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Abdo Abou Jaoudé",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11865.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12017",title:"Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1912acc4811b724cc0a15dba11f5af79",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12017.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11501",title:"Qualitative and Computational Aspects of Dynamical Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d9d21a5db7515233f254abc02d89c2be",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kamal Shah, Dr. . Eiman and Dr. Arshad Ali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11501.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:40},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:66},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:124},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:16},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc00a66513e51003e5dbbc0294e0fc3d",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-challenges-and-opportunities-of-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",slug:"hydrolases",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10193",title:"Multidisciplinary Experiences in Renal Replacement Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4738671bb3e815744d1e04df7ba879",slug:"multidisciplinary-experiences-in-renal-replacement-therapy",bookSignature:"Ane C.F. Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10193.jpg",editors:[{id:"55270",title:"Prof.",name:"Ane",middleName:null,surname:"Claudia Fernandes Nunes",slug:"ane-claudia-fernandes-nunes",fullName:"Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10983",title:"Conifers",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e524d29fc3f95c3389efbd41463dab6",slug:"conifers-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves and Teresa Fonseca",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10983.jpg",editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10539",title:"Ginseng",subtitle:"Modern Aspects of the Famed Traditional Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f388543a066b617d2c52bd4c027c272",slug:"ginseng-modern-aspects-of-the-famed-traditional-medicine",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano and Jen-Tsung Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10539.jpg",editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10881",title:"Drug Repurposing",subtitle:"Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca3f2d5ca97b457d38a2442b36d3ac7",slug:"drug-repurposing-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10881.jpg",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4423},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2204,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1182,editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10787",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",subtitle:"Challenges and Opportunities of a Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc00a66513e51003e5dbbc0294e0fc3d",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma-challenges-and-opportunities-of-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10787.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1006,editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10841",title:"Hydrolases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4e868cde273d65a7ff54b1817d640629",slug:"hydrolases",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider, Adnan Haider and Angel Catalá",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10841.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:863,editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:"Advanced Technology and Applications in Medical and Life Sciences",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:"cell-culture-advanced-technology-and-applications-in-medical-and-life-sciences",bookSignature:"Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:793,editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10193",title:"Multidisciplinary Experiences in Renal Replacement Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4738671bb3e815744d1e04df7ba879",slug:"multidisciplinary-experiences-in-renal-replacement-therapy",bookSignature:"Ane C.F. Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10193.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:730,editors:[{id:"55270",title:"Prof.",name:"Ane",middleName:null,surname:"Claudia Fernandes Nunes",slug:"ane-claudia-fernandes-nunes",fullName:"Ane Claudia Fernandes Nunes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2167,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10983",title:"Conifers",subtitle:"Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3e524d29fc3f95c3389efbd41463dab6",slug:"conifers-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves and Teresa Fonseca",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10983.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:600,editors:[{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10539",title:"Ginseng",subtitle:"Modern Aspects of the Famed Traditional Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f388543a066b617d2c52bd4c027c272",slug:"ginseng-modern-aspects-of-the-famed-traditional-medicine",bookSignature:"Christophe Hano and Jen-Tsung Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10539.