\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7909",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Palliative Care",title:"Palliative Care",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Palliative care is one of the most important factors in the fight against chronic diseases. It begins from the moment the patient is diagnosed, continues with curative treatment until death, and ends with care that supports the patient's family and other caregivers during the postmortem mourning process. In all these stages it is very important to improve the quality of life in patients, to relieve symptoms, and to support patients and their relatives in a dignified manner. This book includes basic information about palliative care, management of patient symptoms, support suggestions for psychological and social problems, needs of patients and their families, and how palliative care is handled in different countries. Written for healthcare professionals, students, and all interested readers, this book provides important information that can be used to improve the quality of life of patients as well as that of their families.",isbn:"978-1-78984-076-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-075-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-195-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77739",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"palliative-care",numberOfPages:146,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"da90fe956f441df4a9455d9abd02d28b",bookSignature:"Mukadder Mollaoğlu",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7909.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9862,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:20,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 24th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 13th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 12th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"43900",title:"Prof.",name:"Mukadder",middleName:null,surname:"Mollaoğlu",slug:"mukadder-mollaoglu",fullName:"Mukadder Mollaoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43900/images/system/43900.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Mukadder Mollaoğlu is a member of the Faculty of Health Sciences, Sivas Cumhuriyet University, Turkey. Her research interests are health promotion, care management in chronic diseases, quality of life, life satisfaction, home care, needs of caregivers, improving self-care activities in chronic diseases, self-efficacy, medicine, and nursing ethics. Her research studies have been published in many high-impact journals and have received numerous citations. She has also published several books and book chapters. Professor Mollaoğlu received two first prizes for her work on life satisfaction and home care in chronic diseases, one in Sweden (Malmö) and the other in France (Strasbourg). In addition, she received the Lütfi Abay Culture and Education Foundation (LAKEV) science award in 2020 for research in the field of health sciences.",institutionString:"Cumhuriyet University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Cumhuriyet University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1132",title:"Health Care",slug:"medicine-public-health-health-care"}],chapters:[{id:"66377",title:"Palliative Care Education for Everybody",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85496",slug:"palliative-care-education-for-everybody",totalDownloads:1054,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter is about palliative care education for everybody including both professional health care workers and all citizens. A six-step approach to life-long palliative care education (as first described by Bollig in 2008 and published as a conference poster in 2009 and a book in German in 2010) will be proposed and discussed. The chapter will summarize the public knowledge approach to palliative care implementation (Bollig 2008) and other strategies to educate the public about palliative care. The concept of Last Aid courses for citizens will be introduced, and international experiences with this concept will be discussed. A possible combination of Last Aid courses and the compassionate community approach might improve palliative care provision in the community.",signatures:"Georg Bollig",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66377",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66377",authors:[{id:"281374",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Georg",surname:"Bollig",slug:"georg-bollig",fullName:"Georg Bollig"}],corrections:null},{id:"65790",title:"The Marquette Palliative Care System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84475",slug:"the-marquette-palliative-care-system",totalDownloads:801,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Worldwide, major clinical barriers to effective palliative care are the absence of a. current data on symptom type and intensity; b. immediately accessible information on practical, affordable, and effective interventions; and c. self-sustaining systems to facilitate physician engagement in continuing palliative care. Our adaptable system, developed for Bangladesh and Nepal, addresses these barriers. A tele-home palliative care program facilitates home care, minimizes expense, and encourages efficient professional practitioner involvement employing two information technology tools: a patient cell-phone “app” on the Android platform with a 15-item symptom questionnaire and an Internet website with health information sections for patients/families and for clinicians. The physician section contains a guide for patient symptom review, clinical practice palliative care guidelines, secured patient demographics, medical summaries, and current and past symptom reports along with prescription-writing capability. The system is managed by a local organization that registers patients and their physicians, instructs patients on the free downloadable application and completes their demographic and medical summaries, and arranges collection of a modest fee. The organization also ensures regular physician/clinic visits by the patient or by a family member with a patient phone check-in, at least every 2 weeks.",signatures:"Richard R. Love and Sheikh Iqbal Ahamed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65790",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65790",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66591",title:"Palliative Care Ethics: Medicine’s Duty to Help",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85160",slug:"palliative-care-ethics-medicine-s-duty-to-help",totalDownloads:919,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In palliative care, death, which is a part of human nature, is considered as a normal process. This type of care is concerned with the quality of life rather than its duration. In this context, the basic aim is to perform practices to relieve the patient in a way that does not raise any ethical suspicion. Within this framework, it can be said that palliative care is a requirement of medicine’s duty to help. The aim of this chapter is to draw attention to the importance of ethical values in the configuration of palliative care services for patients who are in the last period of their life or the ones who have terminal illnesses. In palliative care, it is essential to arrange care services in a manner that does not raise any ethical doubt about the measures taken to increase beneficence both to the patients who are in the last days of their life and to their relatives. In this study, “The Directive for Implementing Procedures of Palliative Care Services” prepared by the Ministry of Health in Turkey in 2015 will be evaluated in terms of ethics.",signatures:"Sukru Keles",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66591",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66591",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65829",title:"Communication with Families in the Last Days of a Patient’s Life and Optimal Delivery of a Death Pronouncement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84730",slug:"communication-with-families-in-the-last-days-of-a-patient-s-life-and-optimal-delivery-of-a-death-pro",totalDownloads:927,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Communicating with family members is critically important when a severely ill patient is experiencing their last few days of life. However, healthcare professionals (HCPs) have limited opportunities to learn effective and respectful ways to perform this communication. In recent decades, significant effort has been put forth to identify the phenomena that indicate the last hours and days of life and the optimal methods to deliver a death pronouncement, which will potentially help HCPs communicate compassionately with family members throughout the dying process. In this chapter, we will review the literature regarding the phenomena that indicate the last hours and days of life and the death pronouncement. Furthermore, we will discuss clinical implications derived from those articles and future research perspectives.",signatures:"Soichiro Okamoto, Yu Uneno, Masanori Mori, Takashi Yamaguchi and Nobuhisa Nakajima",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65829",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65829",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65999",title:"The Quality of Life of the Patients Under Palliative Care: The Features of Appropriate Assessment Tools and the Impact of Early Integration of Palliative Care",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85161",slug:"the-quality-of-life-of-the-patients-under-palliative-care-the-features-of-appropriate-assessment-too",totalDownloads:1179,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Based on the WHO definition, the primary objective of palliative care (PC) is to improve the quality of life (QoL) of the patients facing life threatening illness by means of a multidisciplinary approach. The assessment of QoL in patients under PC is an important process for the identification of patient’s overall conditions including psycho-social, spiritual issues as well as the evaluation of the services provided to the patient. The ideal assessment tool the measurement of QoL in patients under PC should be patient centered and contain both subjective and objective domains and be able to correlate with the definition of QoL. The factors which positively influence the extend of the QoL include, good doctor-patient communication, economic status, education, socio-economic support and spirituality. The negative factors are social isolation, lack of employment, poverty, rejection and stigmatization and experience of symptoms, such as uncontrolled pain. Early Integration of PC leads to higher psycho-social support and acceptance of diagnosis, and severity of illness, which in turn helps for the better symptom management and reduces the disease related stress, which clearly associated with improved QoL. It provides more time for the end of life decision making, promotes self-efficacy and sense of control in decision with respect to individual values.",signatures:"Thomas Antony Thaniyath",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65999",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65999",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66427",title:"Palliative Care Network in Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85169",slug:"palliative-care-network-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1039,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brazil is a country with great diversity and distinct realities, so there is a proportional challenge and complexity in offering a unified and integrated system which is accessible, of quality, and effective. Population aging and the increased incidence of chronic-degenerative noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) increase the need for palliative care (PC); however, public policies still need to be implemented so that this care encompasses adequate funding, professional training, and guaranteed medication. The first national policy for PC was recently proposed, providing guidelines for the organization of PC, emphasizing the importance of integration between the different levels of care and services in the Brazilian health system (SUS). Nevertheless, the challenges of this policy include the training of professionals, communication in the network, the absence of integrated health information systems, and effective mechanisms to finance this new modality of care.",signatures:"Juliana Guimarães Lima Munis, Juliana Dias Reis Pessalacia, Jacqueline Resende Boaventura, Ana Paula Da Silva, Luciana Ferreira Da Silva, Aires Garcia dos Santos Júnior and Adriano Menis Ferreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66427",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66427",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66960",title:"Palliative Care: The Nigerian Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85235",slug:"palliative-care-the-nigerian-perspective",totalDownloads:976,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Palliative care is an area of healthcare that focuses on relieving and preventing the suffering of patients. It utilizes a multidisciplinary team approach to ensure a “holistic” care of the patient. It is a relatively new concept in medicine and the Nigerian experience has not been widely studied. Despite its introduction into the nation over two decades ago, it still faces a lot of challenges in terms of integration into the health care system, implementation and governmental policy. With increasing longevity, urbanization, high prevalence of HIV/AIDS and chronic diseases including malignancies, there will be an increasing number of Nigerians requiring palliative care.",signatures:"Nnadi Daniel