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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10460",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Caesarean Section",title:"Current Topics in Caesarean Section",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In 2019, approximately 1.2 million caesarean sections were performed in the United States, accounting for 31.7% of all births that year. In most European countries, the rate of caesarean delivery also exceeds 30%. The medical effects of this phenomenon remain unclear.This book presents comprehensive information on caesarean delivery including the risks and benefits, clinical indications, scientific guidelines, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83969-179-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-178-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-180-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92475",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"current-topics-in-caesarean-section",numberOfPages:258,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e59550fca39fd09ff4addfe39ca822a0",bookSignature:"Panagiotis Tsikouras, Nikolaos Nikolettos, Werner Rath and Georg Friedrich Von Tempelhoff",publishedDate:"November 10th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10460.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3607,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 9th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",middleName:null,surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/48837/images/system/48837.jpg",biography:"Dr. Panagiotis Tsikouras is a specialist in obstetrics-gynecology,\nperinatal medicine, and contraception at the School of Medicine,\nDemocritus University of Thrace, Greece. He is also the headmaster of the Family Planning Centre and Gynecological Cytology\nLaboratory at the same university. Dr. Tsikouras is a fellow of the\nInternational Academy of Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis. His scientific activities focus on paediatric and adolescence medicine, gynecological oncology, high-risk pregnancies. He is a reviewer for several international journals and has numerous scientific publications to his credit, including papers and book chapters. He has also contributed to international and national guidelines on coagulation and thrombosis in obstetrics-gynecology.",institutionString:"Democritus University of Thrace, Komotini",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"12",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Democritus University of Thrace",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"317103",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolettos",slug:"nikolaos-nikolettos",fullName:"Nikolaos Nikolettos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317103/images/system/317103.png",biography:"Dr. Nikos Nikolettos is a specialist in obstetrics, gynecology and\nassisted reproduction at the Democritus University of Thrace,\nGreece. He is trained in gynecological endocrinology, human\nreproduction, and in vitro fertilization. From 2007 to 2011, Dr.\nNikos served as director of the In Vitro Fertilization Unit, University Regional General Hospital of Alexandroupolis, Greece. From\n2012 to 2018, he was director of the Laboratory of Reproductive\nPhysiology - Artificial Fertilization. In 2018 he became Professor of Assisted Reproduction at the Democritus University of Thrace, Greece. In 2019 he took over the\nmanagement of the University Obstetrics-Gynecology Clinic, Medical Department,\nDemocritus University of Thrace. His scientific work includes more than 100 publications in international journals and many lectures by invitation to international and Greek conferences.",institutionString:"Democritus University of Thrcae",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Democritus University of Thrace",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"290374",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Rath",slug:"werner-rath",fullName:"Werner Rath",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290374/images/system/290374.jpg",biography:"Dr. Werner Rath is a specialist in obstetrics and gynecology, gynecologic oncology, perinatal medicine, and hemostaseology. He is currently a professor in the Gynecology and Obstetrics Faculty of Medicine, University of Kiel, Germany, and an honorary doctor at the Democritus University of Thrace, Alexandroupoli University Hospital He previously served as chief of the Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics at University Hospital RWTH Aachen,\r\nGermany. Dr. Rath is a reviewer for numerous journals and chief editor of Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde (GebFra). He has several publications, including thirteen book chapters, to his credit.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kiel University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"332241",title:"Dr.",name:"Georg Friedrich",middleName:null,surname:"Von Tempelhoff",slug:"georg-friedrich-von-tempelhoff",fullName:"Georg Friedrich Von Tempelhoff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332241/images/system/332241.png",biography:"Dr. Georg Friedrich von Tempelhoff is a specialist in obstetrics and gynecology, gynecologic oncology, perinatal medicine, and hemostaseology. He is chief of the Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, St. Vinzenz Hospital Hanau, Germany, and head of the Institute for Thrombosis and Coagulation Disorders in Gynecology and Obstetrics, Germany. He is a fellow of the International Academy of Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis. His scientific focus is hemostaseological and hemorheological disorders in women with miscarriages, preeclampsia, and thrombosis. Dr. von Tempelhoff is a reviewer for numerous journals and, in addition to his publications and book chapters, has also contributed to international and national guidelines on coagulation and thrombosis