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:583,editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10881",title:"Drug Repurposing",subtitle:"Molecular Aspects and Therapeutic Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca3f2d5ca97b457d38a2442b36d3ac7",slug:"drug-repurposing-molecular-aspects-and-therapeutic-applications",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10881.jpg",publishedDate:"June 1st 2022",numberOfDownloads:2231,editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"137",title:"Environmental Technology",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-technology",parent:{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:55,numberOfWosCitations:109,numberOfCrossrefCitations:52,numberOfDimensionsCitations:157,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"137",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7007",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0f0aa079c718ff38aece0a8cecb65f98",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",bookSignature:"Toonika Rinken and Kairi Kivirand",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",middleName:null,surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"413",title:"Environmental Biosensors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac77d5b581e7145c0302087d80651749",slug:"environmental-biosensors",bookSignature:"Vernon Somerset",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/413.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6648",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vernon",middleName:null,surname:"Somerset",slug:"vernon-somerset",fullName:"Vernon Somerset"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"16446",doi:"10.5772/22350",title:"Advances in Aptamer-Based Biosensors for Food Safety",slug:"advances-in-aptamer-based-biosensors-for-food-safety",totalDownloads:9630,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:null,book:{id:"413",slug:"environmental-biosensors",title:"Environmental Biosensors",fullTitle:"Environmental Biosensors"},signatures:"Maureen McKeague, Amanda Giamberardino and Maria C. DeRosa",authors:[{id:"47354",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"DeRosa",slug:"maria-derosa",fullName:"Maria DeRosa"}]},{id:"66031",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84139",title:"Biosensors for Determination of Heavy Metals in Waters",slug:"biosensors-for-determination-of-heavy-metals-in-waters",totalDownloads:2722,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Biosensors are nowadays a powerful alternative to conventional analytical techniques for controlling the quality of not only natural water but also process water used by the food industry during the production process, as well as wastewater prior to release into natural watercourses. The goal is to provide the required quality and safety of water from the standpoint of heavy metal contamination. The basic and most important characteristics of biosensors are high sensitivity, short response time, specificity, and relatively low production cost. Biosensors can detect the presence and measure the content of various toxic substances (pesticides, heavy metals, etc.) not only in water but also in food. Detection of contaminants, primarily heavy metals in water used in food production processes, is a potential area of biosensor application in the food industry. Biosensors can be adapted for direct and continuous (online) monitoring by measuring certain analytes that can affect the quality and safety of water. This chapter will give an overview of the development and application of biosensors in order to control the quality and safety of water from the standpoint of the presence of heavy metals.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Amra Odobašić, Indira Šestan and Sabina Begić",authors:null},{id:"16445",doi:"10.5772/20154",title:"Biosensor for Environmental Applications",slug:"biosensor-for-environmental-applications",totalDownloads:11267,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"413",slug:"environmental-biosensors",title:"Environmental Biosensors",fullTitle:"Environmental Biosensors"},signatures:"Andrea Medeiros Salgado, Lívia Maria Silva and Ariana Farias Melo",authors:[{id:"37632",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Medeiros Salgado",slug:"andrea-medeiros-salgado",fullName:"Andrea Medeiros Salgado"},{id:"37653",title:"Dr.",name:"Lívia Maria",middleName:"da Costa",surname:"Silva",slug:"livia-maria-silva",fullName:"Lívia Maria Silva"},{id:"37654",title:"Mr.",name:"Ariana",middleName:null,surname:"Farias Melo",slug:"ariana-farias-melo",fullName:"Ariana Farias Melo"}]},{id:"65873",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84220",title:"Electrochemical Biosensors Containing Pure Enzymes or Crude Extracts as Enzyme Sources for Pesticides and Phenolic Compounds with Pharmacological Property Detection and Quantification",slug:"electrochemical-biosensors-containing-pure-enzymes-or-crude-extracts-as-enzyme-sources-for-pesticide",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biosensors are chemical sensors in which the recognition system is based on a biochemical mechanism. They perform the specific component detection in a sample through an appropriate analytical signal. Enzyme-based biosensors are the most prominent biosensors because of their high specificity and selectivity; besides being an alternative to the common immunosensors, they are more expensive and present a limited binding capacity with the antigen depending on assay conditions. This chapter approaches the use of enzymes modified electrodes in amperometric biosensing application to detect and quantify pesticides and phenolic compounds with pharmacological properties, as they have been a promising analytical tool in environmental monitoring. These biosensors may be prepared from pure enzymes or their crude extracts. Pure enzyme-based biosensors present advantages as higher substrate specificity and selectivity when compared to crude extract enzymatic biosensors; nevertheless, the enzyme high costs are their drawbacks. Enzymatic crude extract biosensors show lower specificity due to the fact that they may contain more than one type of enzyme, but they may be obtained from low-cost fabrication methods. In addition, they can contain enzyme cofactors besides using the enzyme in its natural conformation.