Chukwunyere",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66960",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66960",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68854",title:"Palliative Care Services from Past to Present",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88990",slug:"palliative-care-services-from-past-to-present",totalDownloads:894,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Palliative care (PC) refers to all services provided to make the remaining life of a patient meaningful and valuable. It is recommended that palliative care that is applied to improve the life quality of the patients should not be based only on the diagnosis and prognosis of the disease but also on the need of the patients. Even, palliative care was administered only in the late stages of diseases in the past, but these days it is recommended to be administered in addition to therapies starting from the diagnosis of life-threatening diseases. Palliative care requires a multidisciplinary team approach consisting of professionals who serve for a common purpose. No single palliative care model can be fit for all conditions. However, there is a universal fundamental principle of palliative care: it should address the individual wishes and needs of each patient and the relatives of patients. The development and training of palliative care services vary from country to country: palliative care services are in the development stage in developing countries, compared to developed countries. This chapter provides necessary information about palliative care services, a multidisciplinary health service.",signatures:"Murat Can Mollaoğlu, Döne Günay and Mukadder Mollaoğlu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68854",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68854",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"65115",title:"Diabetes and Palliative Care: A Framework to Help Clinicians Proactively Plan for Personalized care",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83534",slug:"diabetes-and-palliative-care-a-framework-to-help-clinicians-proactively-plan-for-personalized-care",totalDownloads:1117,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The aim of the chapter is to provide a brief overview of diabetes and the associated morbidities that affect life expectancy to highlight why proactively planning for palliative and end-of-life care is essential to quality personalized diabetes care. Life expectancy may not be significantly reduced if blood glucose, lipids and blood pressure are well controlled; but several diabetes-related complications and long duration of diabetes affect life expectancy. Significantly, complications and related organ and tissue damage can be present 10–15 years before type 2 diabetes is diagnosed. The challenge of prognostication is discussed as recommendations for when to consider changing the focus of care from preventing diabetes complications to palliation and comfort care. Life-limiting illness and palliative and end-of-life care are defined. A framework for integrating diabetes and palliative care is proposed. The framework could help clinicians and people with diabetes prevent/manage complications and plan care to maintain quality of life, dignity and autonomy and ameliorate suffering as their life trajectory changes. The framework aims to facilitate care transitions and help clinicians proactively initiate management and have timely meaningful conversations about palliative and end-of-life care with older people with diabetes and their families.",signatures:"Trisha Dunning and Peter Martin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65115",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65115",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"66789",title:"Palliative Care in HIV/AIDS",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85847",slug:"palliative-care-in-hiv-aids",totalDownloads:956,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the era of HIV, palliative care is important to improve the quality of life of people living with HIV. The core activities of palliative care are control of symptoms and psychological, social, and spiritual problems. As a matter of fact, people living with HIV have a high burden of physical, psychological, and social difficulties which require palliative care that is holistic care. This implies palliative care for people living with HIV improves their emotion, physical symptoms, and psychosocial and spiritual functions. It can be provided by trained healthcare professionals, families, and community caregivers. HIV care and treatment guidelines should address the principles of palliative care, and policy should be in place to enforce its implementation for improving the quality of life of people living with HIV.",signatures:"Habtamu Abera Areri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66789",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66789",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5961",title:"Caregiving and Home Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b7f61b50c25b4ac5267528a64c8a51cb",slug:"caregiving-and-home-care",bookSignature:"Mukadder Mollaoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43900",title:"Prof.",name:"Mukadder",surname:"Mollaoğlu",slug:"mukadder-mollaoglu",fullName:"Mukadder Mollaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6013",title:"Well-being and Quality of Life",subtitle:"Medical Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ce9412b0c4cf7532a3ed3269e5a8ebf",slug:"well-being-and-quality-of-life-medical-perspective",bookSignature:"Mukadder Mollaoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6013.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43900",title:"Prof.",name:"Mukadder",surname:"Mollaoğlu",slug:"mukadder-mollaoglu",fullName:"Mukadder Mollaoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1673",title:"Evidence Based Medicine",subtitle:"Closer to Patients or Scientists?",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d767dfe22c65317eab3fd9ff465cb877",slug:"evidence-based-medicine-closer-to-patients-or-scientists-",bookSignature:"Nikolaos M. 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2012",book:{id:"3196",title:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"New Generation of Electric Vehicles",slug:"new-generation-of-electric-vehicles",publishedDate:"December 19th 2012",bookSignature:"Zoran Stevic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3196.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30692",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",middleName:"M.",surname:"Stevic",slug:"zoran-stevic",fullName:"Zoran Stevic"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"154555",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoran",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolic",fullName:"Zoran Nikolic",slug:"zoran-nikolic",email:"zoran.nikolic@itn.sanu.ac.rs",position:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Technical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}},{id:"165922",title:"Dr.",name:"Zlatomir",middleName:null,surname:"Zivanovic",fullName:"Zlatomir 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\r\n\tIn mathematics and science, a nonlinear system is a system in which the change of the output is not proportional to the change of input. Most systems are nonlinear in nature, so nonlinear problems have attracted the widespread interest of worldwide engineers and researchers. Generally, the behavior of nonlinear systems is mathematically described as a set of nonlinear simultaneous equations. This nonlinearity makes it extremely difficult to obtain an accurate mathematical model consistent with the actual system in system design. Therefore, it is crucial to develop effective modeling methods to accurately describe the model characteristics of nonlinear systems. At the same time, the design of the control system must consider such a problem, that is, whether the controller can make the controlled system stable and meet the expected performance index in the case of unknown uncertainty. Therefore, the development of an efficient control strategy to achieve the expected performance is worthy of in-depth study. Finally, appropriate analysis of a nonlinear system is the basis and core of establishing its mathematical model and devising an appropriate controller design for the nonlinear system.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-927-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-926-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-928-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"22a4fb880337aaa9899a7bddcdde52eb",bookSignature:"Dr. Bo Yang",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11499.jpg",keywords:"Neural Network, Deep Learning, Fuzzy Logic, Meta-Heuristic Algorithm, Feedback Linearization Control, Perturbation/Disturbance Observer-Based Control, Robust Control, Adaptive Control, Lyapunov Method, Passivity, Chaos, Fractional-Order System",numberOfDownloads:18,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 6th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 14th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 1st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in artificial intelligence application in smart grids, professor, Editorial board of one EI journal, Editor of two SCI journals and one EI journal. Working as a Professor at Kunming University of Technology, China.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"234525",title:"Dr.",name:"Bo",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"bo-yang",fullName:"Bo Yang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/234525/images/system/234525.png",biography:"https://pubs2.ascee.org/index.php/IJRCS/about/editorialTeamBio/6590\r\n\r\nProf. Dr. Bo Yang\r\nKunming University of Science and Technology, China\r\n\r\nBo Yang received the B.Eng. degree in electrical engineering from the South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China, in 2010, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the University of Liverpool, Liverpool, U.K., in 2015. He joined the Faculty of Electric Power, Kunming University of Science and Technology, as a Lecturer nad promoted as a Professor since 2020. His research interests include nonlinear robust/adaptive control and optimization of renewable energy systems, as well as artificial intelligence applications in smart grid.",institutionString:"Kunming University of Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kunming University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"20",title:"Physics",slug:"physics"}],chapters:[{id:"82598",title:"Spatial-Temporal Data Analysis in Nonlinear System",slug:"spatial-temporal-data-analysis-in-nonlinear-system",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82228",title:"Nonlinear Intelligent Predictive Control for the Yaw System of Large-Scale Wind Turbines",slug:"nonlinear-intelligent-predictive-control-for-the-yaw-system-of-large-scale-wind-turbines",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8356",title:"Metastable, Spintronics Materials and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies",subtitle:"Recent Progress",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1550f1986ce9bcc0db87d407a8b47078",slug:"solid-state-physics-metastable-spintronics-materials-and-mechanics-of-deformable-bodies-recent-progress",bookSignature:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran, Pramoda Kumar Nayak and Ezgi Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190989",title:"Dr.",name:"Subbarayan",surname:"Sivasankaran",slug:"subbarayan-sivasankaran",fullName:"Subbarayan Sivasankaran"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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A host of experimental evidence from a wide range of sources shows that the expanding cloud of explosively disseminated material comprises of “particles” or fragments that have significantly different dimensions from those associated with the original material as shown in Figure 1(a) and (b) [1–7, 10–13]. Photographic evidence shows characteristic jets or fingers behind these expanding fragments. These coherent conical particle jets travel ballistically as shedding mass along the trajectories with increasingly diffuse edges.
\nExplosive dispersal of dry (a) and wetted glass beads (b) using cylindrically stratified configurations [
Particle jetting has been widely observed in volcanic eruptions, supernovae, explosion of landmines, thermobaric explosion (TBX), fuel-are explosion (FAE), and dense inert metal explosive (DIME) [14–17]. The formation of particle jetting has also been observed during the impact of solid projectile on granular media [18]. The structure of particle jets in terms of the jet number of size is important to the viability of many applications. For instance, the strength of TBX and FAE needs to be enhanced by the after-burning of the reactive particles dispersed in the payload cloud. The detonation performance of the particle laden cloud depends on both the shape and concentration of the cloud which in turn is a result of the jet mixing [19]. In contrast with the large-scale injury radius of TBX and FAE, DIME utilizes the high-speed dense metal–particle jets to hit the targets in close range. Thus the momentum of particle jets determines the lethal radius. Another opposite application is mitigation of the blast pressure (both prompt and quasi-static) associated with the detonation, since a commonly used technique to reduce effects of blast from explosives is to surround the explosive with a layer of liquid, powder, or a slurry mixture of the two. Drag is seen as a potential mechanism to transfer energy from the blast wave to the disseminated particles or droplets so the size of particles or formation of jets is important in determining the efficiency of this mechanism. Frost and Zhang have reviewed many of the processes occurring in heterogeneous blast including jet formation [15, 17, 20, 21].