in gynecology",institutionString:"St. Vinzenz Hospital Hanau",position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"189",title:"Obstetrics and Gynecology",slug:"obstetrics-and-gynecology"}],chapters:[{id:"76592",title:"Second Stage Cesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97722",slug:"second-stage-cesarean-section",totalDownloads:333,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The incidence of second stage cesarean section is on the rise. Second stage cesarean section is associated more chances of maternal and fetal injury. Though various techniques are mentioned to deliver the fetal head in second stage cesarean section, the “pull” method is associated with lesser complications. It is important to train Obstetricians in second stage section as it needs extra skill to deliver a deeply engaged head. Judicious use of oxytocin and assisted vaginal deliveries may decrease the need for second stage cesarean section.",signatures:"Jayaraman Nambiar and Thiencherry Rema",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76592",authors:[{id:"343408",title:"Prof.",name:"Jayaraman",surname:"Nambiar",slug:"jayaraman-nambiar",fullName:"Jayaraman Nambiar"},{id:"344786",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiencherry",surname:"Rema",slug:"thiencherry-rema",fullName:"Thiencherry Rema"}],corrections:null},{id:"76132",title:"Twin Pregnancies Labour Modus and Timing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95982",slug:"twin-pregnancies-labour-modus-and-timing",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Twin pregnancies are categorized according to three factors, zygosity, chorionicity and amnionicity. Dizygotic twins are always dichorionic and diamniotic, where each twin has its own chorionic and amniotic sac. Monozygotic twins account for 1/3 of twin pregnancies and show higher morbidity and mortality. In monozygotic twins, chorionicity and amnionicity are determined by the time of zygote division. Chorionicity and amnionicity determine the risks of twin pregnancy. Morbitidies are shown notable decreasing tendency depending on improving of high risk obstetric and neonatal care, however is still discussed the optimum labour management in twin pregnancies Vaginal delivery in twin pregnancies is possible when both have cephalic presentation and in the late weeks of pregnancy during which the risks of prematurity are minimized. The aim of this review was the assessment and evaluation the impact of the labour modus and timing of termination of twin pregnancies due to rise of their occurrence based on scientific aspects of the new published literature on perinatal outcome.",signatures:"Panagiotis Tsikouras, Anna Chalkidou, Anastasia Bothou, Angeliki Gerede, Xanthoula Anthoulaki, Spyridon Michalopoulos, Ioannis Tsirkas, Fotini Gaitatzi, Irene Babageorgaka, Apostolos Lazarou, Natalia Sachnova, Michael Koutsogiannis, Konstantinos Nikolettos, Theopi Nalbanti, Eythimios Demosthenous, Georgios Dragoutsos, Ifigenia Apostolou, Alexios Alexiou, Panagiotis Petsidis, Stefanos Zervoudis, George Iatrakis, Werner Rath, George Galazios and Nikolaos Nikolettos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76132",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76132",authors:[{id:"48837",title:"Prof.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Tsikouras",slug:"panagiotis-tsikouras",fullName:"Panagiotis Tsikouras"},{id:"317103",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolaos",surname:"Nikolettos",slug:"nikolaos-nikolettos",fullName:"Nikolaos Nikolettos"},{id:"290374",title:"Dr.",name:"Werner",surname:"Rath",slug:"werner-rath",fullName:"Werner Rath"},{id:"229225",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",surname:"Chalkidou",slug:"anna-chalkidou",fullName:"Anna Chalkidou"},{id:"229226",title:"Ms.",name:"Xanthoula",surname:"Anthoulaki",slug:"xanthoula-anthoulaki",fullName:"Xanthoula Anthoulaki"},{id:"229227",title:"Ms.",name:"Anastasia",surname:"Bothou",slug:"anastasia-bothou",fullName:"Anastasia Bothou"},{id:"229230",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefanos",surname:"Zervoudis",slug:"stefanos-zervoudis",fullName:"Stefanos Zervoudis"},{id:"229232",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Iatrakis",slug:"georgios-iatrakis",fullName:"Georgios Iatrakis"},{id:"229233",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Galazios",slug:"georgios-galazios",fullName:"Georgios Galazios"},{id:"290371",title:"Mrs.",name:"Fotini",surname:"Gaitatzi",slug:"fotini-gaitatzi",fullName:"Fotini Gaitatzi"},{id:"298197",title:"Mrs.",name:"Eirini",surname:"Bampageorgaka",slug:"eirini-bampageorgaka",fullName:"Eirini Bampageorgaka"},{id:"303163",title:"Dr.",name:"Spyridon",surname:"Michalopoulos",slug:"spyridon-michalopoulos",fullName:"Spyridon Michalopoulos"},{id:"347903",title:"Dr.",name:"Angeliki",surname:"Gerede",slug:"angeliki-gerede",fullName:"Angeliki Gerede"},{id:"347905",title:"Dr.",name:"Efthimios",surname:"Demmosthenous",slug:"efthimios-demmosthenous",fullName:"Efthimios Demmosthenous"},{id:"347906",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Tsirkas",slug:"ioannis-tsirkas",fullName:"Ioannis Tsirkas"},{id:"347907",title:"Dr.",name:"Apostolos",surname:"Lazarou",slug:"apostolos-lazarou",fullName:"Apostolos Lazarou"},{id:"347908",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Sachnova",slug:"natalia-sachnova",fullName:"Natalia Sachnova"},{id:"347909",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Koutsogiannis",slug:"michael-koutsogiannis",fullName:"Michael Koutsogiannis"},{id:"347911",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantinos",surname:"Nikolettos",slug:"konstantinos-nikolettos",fullName:"Konstantinos Nikolettos"},{id:"347912",title:"Dr.",name:"Theopi",surname:"Nalbanti",slug:"theopi-nalbanti",fullName:"Theopi Nalbanti"},{id:"347913",title:"Dr.",name:"Panagiotis",surname:"Petsidis",slug:"panagiotis-petsidis",fullName:"Panagiotis Petsidis"},{id:"356805",title:"Dr.