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Flavio Colmati, Lívia Flório Sgobbi, Guilhermina Ferreira Teixeira, Ramon Silva Vilela, Tatiana Duque Martins and Giovanna Oliveira Figueiredo",authors:null},{id:"16449",doi:"10.5772/16250",title:"Biosensors Applications on Assessment of Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidants",slug:"biosensors-applications-on-assessment-of-reactive-oxygen-species-and-antioxidants",totalDownloads:2768,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"413",slug:"environmental-biosensors",title:"Environmental Biosensors",fullTitle:"Environmental Biosensors"},signatures:"Simona Carmen Litescu, Sandra A.V. Eremia, Mirela Diaconu, Andreia Tache and Gabriel-Lucian Radu",authors:[{id:"24425",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Litescu",slug:"simona-carmen-litescu",fullName:"Simona Carmen Litescu"},{id:"24427",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra A.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Eremia",slug:"sandra-a.v.-eremia",fullName:"Sandra A.V. Eremia"},{id:"24428",title:"BSc.",name:"Mirela",middleName:null,surname:"Diaconu",slug:"mirela-diaconu",fullName:"Mirela Diaconu"},{id:"24429",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabriel-Lucian",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",slug:"gabriel-lucian-radu",fullName:"Gabriel-Lucian Radu"},{id:"47095",title:"Ms",name:"Andreia",middleName:null,surname:"Tache",slug:"andreia-tache",fullName:"Andreia Tache"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66031",title:"Biosensors for Determination of Heavy Metals in Waters",slug:"biosensors-for-determination-of-heavy-metals-in-waters",totalDownloads:2711,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Biosensors are nowadays a powerful alternative to conventional analytical techniques for controlling the quality of not only natural water but also process water used by the food industry during the production process, as well as wastewater prior to release into natural watercourses. The goal is to provide the required quality and safety of water from the standpoint of heavy metal contamination. The basic and most important characteristics of biosensors are high sensitivity, short response time, specificity, and relatively low production cost. Biosensors can detect the presence and measure the content of various toxic substances (pesticides, heavy metals, etc.) not only in water but also in food. Detection of contaminants, primarily heavy metals in water used in food production processes, is a potential area of biosensor application in the food industry. Biosensors can be adapted for direct and continuous (online) monitoring by measuring certain analytes that can affect the quality and safety of water. This chapter will give an overview of the development and application of biosensors in order to control the quality and safety of water from the standpoint of the presence of heavy metals.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Amra Odobašić, Indira Šestan and Sabina Begić",authors:null},{id:"68700",title:"Principle and Development of Phage-Based Biosensors",slug:"principle-and-development-of-phage-based-biosensors",totalDownloads:1407,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Detection and identification of pathogenic bacteria is important in the field of public health, medicine, food safety, environmental monitoring and security. Worldwide, the common cause of mortality and morbidity is bacterial infection often due to misdiagnosis or delay in diagnosis. Existing bacterial detection methods rely on conventional culture or microscopic techniques and molecular methods that often time consuming, laborious and expensive, or need trained users. In recent years, biosensor remained an interesting topic for bacterial detection and many biosensors involving different bio-probes have been reported. Compared to antibodies, nucleic acids and enzymes etc., based biosensors, bacteriophages can be cheaply produced and are relatively much stable to elevated temperature, extreme pH, and diverse ionic strength. Therefore, there is an urgent need for phage-based biosensor for bacterial pathogen detection. Furthermore, bearing high affinity and specificity, bacteriophages are perfect bio-recognition probes in biosensor development for bacterial detection. In this regard, active and oriented phages immobilization is the key step toward phage-based biosensor development. This chapter compares different bacterial detection techniques, and introduces the basic of biosensor and different bio-probes involved in biosensor development. Further we highlight the involvement and importance of phages in biosensor and finally we briefed different phage immobilization approaches used in development of phage-based biosensors.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Umer Farooq, Qiaoli Yang, Muhammad Wajid Ullah and Shenqi Wang",authors:null},{id:"69216",title:"Challenges and Applications of Impedance-Based Biosensors in Water Analysis",slug:"challenges-and-applications-of-impedance-based-biosensors-in-water-analysis",totalDownloads:1200,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Monitoring of the environment is a global priority due to the close connection between the environmental pollution and human health. Many analytical techniques using various methods have been developed to detect and monitor the levels of pollutants (pesticides, toxins, bacteria, drug residues, etc.) in natural water bodies. The latest trend in modern analysis is to measure pollutants in real-time in the field. For this purpose, biosensors have been employed as cost-effective and fast analytical techniques. Among biosensors, impedance biosensors have significant potential for use as simple and portable devices. These sensors involve application of a small amplitude AC voltage to the sensor electrode and measurement of the in-/out-of-phase current response as a function of frequency integrated with some biorecognition element on the sensing electrodes that can bind to the target, modifying the sensor electrical parameters. However, there are some drawbacks concerning their selectivity, stability, and reproducibility. The aim of this paper is to give a critical overview of literature published during the last decade based on the development issues of impedimetric biosensors and their applicability in water analysis.