\nExtensive experimental investigations of the explosive- or shock-induced particle jetting mainly using cinematographic techniques provide fundamental data regarding both structure and evolution of particle jets. Closer look into the high-speed photos of either explosive- or shock-induced particle jetting reveals a dual structure (see Figure 1(c)) [1, 2, 12]. Primary jets initiated on the inner surface of the particle layers take shape during the first dozens of microseconds after the detonation of the central explosive evidenced by the light stripes detected from the radiographs of the explosive dispersal of particle shells [5, 6]. Upon the reflection of the shock wave on the outer surface of particle layers, a large number of smaller jets begin to burgeon from the outer surface and quickly develop into a full bloom [3]. The dominant primary jets are expelled from the outer surface and overtake the smaller secondary jets, merging of secondary jets occurring through the aerodynamic interaction. The respective evolutions of the primary and secondary jets are not so distinguishable from the radiographs and high-speed photos of the explosive dispersal of particles (see Figure 2). But the statistic distribution of jet size unravels two distinctive peaks representing the primary and secondary jets, respectively [13]. In order to overcome the difficulties in distinguishing the primary and secondary jets, a semi-two-dimensional configuration based on the Hele-Shaw cell that will be discussed in Section 3.1 was employed to access the evolution of both sets of jets subjected to the radial shock loading. Although the overpressure of weak shock waves is several orders of magnitude lower than that of blast waves, the formation and evolution of the primary and secondary jets as shown in Figure 3 have astonishingly similar characteristics in terms of the initiation sequence and the signature structure [2]. Whereas whether or not the jetting process in these two extreme conditions follow the same path is still debatable.
\nRadiographs and high-speed photos of explosive dispersal of glass beads (a) [
High-speed photos of semi-two-dimensional shock-induced particle jetting [
Great efforts have been devoted to investigate the dependence of the jet number on a variety of parameters, including the configuration of charge, the mass ratio of the payload and the explosive (M/C), the inner and outer radius of particle layers, the particle material and size, and the moisture content, etc., mainly in the case of explosive dispersal of particles [2, 4, 6, 8, 13]. Specifically, Zhang et al. found that the numbers of primary and secondary jets dispersed by the 44 mm diameter of central explosive cylinder are 1.8 and 1.5 times those with the 10 mm diameter of explosive [14]. Frost et al. found that the jetting phenomenon is much more visible in cases of explosive dispersal of brittle or ductile powders, such as quartz sand, glass beads, SiC powders, aluminum powders, copper powders, compared with rigid and hard powders, like stain steel particles that are dispersed into the particle cloud rather than particle jets [10]. Frost and Xue both found that the addition of the interstitial water/oil significantly increases the jet number [12, 13].
\nSome fundamental problems need to be addressed in this regard. First, several variables are correlated rather than independent so that it is impossible to single out the effect of the individual variable. For instance, changing the inner or outer radius of the particle layers or particle materials would inevitably alter the M/C that proves to be key factor determining the jet number. Rodriguez et al. proposed an alternative way to measure the effects of pertinent factors [2]. Acceleration of the outer surface of particle ring, which is a function of a variety of parameters, is found to be key determining factor. Therefore, choosing some proper dynamic variables instead of structural parameters may well provide a new perspective in this regard, but entailing a thorough understanding of the physics underlying the particle jetting.
\nSecond, distinguishing the primary and secondary jets from the radiographs or high-speed photos of the explosive dispersal of particles using either spherical or cylindrical stratified configurations is so difficult if not impossible that the validity of the experimental results is questionable thanks to the superimposition of two sets of jets on the timescale of microseconds. Adopting a semi-two-dimensional configuration in which particle rings are dispersed by the radial propagating shock waves seems to be promising approach to this problem. Besides, no detonation product gases obscuring the particle jets and substantially prolonged duration of jets facilitate the observation of particle jetting. But to what extent the shock-induced particle jetting can mimic that driven by the central explosion is quite questionable taking into account that the overpressure of shock waves is several orders lower than that of blast waves.
\nPredicting the jet number entails the knowledge of the mechanisms governing the primary and secondary jets, respectively. Several theories have been put forward, but understanding the origin of particle jetting still remains a significant challenge [3, 8, 9, 13, 22, 23]. The timescale for the formation of primary jets predicted by the Rayleigh-Taylor instability is much slower than the experimental observation [6]. Another interface instability theory involves the perturbation on the inner and outer surfaces of the particle layers that act as the microjets precipitating the macrojets propagating into the bulk. Riple et al. demonstrated the evolution of the initial perturbation (see Figure 4) into well-developed jets and argued that the casing fragments and other imperfections may provide the initial perturbation [3]. However, particle jetting occurs regardless of the presence of the inner and outer casings and shows similar structure. Certain intrinsic imperfections with the length scale similar to the jets should exist if this theory holds. An increasing number of investigators have focused their attention on the bulk fracture of powder bed. Frost et al. postulated that the breakup of a layer of particles at high strain rates was governed by a balance of expansion inertia effects tending to fracture the layer versus viscous dissipation that tends to maintain the stability of the layer [24]. Along this line, Xue et al. developed a theoretical model account for the instability onset of the expanding powder shell [13]. Milne et al. conjectured that the powder is explosively compacted into a brittle solid which then forms cracks as the shell expands [5]. This conjecture is consistent with the observations that the primary jetting occurs during the first wave transit times. The major obstacle of this argument is that the compacted powder cannot sustain the tension or the surface energy, both among the essential components comprising the brittle fragmentation of solids. A few attempts try to understand the secondary jets, and the earlier works of Ripley et al. focused on the Richtmyer-Meshkov instability (RMI), which showed well-defined persistent jetting structures matching the number of prescribed outer surface perturbations [3]. However, the timescale for formation was slow and the surface instability did not propagate into the bulk [3]. Xue et al. modified the hollow sphere expansion model that originally accounts for the spallation of shocked solids so that the external particle jetting can be seen as parallel to the solid spallation [22].
\nSchematics of the formation of primary and secondary jets caused by the inner and outer cases, respectively. (a): fragmentation of the inner and outer cases; (b): formation of primary and secondary jets arising from the gaps between fragments of inner and outer cases, respectively; (c): primary jets overtake the secondary jets. Inset: the corresponding snapshots from the hydrodynamic simulations of Ripley et al. [
Despite the resembling phenomenal features sheared by the explosive- and shock-induced particle jetting, the shock interaction with particles in the explosive dispersal is substantially stronger than that in the weak shock dispersal. In the former case, particles are compressed into solids with the density almost same as that of the constituent materials when the particle jetting commences. It suggests that a continuum approach is appropriate to model the explosion-driven particle jetting. By contrast, the weak shock wave only initiates the homogeneous or localized unsteady flows on the particle scale. The shocked particles behave more like fluids rather than solids. Unsteady and heterogeneous particle flows occurring during the weak shock interaction with particles entail a particle scale approach. Xue et al. described the particle scale formation and evolution of particle jets via the discrete element method (DEM), shedding some lights on the distinctive origins of the shock-induced particle jetting [25].
\nThis chapter first reviews the up-to-date understanding of the phenomenology and physics of the particle jetting in both explosion-driven and shock-induced cases. Special attention is focused on theoretical progresses in unraveling the mechanism behind the respective particle jetting and establishing models account for the onset of jetting, which is elaborated in Sections 2 and 3. Further work and possible breakthrough in this regard would be discussed in Section 4. The conclusion is presented in Section 5.
\nOne generally accepted fact of the explosive-driven particle jetting is that particle instabilities occur during the first dozens of the microseconds after the detonation of the central explosive. It is thus necessary to elucidate the interactions between particles, shock waves, and detonation product gases. Hydrodynamic simulations [22] have been performed to reveal the evolution of dry and saturated sand layers surrounding the spherical central explosive (TNT or HXM), the configuration illustrated in Figure 5(a). In order to accurately describe the dynamic responses of wet sand with different degrees of saturation β, we adopted a modified version of Laine and Sandvik model developed by Grujicic et al. [26] to account for the effect of moisture content via explicitly incorporating the degree of saturation in the equation of state (EOS) and the strength model. Given the relative incompressibility of the water phase, the compressibility of the wet sand is increasingly reduced with the degree of saturation as illustrated by the EOS of the wet particles with varying saturation (see Figure 5(b)). Besides, the wet sand’s yield stress is reduced due to the moisture-induced interparticle lubrication effects leading to a reduced effective friction coefficient (see Figure 5(c). For details of the modified compaction model, readers can be referred to Refs. [26, 27] (see Figure 6).
\n(a) Schematic of the spherical stratified configuration used in the hydrodynamic simulations. (b) EOS curves of the sand with varying degree of saturation. (c) Variations in dependence of the sand’s yield stress on the pressure with increasing moisture contents [
Evolutions of density profiles in dry sand (a) and saturated sand (b) after the detonation of the central explosive (TNT) [
The evolvement of the sand shell upon the blast wave can be well embodied by the variations in its radial density profile as shown in Figure 3. The sequence of events basically resembles those occurring in the shock-loaded water shell described by Milne et al. [5, 6]. When the shock front reflects upon the outer surface of the particle shell, the rarefaction wave travels back into particles and pulls away a thin spall layer moving forward into air. The compressive stresses in the compacted particles are relaxed in the wake of the rarefaction wave accompanied by the rapid decrease of the packing density. The expansion of detonation product gases sends a shock wave into the particles, which arrests the rarefaction wave in its path in the case of dry sand or recompact particles diluted by rarefaction wave in the case of saturated sand. As a result, besides the outmost thin spall layer, the particle shell evolves into two distinct layers, namely the inner compact layer and outer dilute layers. The inner compact layer retains the maximum density almost as that of pure quartz and expands as an incompressible shell during a relatively long time, at least during the first hundred of microseconds after the detonation of central explosive. The hypothesis is supported by the consistent velocity across the thickness of the inner compact layer (see Figure 7(a) and (b)). Opposedly, particles inside the outer dilute layer lose the persistent contacts in the wake of the rarefaction wave. The mass ratio of the compact and dilute layers depends on the geometry and the composition of granular shell, as well as the strength of central explosive.
\nEvolutions of velocities of the inner and outer surfaces of the compact dry/saturated sand layer driven by the detonation of central TNT (a) and HXM (b).
Due to the trivial compressibility of saturated sand, the acceleration of the compact saturated sand layer is much stronger than that of dry sand since less shock energy is dissipated among the compaction. The expanding velocity of the compact saturated sand layer is much larger than that of the dry sand (see Figure 7(a)).
\nThe decomposition of the particle shell into the inner compact and outer dilute layers as a result of shock interaction prompts us to speculate that the fragmentation of the inner and outer layers correspond to the primary and secondary particle jetting, respectively. This speculation satisfies some fundamental facts that (1) the primary and secondary particle jets initiate from the inner and outer surface of particle shells, respectively; (2) the secondary particle jetting occurs upon the reflection of the shock wave on the outer surface; (3) the primary jets overtake the primary jets in later times. Therefore, a dual particle jetting model illustrated in Figure 8 has been put forward to account for the formation of the primary and secondary jets. The following task is to elaborate the proper models describing the respective fragmentation of the inner and outer particle layers. These models should be based on the underlying mechanisms and validated against the experimental results, the onsets of primary/secondary jetting, the size of primary/secondary jets, and the dependence of the jet number on a variety of factors as well.
\nIllustration of the dual particle jetting model, which consists of the formation of the inner compact and outer dilute layers, and the breakup of these two distinct layers [
The consistent density and velocity across the thickness of the inner compact layer indicate that the compacted layer expands as the incompressible shell. Under this premise, we consider a sphere shell characterized by an inner radius
Configuration of an expanding spherical shell with inner radius
Applying the continuity and momentum equations to the incompressible granular shells that can be described as viscoplastic materials, the analytical circumferential stress can be derived as follows (details of formulation can be referred to Ref. [13]).
\nwhere
To predict the instability onset of the expanding sand shell, we will invoke a criterion for instability that has been shown to reasonably emulate more rigorous stability analysis [28]. This method can be viewed as an application of Le Chatelier’s principle that states that for a system to be stable any deviation from equilibrium must bring about forces that tend to restore equilibrium. In general, the loss of stability is assumed to take place when an increment in strain occurs with no simultaneous increase in pressure or in load.
\nTo obtain the circumferential pressure in the expanding shell, the circumferential stress from Eq. (1) is integrated through the thickness
Figure 10(a) and (b) plot the variations of circumferential tension in dry and saturated sand shells with the expansion of the shell driven by the detonation of central TNT or HMX, respectively. The parameters are chosen as follows:
The variations of circumferential tension in dry and saturated sand shells with the expansion of the shell driven by the detonation of central TNT (a) or HMX (b).
Theoretically predicted (curve line) and experimentally observed (red circles) critical radii of expanding sand shells with varying saturation degree driven by the detonation of central TNT.
The fragment size following breakup is substantially determined by the wavelength of the most unstable disturbance that has the greatest growth rate. Determination of a dominant unstable wave length is difficult due to the time-varying nature of the mean flow. Louis suggested that for a small value of
In Eq. (3), \n
Primary jet mass vs. yield stress of sand shells [
A micromechanical approach describing the cavitation process originally applied to ductile damage in solids has been proposed to account for the spallation in a liquid (or melt metal) subjected to a pulsed tensile load [29]. Xue et al. [22] adapted this cavitation-based spallation model to account for the disintegration of the outer particle layer, or equivalently, the formation of the secondary particle jetting, which is initiated by the unloading wave opposed to the tensile loading.
\nThe incipient spallation of the outer particle layer takes the form of the macroscopic dilation in the wake of rarefaction waves. The dependence of the volumetric variation on the pressure is schematically plotted in Figure 13(a). Within the frame of cavitation model, the bulk of the sample is seen as a collection of adjacent hollow spheres of internal and external radii
(a) Pressure relaxation experienced by the dry (dashed line) and saturated (solid line) particle layer accompanied by the dilation; (b) schematic of the hollow sphere pattern; (c) the expansion of the individual hollow sphere [
The spallation or, equally, the dilatation process of the outer layer consists of three stages. The first so-called hollow sphere expansion stage is prescribed by the relaxation of the accumulated pressure when the volumetric increase is dictated by the dilatation rate
Analytical modeling of these three sequent phases can be referred to Ref. [22]. This cavitation model estimates that the fragment size or equally the secondary jet size for dry and saturated sand ranges from 4 to 6 mm and 1.6 to 3.3 mm, respectively. Applying the proper fragmentation criterion, the predicted onset of secondary particle jetting occurs at 200–300 μs for the dry sand and 50–100 μs for the saturated sand after the detonation, respectively. The cavitation model is capable of predicting the fragmentation onset and the fragment size consistent with the experimental results. Therefore, cavitation is inferred here to be the most probable spallation mechanism of the outer particle layer.
\nThe size of the secondary jets represented by twice the length between two activated nucleation sites, 2
(a) A schematic of the Mott cylinder model with regard to the dynamic fragmentation of the solid cylinder (ring); (b) in particles, compression waves propagate away from an activated nucleation sites (above) retarding any activation of the nucleation sites within the travel radius and collide with those emanating from the adjacent nucleation sites [
It is difficult to visualize the particle jet spread in the spherical or cylindrical experiments of the explosive-driven particle jetting due to the superimposition of jets, obscured by detonation gases, and the very short timescale as well. To overcome these disadvantages, Rodriguez et al. [1, 2] studied the particle jetting in quasi-two-dimensional configurations using moderate pressure loads induced by shock-tube-type facilities connected to a Hele-Shaw cell. With this convenient experimental setup, it is possible to conduct repetitive reliable experiments using a ring of particles in radial expansion trapped in a Hele-Shaw cell as shown in Figure 15(a). More importantly, it is much easier to visualize and distinguish the primary and secondary jets. Xue et al. carried out the experiments of the shock-induced particle jetting using the apparatus similar to that devised by Rodriguez and reported similar observations of the particle jetting process.
\n(a) Schematic of the quasi-two-dimensional experimental setup for shock induced particle jetting. Insets: photo of the four ring sample (left) and the overpressure histories at the exit of shock tube (right). (b) High speed photos of particle induced particle jetting.
Figure 15(b) shows the evolutions of dual particle jets of flour ring dispersed by the shock wave with the overpressure of 3.33 bar. The perturbation of the inner surface of ring can be detected at
Experimental observations can only provide the configurational evolution of particle ring having no access to the particle-scale information, such as the particle velocities and forces. DEM has proven to be an effective tool to investigate the particle-scale velocity and stress fields in particles subjected to the static or dynamic loadings. Xue et al. performed the DEM simulations of the shock-induced particle jetting using the same geometrical configuration as in the experimental. Parametric studies were carried out to quantify the effect of a variety of variables, including the overpressure of shock loading (
Figure 16 shows the shock dispersal of particle rings in terms of variations in velocity profiles. The shock-loaded particle rings with different initial parameters develop into the resembling jet structures with distinctive features as demonstrated in Figure 16. The formation and evolution of the primary jets in all cases, which are barely accurately described using experimental techniques, undergo two distinctive phases, namely the nucleation of the incipient jets and the competitive growth of the incipient jets. Here, the incipient jets are referred to as the localized shear flows or, equivalently, the fast moving particle clusters as shown in the innermost frame in each subfigure of Figure 16. The inner surface of ring remains smooth without visible dents or ripples so that the first phase is almost impossible to identify from the experimental observations.
\nEvolutions of the velocity profiles in particle rings with different parameters. Particles are shaded according to the magnitude of velocities. (a)
The azimuthal velocity profiles of particle ring in early times shown in Figure 17 demonstrate the nucleation of the incipient jets. No consistent pattern persists during the first millisecond, the spikes in the azimuthal velocity profile being transient and irregular. The flows behind the shock front are largely homogeneous around the perimeter. The following several milliseconds saw the dramatic transition of azimuthal velocity profile from irregular oscillations to regular fluctuations that are consistent throughout. This transition is clearly manifested by the substantial jump around
(a) Azimuthal velocity profiles of particle ring in early times and (b) variations of correlation coefficient of the two sequential azimuthal velocity profile of particle ring. Snapshots of particle ring at
The radial growth of incipient jets in terms of the penetration depth into the bulk and the cross-sectional width is strongly uneven, the strong jets mushrooming outwards opposed to the retarded weak jets. As a result, the substantial elimination and the coalescence of weak jets prevail throughout the second phase. By contrast, the mushroom-like strong jet occasionally would split into multiple subjets, which is more likely to occur in rings with low packing density (see Figure 16(c) and (d)). Interestingly, the multiplication of strong jets can take place multiple times. The evolutional characteristics of incipient jets revealed by the DEM simulations are substantiated by the experimental observations (see Figure 18).