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Kairi Kivirand, Mart Min and Toonika Rinken",authors:[{id:"24687",title:"Dr.",name:"Toonika",middleName:null,surname:"Rinken",slug:"toonika-rinken",fullName:"Toonika Rinken"},{id:"62780",title:"Prof.",name:"Mart",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"mart-min",fullName:"Mart Min"},{id:"174179",title:"Dr.",name:"Kairi",middleName:null,surname:"Kivirand",slug:"kairi-kivirand",fullName:"Kairi Kivirand"}]},{id:"63693",title:"The Modeling, Design, Fabrication, and Application of Biosensor Based on Electric Cell-Substrate Impedance Sensing (ECIS) Technique in Environmental Monitoring",slug:"the-modeling-design-fabrication-and-application-of-biosensor-based-on-electric-cell-substrate-impeda",totalDownloads:1110,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this research, the modeling, design, fabrication, and application of ECIS sensors in environmental monitoring are studied. The ECIS sensors are able to qualify the water toxicity through measuring the cell impedance. A novel mathematical model is proposed to analyze the distribution of electric potential and current of ECIS. This mathematical model is validated by experimental data and can be used to optimize the dimension of ECIS electrodes in order to satisfy environmental monitors. The detection sensitivity of ECIS sensors is analyzed by the mathematical model and experimental data. The simulated and experimental results show that ECIS sensors with smaller radius of working electrodes yield higher impedance values, which improves signal-to-noise ratio, which is more suitable in measuring the cell morphology change influenced by environments. Several ECIS sensors are used to detect the toxicant including, phenol, ammonia, nicotine, and aldicarb, and the decreasing cell impedance indicates the toxic effect. The gradient of measured impedance qualitatively indicates the concentration of toxicants in water.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Xudong Zhang, William Wang and Sunghoon Jang",authors:null},{id:"65873",title:"Electrochemical Biosensors Containing Pure Enzymes or Crude Extracts as Enzyme Sources for Pesticides and Phenolic Compounds with Pharmacological Property Detection and Quantification",slug:"electrochemical-biosensors-containing-pure-enzymes-or-crude-extracts-as-enzyme-sources-for-pesticide",totalDownloads:1091,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Biosensors are chemical sensors in which the recognition system is based on a biochemical mechanism. They perform the specific component detection in a sample through an appropriate analytical signal. Enzyme-based biosensors are the most prominent biosensors because of their high specificity and selectivity; besides being an alternative to the common immunosensors, they are more expensive and present a limited binding capacity with the antigen depending on assay conditions. This chapter approaches the use of enzymes modified electrodes in amperometric biosensing application to detect and quantify pesticides and phenolic compounds with pharmacological properties, as they have been a promising analytical tool in environmental monitoring. These biosensors may be prepared from pure enzymes or their crude extracts. Pure enzyme-based biosensors present advantages as higher substrate specificity and selectivity when compared to crude extract enzymatic biosensors; nevertheless, the enzyme high costs are their drawbacks. Enzymatic crude extract biosensors show lower specificity due to the fact that they may contain more than one type of enzyme, but they may be obtained from low-cost fabrication methods. In addition, they can contain enzyme cofactors besides using the enzyme in its natural conformation.",book:{id:"7007",slug:"biosensors-for-environmental-monitoring",title:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring",fullTitle:"Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring"},signatures:"Flavio Colmati, Lívia Flório Sgobbi, Guilhermina Ferreira Teixeira, Ramon Silva Vilela, Tatiana Duque Martins and Giovanna Oliveira Figueiredo",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"137",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218",scope:"
\r\n\tThis book series will offer a comprehensive overview of recent research trends as well as clinical applications within different specialties of dentistry. Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"82297",title:"The Climate Change-Agriculture Nexus in Drylands of Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103905",signatures:"Zenebe Mekonnen",slug:"the-climate-change-agriculture-nexus-in-drylands-of-ethiopia",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}},{id:"81999",title:"Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Human Well-Being: Experiences from Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104965",signatures:"André J. Pelser and Rujeko Samanthia Chimukuche",slug:"climate-change-rural-livelihoods-and-human-well-being-experiences-from-kenya",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. Prof. Rashed was recognized in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists in 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"11478",title:"Recent Advances in the Study of