\nHigh speed photos of shock dispersal of corn quartz sand ring.
The elimination of the weak jets significantly influences the temporal variations of the jet number as shown in Figure 19. After the chaotic initiation of incipient jets during the first several milliseconds evidenced by the strong oscillation of jet number, the jet number plummets dramatically in the following 5–10 ms. Afterward, the jet number undergoes much more gradual decrease until the jets are expelled from the outer surface of ring. Taking into account these fundamentals demonstrated in Figure 19, a physics-based equation as follows can be derived to describe the temporal variation of jet number,
Temporal variations of the jet number with varying overpressure of shock loadings (a) and inner radius of ring (b). The inner radius of ring remains constant, Rin = 20 cm in (a). The overpressure peak in (b) is 5 bar.
In Eq. (4),
The analytical formulation of Eq. (4) entails a thorough understanding of the underlying mechanisms, specifically the formation and elimination mechanisms of incipient jets. With regard to the formation of incipient jets, it is necessary to unlock the transition of the homogeneous flows to the localized shear flows. Unlike solids or liquids, the stress waves in particles travel through particle contact points and are primarily transmitted by the “force chains” that carry most of load in the granular materials [18, 30]. Meanwhile, the shock energy is dissipated by the random particle collisions. Because of the strong energy dissipation and nonlinear characteristics of granular systems, the inter-particle forces are transmitted through heterogeneous architecture of force chains such as shown in Figure 20, where the inter-particle contact forces are represented by inter-particle lines scaled with the magnitude of the contact forces. The initial contact network of particles (see the top panel in Figure 20) appears to be homogeneous in general with particle-scale heterogeneities. The cylindrical shock loading activates the contacts aligning with the local radial directions. Besides the intricate contact network in the innermost particle layers, a handful of long linear force chains extend radially from the inner surface toward the outer surface (shaded red in the second panel in Figure 20). These long linear force chains act as the arteries from which a growing number of short force chains are initiated, forming distinguishable clusters of force chains at
Snapshots of the network of force chains in the bottom section of the particle ring subjected to the shock loading of P0 = 20 bar in early times. Force chains (denoted by the thick dashed red lines )at t = 0. 6 ms indicate the long linear force chains acting as the nuclei of the force chain clustering [
The variations in the circumferential distributions of strong contact density,
(a) Azimuthal distribution of contact density
Force chains also play a major role in the elimination of weak jets caused by the dilating strong jets as demonstrated in Figure 22. With the incipient jets (composed of the red circles in Figure 22) moving ahead of the slow-moving particles (denoted by the green-dashed circles in Figure 22), velocity differences across the edges of the incipient jets retard any sustained contacts, leading to the weakened lateral confinement imposed on the jets. Therefore, nontrivial transverse flows occur along the edges of jet, the jet front flaring out significantly (see the middle panel in Figure 22). The lateral expansion of adjacent jets, especially the jet heads, squeezes the slow-moving particles in between (denoted by blue-dotted circles in Figure 22) establishing an intricate network of force chains therein (see the middle and bottom panels in Figure 22). The newly constructed force chains with the dominant transverse orientation hinder the radial transport of the momentum that is instead channeled along the transversely aligned force chains (see the middle panel in Figure 22). The growth of the burgeoning minor jets between two major jets is thus likely to be suppressed or even retarded. The minor jets composed of particles indicated by the dotted circle in the middle panel of Figure 22 are degraded to the slow-moving cluster. With the slow-moving particles increasingly lagging behind, more spaces are left outside the edges of jets, resulting in the intensified transverse flows along the edges. By contrast, the radial compaction leads to the enhanced radial resistance restraining the radial advance of the jet front such as illustrated in the bottom panel of Figure 22. At some point, the transverse flows along the edges of jets are expected to overwhelm the radial propagation. The edges of major jets curl outward toward the opposite directions so that the major jet splits into several subjets (indicated by the circles in the bottom panel in Figure 22). The subjets with the propagation direction deviating from that of the parental jet would undergo the same development described above until they are expelled from the outer surface.
\nIllustrations of the evolution of the jetting pattern as well as the contact network. The red circles, dashed-line filled circles and blue filled circles represent the fast-moving particles connected by force chains, slow-moving particles without effective contacts among them, and slow-moving particles connected by transversely oriented force chains, respectively [
Given that the suppression of weak jets by the strong jets is mainly responsible for the decrease of jet number, the decline rate of jet number,
Figure 23 highlights the key events characterizing the formation and competitive growth of incipient jets. An excessive large number of strong force chains extruding into the bulk serves as the nuclei of incipient jets. The jets born earlier or showing stronger shear flows undergo considerable transverse flare up, annihilating the burgeoning weak jets. A substantial portion of initial incipient jets cannot survive the first instants of the phase II.
\nIllustration of key events dominating the formation (left) and elimination (right) of incipient jets.
Despite the resembling jetting pattern driven by the central explosion and radial shock loadings, the underlying mechanisms are fundamentally different as required by the distinct behaviors of particles subjected to strong blast waves and modest shock waves. In the former case, particle layers are compacted so tightly that they expand like the solids of the constituent materials. Thus, the (primary) particle jetting may well be understood from the continuum perspective since the hydrodynamic instability of interface, such as RT instability, fails to predict the jetting timescale comparable with the experimental data. Bulk fracture of compacted expanding particle layers becomes the promising candidate. The dynamic fragmentation theories of solids may well be applicable to the theoretical model of the explosion-driven particle jetting. But some major alterations need to be made to adapt these theories to the fragmentation of particle assemble. Since particles cannot sustain the tensile stresses nor have the surface energy, the fracture criterion of solids involving these two pivotal variables does not hold in particles. Experimental results suggest that the inception of particle jetting initiates shortly after the propagation of the rarefaction wave. This observation implies that the unloading of particles triggers the particle jetting. The fractures of solids mainly nucleate at the intrinsic flaws that determine the statistics of fragment size. By contrast, the dimension of flaws in particle system, namely the inter-grain pores, contradicts with that of particle jets. It is plausible to assume that the nuclei of the particle jets may well be brought in by a strong shock interaction. The implosion of particles causes dozens of shear bands across the thickness of particle ring with attrited grains [31]. Recent experiments also collected the sintered clumps of aluminum powders after the explosive dispersal of powders [32]. The heterogeneous thermodynamic activities occurring in the blast loaded particles, such as shear banding, should be the focus of the future study. A thorough understanding in this regard needs the rigorous examination of previous experimental data and development of adequate experimental and numerical techniques providing more direct evidences.
\nShock-induced particle jetting opens a fundamentally different domain but attracts relatively less attention compared with the explosion-driven particle jetting. This scenario offers an ideal opportunity to look into the transient particle flows. This chapter presents some preliminary investigations into this problem via both experimental and numerical methods. Much more work is needed to clarify the origin of the nuclei of incipient jets and the interplays between jets with varying strengths. In this regard, force chains play an essential role via introducing the inhomogeneity and modulating the jetting pattern.
\nBoth explosion-driven and shock-induced particle jetting exhibit the dual jetting structure, namely, the primary jets initiating from the inner surface and the secondary jets initiating from the outer surface of particle rings/cylinders/shells. The primary and secondary jets have fundamentally different size and occur in different times so that respective mechanisms are required. More importantly, distinct behaviors of particles subjected to strong blast waves and weak shock waves dictate different mechanisms underpinning the particle jetting in both cases. Accordingly, we adopt a continuum approach to model the explosion-driven particle jetting. Specifically, a destabilization model of expanding shell is proposed to account for the onset of the primary jetting. The secondary jetting can be described by a cavitation spallation model based on the expansion of hollow spheres. The timescale and characteristic size of primary/secondary jets predicted by theoretical models agree well with the experimental data. By contrast, the shock-induced particle jetting is studied via the DEM method, which can access the particle-scale information, such as particle velocities and contact forces. The investigation reveals a two-staged evolution of particle (primary) jets, the formation and competitive growth of incipient jets. The formation of incipient jets is characterized by the transition from the homogeneous flows to the localized shear flows. The ensuing evolution of incipient jets is accompanied by the substantial annihilation of weak jets and the multiplication of strong jets. The mechanisms underlying these two phases are found to be closed related with the network of force chains.
\nLipedema is a chronic underrecognized adipose tissue (AT) disorder distinguished by the symmetrical accumulation of painful fat in the lower body, predominantly in the thighs. The clinical presentation of lipedema resembles that of obesity, lymphedema, and other AT disorders, so it is often misdiagnosed and mistreated [1, 2, 3, 4]. Lipedema is diagnosed by a thorough physical examination in conjunction with the patient’s family and medical histories. Healthcare providers identify lipedema through the following criteria: bilateral and symmetrical distribution of subcutaneous fat predominantly in the legs that excludes the hands or feet, minimal pitting edema and a negative Stemmer’s sign which can indicate edema followed by a set of detailed criteria that characterize regionalization of fat accumulation and pain, time of change in fat distribution, and diet resistance to discern the type and stage of the patient.
There are five different types of lipedema, which are based upon the regions of prominent fat deposition. Type 1: the fat builds up in the buttocks and hip; Type 2: the fat spreads from the buttocks to the knees with fat folds around the inside of the knee; Type 3: the fat extends to the hips and ankles, the feet are not affected; Type 4: the fat is increased in the upper arms sparing the wrist and Type 5: the fat accumulates in the lower legs only [2, 5, 6]. Patients may present with more than one type depending on the progression of the disorder. Additionally, patients present at three different stages, depending on the severity of fat accumulation and the onset of other symptoms [2, 5, 6, 7]. Stage 1: the skin is smooth with small fat lobules; Stage 2: the skin has indentations with pearl-sized fat nodules and Stage 3: the skin has large extrusions with overhanging fat causing tissue deformities. Lymphedema may also develop collaterally at any stage of the disorder but does not alone qualify a case of lipedema [2]. Unlike many AT disorders, lipedema is largely irresponsive to lifestyle interventions such as diet and exercise, but liposuction and decongestive therapy are effective treatment options [1]. While neither are curative, liposuction is widely accepted as the better treatment option for its ability to provide long-term improvement to appearances, functionality, mobility and bruising while reducing edema, spontaneous pain, sensitivity to pressure. Combined decongestive therapy (CDT) such as pre- or post-operative lymphatic drainage or use of compression garments in recovery weeks may be conducted in support of the procedure [2, 4].
Lipedema predominantly affects females and often manifests during time of hormone fluctuations, during puberty, childbirth, or menopause [7, 8], indicating that estrogen and estrogen signaling play a role in the pathogenesis of lipedema via direct impacts on adipocytes and immune cells, and/or secondary effects on the brain control centers [9, 10]. However, the exact mechanism(s) of action remain unclear [11, 12]. Although lipedema is a common disease (11% of women worldwide), no data are yet available to demonstrate the prevalence of lipedema in pre- and post-menopausal or pregnant women. In addition, cases of lipedema in males are very rare; however, men who develop lipedema tend to have high levels of estrogen but low testosterone levels [2, 5, 6]. Understanding the mechanisms of the life-long transitions of estrogen levels and interactions with AT will define the pathogenesis of lipedema more thoroughly while identifying novel diagnostic and treatment options.
This review will describe the potential role of estrogen in the development of lipedema. The effect(s) of estrogens on the immune system will be described, the association of estrogen signaling on tissue adipogenesis and inflammation will be explored and the application of estrogen as a potential therapy in preventing the progression of this disease will be discussed.
Estrogens are hormones that regulate adipose tissue metabolism by controlling food intake, energy expenditure and body distribution. Estrogens have widespread effects on several organs around the body and therefore play a role in a variety of physiological functions and disorders. Estrogens can act on receptors in both the cytoplasm and the plasma membrane to mediate protein expression involving cell proliferation and metabolism [12]. Estrogens are present in three forms: estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3). Estradiol is the most extensively studied, as it plays key roles in reproductive phase functioning and a large variety of chronic disorders. There are three receptors that have distinct presences and functions around the body. Alterations in estrogen activity or the absence of estrogen receptors (ER) results in the accumulation of subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT), a phenomenon observed in lipedema patients [5, 9, 13, 14]. Szél et al. hypothesized that alteration in ERs is involved in the regulation of appetite and weight gain which might explain why lipedema patients accumulate fat and have difficulty losing it with diet and exercise [10]. Furthermore, Yi et al. showed that estrogen regulates the expression of leptin, a hormone that controls hunger and body weight, in adipocytes via ERs [15] supporting the hypothesis that lipedema is a hormonal disease.
Estrogen exerts its function through the estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and beta (ERβ). Both ERα and ERβ receptors appear in significantly high concentrations in SAT of premenopausal women, as signaling from estrogens mediates adipose deposition throughout the body [9, 16]. However, ERα expression is reduced in the SAT of clinically obese females and postmenopausal women treated with estradiol compared to their normal-weight counterparts [14, 17, 18]. Interestingly, Erβ, which serves an antagonistic role on ERα-mediated gene expression, is highly expressed in postmenopausal women in comparison to premenopausal women [19]. Such findings raise the question of whether a correlation of the concentrations of estrogen receptors in adipose tissue could elucidate a similar relationship between estrogen receptor concentrations in lipedema AT. Additionally, a study conducted by Gavin et al. discovered described that the concentration of ERα is decreased and ERβ concentration is increased in the lower extremities of overweight patients, associating the variable concentrations to sexual dimorphisms in regionalized fat deposition for individuals [20]. As discussed earlier, fat accumulates in the lower extremities of lipedema patients, implying a potential role of ER in its pathogenesis. Furthermore, Dieudonné and colleagues evaluated the expression of ERs in preadipocytes and adipocytes in a cohort of lean subjects and determined that males and females statistically share similar levels of both ERα and ERβ within intraabdominal AT (IAT) and SAT [14]. Females have slightly higher concentrations of ERα and ERβ globally than males. However, when induced with estradiol, expression of ERα in the SAT in females increased significantly more than in IAT. In these same conditions, the SAT in females have a significantly increased expression of ERβ while all other levels of ERβ (IAT in females, SAT and IAT in males) remained the same. Cases of increased regionalized lipid accumulation are closely correlated to estrogen deficiency [21, 22, 23, 24]. In contrast, in an estrogen-sufficient state, excess fat is stored in the gluteal-femoral region, rather than the abdominal region. One mechanism has been postulated as a factor in this association is the acute administration of estrogens to postmenopausal women which reduced basal lipolysis in SAT, particularly in the femoral region, further supporting a role for estrogens in regional fat deposition in lipedema patients [25].
The third estrogen receptor, G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) is expressed on the membrane at lower concentrations in adipose tissue but nonetheless, with several important effects. GPER has been widely studied in regulation of body weight, inflammation, insulin sensitivity, and metabolic dysfunction [26, 27, 28, 29]. Several studies demonstrated that mice lacking GPER demonstrate an increase in adiposity (mass and adipocyte size) and decrease in energy expenditure compared to their wild type mice [29, 30, 31]. Studies have also shown that the lack of GPER or ERα expression in mice show similar characteristic of metabolic syndrome such as inflammation, obesity, glucose intolerance and insulin resistance [26, 31, 32, 33, 34]. Although the actions of estrogens on GPER have not yet been fully elucidated, examining the crosstalk between ERs and estrogen will help understand their function in the development of lipedema.
Estrogens have been shown to play a role in gender and regional adiposity. Several studies revealed that women have ~10% more early stage preadipocytes in abdominal SAT and ~35% more in femoral SAT [35, 36]. However, only ERα is expressed in preadipocytes, suggesting a role for estrogen in adipogenesis that is not mediated by the antagonistic mechanisms of ERα and ERβ [16]. Lacasa et al. found the mechanisms involved by which estrogen stimulates preadipocyte proliferation, supporting a role of estrogen in adipogenesis [13, 37]. However, Eaton et al. postulated that local adipocyte-produced estrogen may play a role in preventing preadipocyte differentiation based on data from two studies where treatment of preadipocytes with estrogen, both in vitro and in vivo, inhibited adipogenesis and lipogenic gene expression [13, 38]. The distribution of preadipocytes and adipocytes along with the expression of estrogen receptors on differentiated adipocytes could play a role in the pathogenesis of lipedema, as regionalized and sexually distinct adipocyte hypertrophy is one of the central defining characteristics of the disorder.
Activation of ERα, ERβ, and GPER on adipocytes elicit an intranuclear response, causing up or down-regulation in the expression and activity of proteins such as leptin and lipoprotein lipase (LPL), which are involved in lipid regulation in the body [39, 40]. Through this regulation of protein expression, estrogen partially mediates weight control and lipogenesis-lipolysis mechanisms. Moreover, several studies have shown that estrogen treatment altered the expression of several genes involved in lipogenesis. A study conducted by Homma et al. revealed a negatively controlled estrogen response element in the LPL gene, indicating that estrogen decreases activity of LPL, a protein that regulates lipid uptake by adipocytes and leads to lipogenesis, which inhibits adipose deposition [41]. Another study has shown that estrogen stimulates the expression of leptin in human breast tissue [42]; thus, estrogen might play an important in the regulation of adipose tissue. We have shown that leptin gene expression is increased in adipocytes differentiated in vitro from adipose-derived stem cells obtained from obese lipedema patients compared to the same cells from healthy controls [43]; however, the effect of estrogen on the expression of leptin in lipedema has yet to be determined. Additionally, ERβ has been shown to be a negative regulator of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), a key transcription factor highly expressed in AT and controls the expression of LPL, glucose transporter type 4 (Glut 4) and leptin; thus, a decrease in ERβ expression increases adipogenesis which is detected in lipedema SAT [43]. However, further studies will be needed to study the correlation between the loss of ERs expression and the increase adiposity in AT disorders.
Estrogen exerts regulatory effects on the immune system through ER-dependent and independent pathways [44], which can be both positive and negative depending on a wide array of factors such as the level of estrogen, expression of ERs, cell types and the environment [45]. Lipedema AT is characterized by hypertrophic adipocytes and activated immune cells such as macrophages and mast cells [46, 47, 48]; thus, direct, and indirect cellular interaction through auto- and paracrine secretions of inflammatory cytokines via the ER signal transduction pathway have an immense impact on the tissue function [7, 19, 35]. Several studies have shown that a decrease in estrogen levels results in increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukins (IL)-6, IL1-β and Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) as is the case with women undergoing menopause or oophorectomy [49]. On the other hand, in the case of pregnant women or in women taking ectopic estrogens, suppressed immune responses are observed [48]. Hence, as estrogen levels fluctuate in lipedema patients during their lifetime, the inflammatory signals in the tissue may as well. This correlation between estrogen levels and onset of inflammation could provide insight into the pathophysiology of lipedema-associated inflammation.