Dyslexia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11478.jpg",hash:"26764a18c6b776698823e0e1c3022d2f",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 30th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:54,paginationItems:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. Natto",slug:"herbs-and-oral-health",totalDownloads:55,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80500",title:"Novel Dental Implants with Herbal Composites: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101489",signatures:"Gopathy Sridevi and Seshadri Srividya",slug:"novel-dental-implants-with-herbal-composites-a-review",totalDownloads:49,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"78320",title:"Implant-Retained Maxillary and Mandibular Overdentures - A Solution for Completely Edentulous Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99575",signatures:"Dubravka Knezović Zlatarić, Robert Ćelić and Hrvoje Pezo",slug:"implant-retained-maxillary-and-mandibular-overdentures-a-solution-for-completely-edentulous-patients",totalDownloads:64,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"80441",title:"Periodontitis and Heart Disease: Current Perspectives on the Associative Relationships and Preventive Impact",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102669",signatures:"Alexandra Roman, Andrada Soancă, Bogdan Caloian, Alexandru Bucur, Gabriela Valentina Caracostea, Andreia Paraschiva Preda, Dora Maria Popescu, Iulia Cristina Micu, Petra Șurlin, Andreea Ciurea, Diana Oneț, Mircea Viorel Ciurea, Dragoș Alexandru Țermure and Marius Negucioiu",slug:"periodontitis-and-heart-disease-current-perspectives-on-the-associative-relationships-and-preventive",totalDownloads:53,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79498",title:"Oral Aspects and Dental Management of Special Needs Patient",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101067",signatures:"Pinar Kiymet Karataban",slug:"oral-aspects-and-dental-management-of-special-needs-patient",totalDownloads:82,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Pinar",surname:"Karataban"}],book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"79699",title:"Metabolomics Distinction of Cigarette Smokers from Non-Smokers Using Non-Stationary Benchtop Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Analysis of Human Saliva",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101414",signatures:"Benita C. Percival, Angela Wann, Sophie Taylor, Mark Edgar, Miles Gibson and Martin Grootveld",slug:"metabolomics-distinction-of-cigarette-smokers-from-non-smokers-using-non-stationary-benchtop-nuclear",totalDownloads:53,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80295",title:"Preventive Methods and Treatments of White Spot Lesions in Orthodontics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102064",signatures:"Elif Nadide Akay",slug:"preventive-methods-and-treatments-of-white-spot-lesions-in-orthodontics",totalDownloads:81,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Oral Health",value:1,count:20,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",value:2,count:34,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Pollution",value:38,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"Neves",slug:"antonio-neves",fullName:"Antonio Neves",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"220565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jucheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"jucheng-yang",fullName:"Jucheng Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220565/images/5988_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tianjin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"29299",title:"Prof.",name:"Serestina",middleName:null,surname:"Viriri",slug:"serestina-viriri",fullName:"Serestina Viriri",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYOalQAG/Profile_Picture_1620817405517",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315933",title:"Dr.",name:"Yalın",middleName:null,surname:"Baştanlar",slug:"yalin-bastanlar",fullName:"Yalın Baştanlar",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002qpr7hQAA/Profile_Picture_1621430127547",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105543",signatures:"Mary Dover, Michael Kishek, Miranda Eddins, Naneeta Desar, Ketema Paul and Milan Fiala",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80954",title:"Ion Channels and Neurodegenerative Disease Aging Related",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103074",signatures:"Marika Cordaro, Salvatore Cuzzocrea and Rosanna Di Paola",slug:"ion-channels-and-neurodegenerative-disease-aging-related",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81647",title:"Diabetes and Epigenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104653",signatures:"Rasha A. Alhazzaa, Thomas Heinbockel and Antonei B. Csoka",slug:"diabetes-and-epigenetics",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"81099",title:"SK Channels and Heart Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104115",signatures:"Katherine Zhong, Shawn Kant, Frank Sellke and Jun Feng",slug:"sk-channels-and-heart-disease",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80967",title:"Hot on the Trail of Skin Inflammation: Focus on TRPV1/TRPV3 Channels in Psoriasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103792",signatures:"Lisa S. Martin, Emma Fraillon, Fabien P. Chevalier and Bérengère Fromy",slug:"hot-on-the-trail-of-skin-inflammation-focus-on-trpv1-trpv3-channels-in-psoriasis",totalDownloads:36,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80952",title:"TRPV Family Ion Channels in the Mammary Epithelium: Role in Normal Tissue Homeostasis and along Breast Cancer Progression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103665",signatures:"Sari Susanna Tojkander",slug:"trpv-family-ion-channels-in-the-mammary-epithelium-role-in-normal-tissue-homeostasis-and-along-breas",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"80157",title:"Structural Determinants for Ligand Accommodation in Voltage Sensors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102094",signatures:"Abigail García-Morales, Aylin López-Palestino and Daniel Balleza",slug:"structural-determinants-for-ligand-accommodation-in-voltage-sensors",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"79690",title:"Mitochondrial Channels and their Role in Cardioprotection",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101127",signatures:"Keerti Mishra and Min Luo",slug:"mitochondrial-channels-and-their-role-in-cardioprotection",totalDownloads:100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Ion Channels - From Basic Properties to Medical Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10838.