Estrogen is widely known as a central regulator of fat metabolism and regional deposition. In premenopausal women, estrogen is synthesized in the ovaries during menstruation [19]; however, it is depleted as they age. In adipose tissue, androgens are aromatized into estrogens to restore hormonal levels and prevent the progression of hormonal-related diseases [17, 19, 50]. One study found increased aromatase activity in a group of obese individuals, supporting a correlation between this shift of hormone production and metabolic disease [51]. However, estrogen deficiency or depletion, such as in the case of ovariectomy, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), or the lack of a functional aromatase gene, causes weight gain which is associated with comorbidity, cardiovascular disease, and other diseases; thus, hormone replacement therapy (HRT) was shown to be an effective treatment [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57]. In the context of AT, administration of exogenous estradiol to premenopausal women decreases LPL activity in AT of the lower extremities, which are primarily affected in lipedema [58]. However, another study conducted by Lindberg et al. found that the treatment of postmenopausal women with oral ethinyl estradiol (50 μg/day) for three weeks increased adipose tissue LPL activity in femoral adipocytes [59]. Other studies expand on this, finding that estrogen treatment of adipocytes decreased the expression of genes related to adipogenesis and lipogenesis such as PPAR-γ and LPL [19, 38, 58]. Furthermore, administering estrogen resulted in a significant decrease in LPL activity in adipose tissue [52]. Similarly, Pederson et al. discovered that estrogen treatment almost doubled insulin binding affinity in rat adipocytes. Control rats had 11% weight gain in 7 days whereas estrogen treated rats gained only 4% in the same period. Adipocytes were significantly larger in control rats compared to adipocytes from estrogen substituted rats. Interactions of estrogens with androgens to mediate these processes were also discovered, with two studies observing the effects of HRT that further substantiate an association between androgens and weight gain [54, 60]. Davis et al. reported that administering androgens with estrogens in hormone replacement therapy seemed to antagonize or reduce the effects of estrogens on fat deposition and weight loss. Likewise, Gamberini et al. reported administration of antiandrogens with the typical estrogen dosage results in more efficient weight loss. While the effects of androgens in lipedema cases have been underdefined in this literature review, the pathophysiological effect of androgen therapy implies a treatment option for cases of lipedema. Clinical research has also found that women receiving estrogen HRT have relatively increased protection from metabolic syndrome and decreased AT deposition in the intra-abdominal region [13, 61, 62, 63, 64]. Additionally, as mentioned above, post-menopausal clinical subjects developed high levels of inflammatory cytokines had associated decreases in such levels following estrogen treatments [13]. All these data confirm that the physiological impact of estrogen is altered as females passes through reproductive benchmarks, and thus estrogen may be a potential treatment of Lipedema patients.
Furthermore, it has been proposed that activation of ERα can induce the browning of white adipocytes, referred to as beiging, through induction of lipolysis mediated by adipose tissue triglyceride lipase [65]. It is known that premenopausal women have more brown adipose tissue (BAT) and are more sensitive to brown adipose tissue activation than men or postmenopausal women. Selective activation of ERα by pyrazole triol (selective ERα agonist) increased markers of beiging in vitro [65]. The results of this study indicated that selective activation of ERα in adipocytes can induce beiging through the induction of adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) mediated lipolysis providing free fatty acids as an energy source to activate Uncoupling protein (UCP)-1 [66]. Another study conducted Yepuru et al. demonstrated that activation of ERβ increases mitochondrial function and energy expenditure; thus, ERβ ligands have anti-obesity and antimetabolic disease effects [67] and might be more beneficial than estradiol treatment which unselectively activates both ERs. In vitro and in vivo studies have suggested that selective ERβ ligand reduces the expression of genes associated with white adipose tissue and promote the expression of genes associated with brown adipose tissue. This ligand additionally increases the mitochondrial oxygen consumption without an increase in physical activity [68]. Additional research is needed to gain insight into whether selectively activating of one estrogen receptor over another confers more benefits than activating both unselectively. Given these results on the selective activation of estrogen receptors, there is an increased effort to characterize specific molecular pathways to induce white adipose tissue browning; thus, presenting another potential treatment for lipedema patients.
Lipedema is a severe chronic adipose tissue disorder that affects women worldwide. Although the pathophysiology of the disease has not been fully elucidated, several lines of evidence have suggested estrogen dysfunction may be central to the development of lipedema. The loss of estrogen can additionally induce cardiovascular disease and create an insulin resistant dyslipidemia state that can have long term implications on the metabolic profile of a patient. Thus, studying the role played by estrogen in the processes are involved in the pathogenesis, AT inflammation, fibrosis, and angiogenesis, will provide researchers insights into the mechanism involved in the development of the disease and will help direct future study on hormonal therapy as a form of treatment for lipedema. Through these efforts, the correlation revealed between hormones and adipogenesis in AT will lead to evaluate lipedema as a hormonal disease.
This work was funded by a grant from the Lipedema Foundation.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\\n\\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\\n\\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\\n\\nDEFINITIONS
\\n\\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
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\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\\n\\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\\n\\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \\n\\t\\t\\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t15 March 2022 | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
\n\nWork - a Chapter, including Conference Papers, a Scientific Article and any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials forming part of or accompanying the Chapter/Conference Paper.
\n\nMonograph/Compacts - a full manuscript usually written by a single Author, including any and all text, graphics, images and/or other materials.
\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
\n\nScientific Journal – Periodical publication intended to further the progress of science.
\n\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 March 2022 | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Adapted from {short citation}; originally published under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. 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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Nosocomial infections, a major health problem, are due at 80% to biofilm‐associated infection, and Staphylococcus aureus is the leading bacteria species in this domain. Moreover, the antimicrobial resistance of this bacterial community is accentuated when it is formed by superbugs such as methicillin‐resistant S. aureus (MRSA). In this chapter, the mechanism and the physiology of S. aureus biofilm as well as their consequences in the clinical domains are described. To complete the vision on S. aureus biofilms, some “anti‐biofilm” strategies will be highlighted.",book:{id:"6045",slug:"the-rise-of-virulence-and-antibiotic-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus",title:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Fany Reffuveille, Jérôme Josse, Quentin Vallé, Céline Mongaret and\nSophie C. 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Gangloff"},{id:"190356",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fany",middleName:null,surname:"Reffuveille",slug:"fany-reffuveille",fullName:"Fany Reffuveille"},{id:"191408",title:"Dr.",name:"Jérome",middleName:null,surname:"Josse",slug:"jerome-josse",fullName:"Jérome Josse"},{id:"203850",title:"Dr.",name:"Quentin",middleName:null,surname:"Vallé",slug:"quentin-valle",fullName:"Quentin Vallé"},{id:"203852",title:"Dr.",name:"Céline",middleName:null,surname:"Mongaret",slug:"celine-mongaret",fullName:"Céline Mongaret"}]},{id:"33741",doi:"10.5772/36947",title:"Fundamentals and Applications of Immunosensors",slug:"fundamentals-and-applications-of-immunosensors",totalDownloads:5058,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"1499",slug:"advances-in-immunoassay-technology",title:"Advances in Immunoassay Technology",fullTitle:"Advances in Immunoassay Technology"},signatures:"Carlos Moina and Gabriel Ybarra",authors:[{id:"110541",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Moina",slug:"carlos-moina",fullName:"Carlos Moina"},{id:"110556",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Ybarra",slug:"gabriel-ybarra",fullName:"Gabriel Ybarra"}]},{id:"68185",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88013",title:"Macrophages: The Potent Immunoregulatory Innate Immune Cells",slug:"macrophages-the-potent-immunoregulatory-innate-immune-cells",totalDownloads:2236,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"Macrophages are ubiquitously present innate immune cells in humans and animals belonging to both invertebrates and vertebrates. These cells were first recognized by Elia Metchnikoff in 1882 in the larvae of starfish upon insertion of thorns of tangerine tree and later in Daphnia magna or common water flea infected with fungal spores as cells responsible for the process of phagocytosis of foreign particles. Elia Metchnikoff received the Noble prize (Physiology and Medicine) for his discovery and describing the process of phagocytosis in 1908. More than 130 years have passed and different subtypes and roles of macrophages as innate immune cells have been established by the researchers. In addition to their immunoregulatory role in immune homeostasis and pathogenic infection, they also play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of sterile inflammatory conditions including autoimmunity, obesity, and cancer. The present chapter describes the immunoregulatory role of macrophages in the homeostasis and inflammatory diseases varying from autoimmunity to metabolic diseases including obesity.",book:{id:"8590",slug:"macrophage-activation-biology-and-disease",title:"Macrophage Activation",fullTitle:"Macrophage Activation - Biology and Disease"},signatures:"Vijay Kumar",authors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56849",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Innate Immune Response Against Pathogens",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-innate-immune-response-against-pathogens",totalDownloads:6226,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. The innate response is characterized by being the first line of defense that occurs rapidly in which leukocytes such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells, dendritic cells, etc., are involved. These cells recognize the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which have been evolutionarily conserved by the diversity of microorganisms that infect humans. Recognition of these pathogen-associated molecular patterns occurs through pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors and some other intracellular receptors such as nucleotide oligomerization domain (NOD), with the aim of amplifying the inflammation and activating the adaptive cellular immune response, through the antigenic presentation. In the present chapter, we will review the importance of the main components involved in the innate immune response, such as different cell types, inflammatory response, soluble immune mediators and effector mechanisms exerted by the immune response against bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites; all with the purpose of eliminating them and eradicating the infection of the host.",book:{id:"5975",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",fullTitle:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz Carrillo, Flor Pamela Castro García, Oscar\nGutiérrez Coronado, María Alejandra Moreno García and Juan\nFrancisco Contreras Cordero",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216080",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno-García",slug:"alejandra-moreno-garcia",fullName:"Alejandra Moreno-García"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"216082",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-García",slug:"pamela-castro-garcia",fullName:"Pamela Castro-García"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"}]},{id:"53922",title:"Phenotypic Markers and Functional Regulators of Myelomonocytic Cells",slug:"phenotypic-markers-and-functional-regulators-of-myelomonocytic-cells",totalDownloads:2304,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"In this chapter, there is a description of hematopoietic stem cells, maturation curve and their differentiation into myeloid cells, including phenotypes and transcription factors involved in this process. Further, we discuss myeloid maturation curve from myeloid precursor, monoblast, premonocyte to monocytes, and also monocytes subsets regarding their CD14 and CD16 expressions and related functions in health and disease. In addition, we reason about the differentiation from monocytes either in dendritic cells or in macrophages in vitro using differential growth factors; these cells are differentiated from those found in vivo being named as monocyte-derived cells. Furthermore, we explore distinguished phenotype of monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells monocyte-derived in vitro, using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry, in order to display morphological and phenotypic differences among them.",book:{id:"5484",slug:"biology-of-myelomonocytic-cells",title:"Biology of Myelomonocytic Cells",fullTitle:"Biology of Myelomonocytic Cells"},signatures:"Luciana Cavalheiro Marti, Nydia Strachman Bacal, Laiz Camerão\nBento and Fernanda Agostini Rocha",authors:[{id:"190705",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Marti",slug:"luciana-marti",fullName:"Luciana Marti"},{id:"196049",title:"Dr.",name:"Nydia",middleName:null,surname:"Bacal",slug:"nydia-bacal",fullName:"Nydia Bacal"},{id:"196050",title:"MSc.",name:"Laiz",middleName:null,surname:"Cameirão",slug:"laiz-cameirao",fullName:"Laiz Cameirão"},{id:"196051",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:"Agostini",surname:"Rocha",slug:"fernanda-rocha",fullName:"Fernanda Rocha"}]},{id:"54824",title:"Dendritic Cells: Location, Function, and Clinical Implications",slug:"dendritic-cells-location-function-and-clinical-implications",totalDownloads:4493,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting cells derived from bone marrow precursors and form a widely distributed cellular system throughout the body. DCs exert immune-surveillance for exogenous and endogenous antigens and the later activation of naive T lymphocytes giving rise to various immunological responses. Different growth factors and cytokines can modulate the differentiation and function of DCs, GM-CSF, M-CSF, Flt3, and TGF-β, resulting in a large variety of DCs with different functional abilities. Thus, DCs are classified as plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), conventional DCs (cDCs), and DCs derived from monocytes (mDCs). Functionally, the cDCs may be divided into two states: immature and mature. Immature DCs are specialist in uptaking and processing antigens; in contrast, mature DCs are professional in antigen presentation. It has been observed that immature cDCs can induce immune tolerance while mature cDCs may induce Th2 or Th1 immune responses. It is worth noting that different subpopulations of DCs have the ability to secrete different cytokine patterns, resulting in the induction of different immunological responses. Furthermore DCs are involved in the pathophysiology of several diseases such as contact hypersensitivity, autoimmune diseases, or cancer, but they can also be used as therapeutic tools in these conditions.",book:{id:"5484",slug:"biology-of-myelomonocytic-cells",title:"Biology of Myelomonocytic Cells",fullTitle:"Biology of Myelomonocytic Cells"},signatures:"Andrés Castell-Rodríguez, Gabriela Piñón-Zárate, Miguel Herrera-\nEnríquez, Katia Jarquín-Yáñez and Iliana Medina-Solares",authors:[{id:"190753",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrés",middleName:"Eliú",surname:"Castell-Rodríguez",slug:"andres-castell-rodriguez",fullName:"Andrés Castell-Rodríguez"},{id:"191880",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Piñón-Zárate",slug:"gabriela-pinon-zarate",fullName:"Gabriela Piñón-Zárate"},{id:"191881",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Herrera-Enríquez",slug:"miguel-herrera-enriquez",fullName:"Miguel Herrera-Enríquez"},{id:"191882",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",middleName:null,surname:"Jarquín-Yáñez",slug:"katia-jarquin-yanez",fullName:"Katia Jarquín-Yáñez"},{id:"204502",title:"BSc.",name:"Iliana",middleName:null,surname:"Medina-Solares",slug:"iliana-medina-solares",fullName:"Iliana Medina-Solares"}]},{id:"63913",title:"Cytokine Profiling Plays a Crucial Role in Activating Immune System to Clear Infectious Pathogens",slug:"cytokine-profiling-plays-a-crucial-role-in-activating-immune-system-to-clear-infectious-pathogens",totalDownloads:3572,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:48,abstract:"Pathogen infections are recognized by the immune system, which consists of two types of responses: an innate immune response that recognizes pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and an antigen-specific adaptive immune response. In both responses, there are several activated cells of the immune system, which play a key role in establishing the environment of cytokines, thus directing their differentiation either suppressing or promoting the immune response. This immune response is crucial against pathogen infections. In this chapter, we will describe the crucial role played by different families of cytokines during activation of the immune system to eliminate infectious pathogens.",book:{id:"6963",slug:"immune-response-activation-and-immunomodulation",title:"Immune Response Activation and Immunomodulation",fullTitle:"Immune Response Activation and Immunomodulation"},signatures:"José Luis Muñoz-Carrillo, Juan Francisco Contreras-Cordero,\nOscar Gutiérrez-Coronado, Paola Trinidad Villalobos-Gutiérrez,\nLuis Guillermo Ramos-Gracia and Viridiana Elizabeth Hernández-Reyes",authors:[{id:"214236",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Carrillo",slug:"jose-luis-munoz-carrillo",fullName:"Jose Luis Muñoz-Carrillo"},{id:"216081",title:"Dr.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Gutiérrez-Coronado",slug:"oscar-gutierrez-coronado",fullName:"Oscar Gutiérrez-Coronado"},{id:"220717",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Contreras Cordero",slug:"juan-francisco-contreras-cordero",fullName:"Juan Francisco Contreras Cordero"},{id:"233193",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola Trinidad",middleName:null,surname:"Villalobos-Gutiérrez",slug:"paola-trinidad-villalobos-gutierrez",fullName:"Paola Trinidad Villalobos-Gutiérrez"},{id:"254015",title:"Dr.",name:"Viridiana Elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Reyes",slug:"viridiana-elizabeth-hernandez-reyes",fullName:"Viridiana Elizabeth Hernández-Reyes"},{id:"257472",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Gracia",slug:"luis-guillermo-ramos-gracia",fullName:"Luis Guillermo Ramos-Gracia"}]},{id:"53240",title:"Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms and their Impact on the Medical Field",slug:"staphylococcus-aureus-biofilms-and-their-impact-on-the-medical-field",totalDownloads:3855,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:"Despite the discovery of antibiotics, the battle against bacteria is so far in their favor, specifically because bugs are able to develop a superstructure named biofilm, to resist and to survive in the environment. Nosocomial infections, a major health problem, are due at 80% to biofilm‐associated infection, and Staphylococcus aureus is the leading bacteria species in this domain. Moreover, the antimicrobial resistance of this bacterial community is accentuated when it is formed by superbugs such as methicillin‐resistant S. aureus (MRSA). In this chapter, the mechanism and the physiology of S. aureus biofilm as well as their consequences in the clinical domains are described. To complete the vision on S. aureus biofilms, some “anti‐biofilm” strategies will be highlighted.",book:{id:"6045",slug:"the-rise-of-virulence-and-antibiotic-resistance-in-staphylococcus-aureus",title:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus",fullTitle:"The Rise of Virulence and Antibiotic Resistance in Staphylococcus aureus"},signatures:"Fany Reffuveille, Jérôme Josse, Quentin Vallé, Céline Mongaret and\nSophie C. Gangloff",authors:[{id:"54351",title:"Prof.",name:"Sophie C.",middleName:null,surname:"Gangloff",slug:"sophie-c.-gangloff",fullName:"Sophie C. Gangloff"},{id:"190356",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Fany",middleName:null,surname:"Reffuveille",slug:"fany-reffuveille",fullName:"Fany Reffuveille"},{id:"191408",title:"Dr.",name:"Jérome",middleName:null,surname:"Josse",slug:"jerome-josse",fullName:"Jérome Josse"},{id:"203850",title:"Dr.",name:"Quentin",middleName:null,surname:"Vallé",slug:"quentin-valle",fullName:"Quentin Vallé"},{id:"203852",title:"Dr.",name:"Céline",middleName:null,surname:"Mongaret",slug:"celine-mongaret",fullName:"Céline Mongaret"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"150",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 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