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"78415",title:"Epigenetic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99964",signatures:"Mehmet Ünal",slug:"epigenetic",totalDownloads:149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"77443",title:"Cyanobacterial Phytochromes in Optogenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97522",signatures:"Sivasankari Sivaprakasam, Vinoth Mani, Nagalakshmi Balasubramaniyan and David Ravindran Abraham",slug:"cyanobacterial-phytochromes-in-optogenetics",totalDownloads:197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"75979",title:"Spatiotemporal Regulation of Cell–Cell Adhesions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97009",signatures:"Brent M. Bijonowski",slug:"spatiotemporal-regulation-of-cell-cell-adhesions",totalDownloads:180,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"76646",title:"Functional Mechanism of Proton Pump-Type Rhodopsins Found in Various Microorganisms as a Potential Effective Tool in Optogenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97589",signatures:"Jun Tamogami and Takashi Kikukawa",slug:"functional-mechanism-of-proton-pump-type-rhodopsins-found-in-various-microorganisms-as-a-potential-e",totalDownloads:215,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"76510",title:"Evolution of Epigenome as the Blueprint for Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97379",signatures:"Zeenat Farooq, Ambreen Shah, Mohammad Tauseef, Riyaz A. Rather and Mumtaz Anwar",slug:"evolution-of-epigenome-as-the-blueprint-for-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:196,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}},{id:"74615",title:"Diet-Epigenome Interactions: Epi-Drugs Modulating the Epigenetic Machinery During Cancer Prevention",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95374",signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"diet-epigenome-interactions-epi-drugs-modulating-the-epigenetic-machinery-during-cancer-prevention",totalDownloads:376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,authors:[{name:"Fadime",surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}],book:{title:"Epigenetics to Optogenetics - A New Paradigm in the Study of Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9672.jpg",subseries:{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",slug:"pneumonia",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",volumeInSeries:13,fullTitle:"Pneumonia",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9615",title:"Chikungunya Virus",subtitle:"A Growing Global Public Health Threat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9615.jpg",slug:"chikungunya-virus-a-growing-global-public-health-threat",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",hash:"c960d94a63867dd12a8ab15176a3ff06",volumeInSeries:12,fullTitle:"Chikungunya Virus - A Growing Global Public Health Threat",editors:[{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9619",title:"Epstein-Barr Virus",subtitle:"New Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9619.jpg",slug:"epstein-barr-virus-new-trends",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emmanuel Drouet",hash:"a2128c53becb6064589570cbe8d976f8",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Epstein-Barr Virus - New Trends",editors:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9613",title:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9613.jpg",slug:"dengue-fever-in-a-one-health-perspective",publishedDate:"October 28th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",hash:"77ecce8195c11092230b4156df6d83ff",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Dengue Fever in a One Health Perspective",editors:[{id:"176579",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcia Aparecida",middleName:null,surname:"Sperança",slug:"marcia-aparecida-speranca",fullName:"Márcia Aparecida Sperança",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/176579/images/system/176579.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal do ABC",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7887",title:"Hepatitis B and C",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7887.jpg",slug:"hepatitis-b-and-c",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",hash:"8dd6dab483cf505d83caddaeaf497f2c",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Hepatitis B and C",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73208/images/system/73208.jpg",institutionString:"University of Oviedo",institution:{name:"University of Oviedo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine"},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation"},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 24th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfPublishedBooks:31,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/59983",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"59983"},fullPath:"/profiles/59983",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()