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Dragoutsos",slug:"georgios-dragoutsos",fullName:"Georgios Dragoutsos"},{id:"356806",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifigenia",surname:"Apostolou",slug:"ifigenia-apostolou",fullName:"Ifigenia Apostolou"},{id:"356807",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexios",surname:"Alexiou",slug:"alexios-alexiou",fullName:"Alexios Alexiou"}],corrections:null},{id:"75696",title:"Cesarean Section and Breastfeeding Outcomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96658",slug:"cesarean-section-and-breastfeeding-outcomes",totalDownloads:327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The cesarean section rates in the developed countries are well above the 5% to 15% rate of all births as suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2009 and currently range widely between 25% and 50%. Moreover, the WHO guidance promotes early breastfeeding initiation during the first hour postpartum, exclusive breastfeeding up until the 6th month and maintaining breastfeeding at least up to the second year of the infant’s life. In this review, we discuss the current evidence on whether a cesarean section interferes with the initiation and the long-term duration of breastfeeding practice among new mothers. The literature shows that a cesarean birth does have a detrimental effect on breastfeeding outcomes, however it is not per se a negative factor. It rather seems that infants who have feeding difficulties in the immediate postpartum period may experience long term problems. Therefore, interventions are discussed to promote breastfeeding after cesarean section for health professionals. Emphasis is given on promoting early skin-to-skin contact and on counseling new mothers about the advantages of breastfeeding as well as providing practical support and guidance throughout the early postpartum period.",signatures:"Angeliki Antonakou and Dimitrios Papoutsis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75696",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75696",authors:[{id:"343453",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Angeliki",surname:"Antonakou",slug:"angeliki-antonakou",fullName:"Angeliki Antonakou"},{id:"346827",title:"Prof.",name:"Dimitrios",surname:"Papoutsis",slug:"dimitrios-papoutsis",fullName:"Dimitrios Papoutsis"}],corrections:null},{id:"78488",title:"VTE Prophylaxis in Cesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98974",slug:"vte-prophylaxis-in-cesarean-section",totalDownloads:152,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Venous thromboembolism (VT is a major cause of maternal mortality and severe morbidity. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological methods of prophylaxis are therefore often used for women considered to be a risk including women who have given birth by cesarean section. The risk is potentially increased in women with a personal or family history of VTE, women with genetic or acquired thrombophilia, and another risk factors like sickle cell disease, inflammatory bowel disease, active cancer, obesity, preeclampsia·and SARS COVID 19 infection. However, a specific score in obstetrics has not yet been well defined. Recommendations from major society guidelines for post-cesarean section (C/S) thromboprophylaxis differ greatly; the safety and efficacy of drug prophylaxis - mainly low molecular weight heparins - has been demonstrated, but large scale randomized trials of currently-used interventions should be conducted. The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the indications and contraindications for VTE prophylaxis in cesarean sections, prophylaxis regimens and potential adverse events.",signatures:"Frederico José Amédeé Péret and Liv Braga de Paula",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78488",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78488",authors:[{id:"343455",title:"Dr.",name:"Frederico",surname:"José Amédeé Péret",slug:"frederico-jose-amedee-peret",fullName:"Frederico José Amédeé Péret"},{id:"349379",title:"Prof.",name:"Liv",surname:"Braga De Paula",slug:"liv-braga-de-paula",fullName:"Liv Braga De Paula"}],corrections:null},{id:"77573",title:"Caesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97290",slug:"caesarean-section",totalDownloads:258,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Caesarean section is a procedure performed to save the life of the fetus and sometime to save the life of the woman. Although risks are low, affected women suffer from severe complications. The first caesarean section performed has a bearing on management of subsequent pregnancies. It is crucial that the procedure is performed when necessary. The evolution of caesarean section has shown marked improvement in maternal outcome especially after the introduction of antibiotics. The resistance of bacteria to antibiotics may lead to rethinking about the procedure performed long ago to try and minimised complications related to sepsis. Complications of caesarean sections are common in patients who have had a previous caesarean section. Training in previous caesarean sections will be vital in preventing these complications.",signatures:"Tshililo J. Mashamba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77573",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77573",authors:[{id:"342240",title:"Dr.",name:"Tshililo",surname:"Mashamba",slug:"tshililo-mashamba",fullName:"Tshililo Mashamba"}],corrections:null},{id:"77477",title:"Magnitude, Factors Associated with Cesarean Delivery and Its Appropriateness",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98286",slug:"magnitude-factors-associated-with-cesarean-delivery-and-its-appropriateness",totalDownloads:164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Inappropriate use of CS can have profoundly negative consequences for women and the broader community. A recent meeting of the International Confederation of Midwifes, the International Federation of Gynecologists and Obstetrics and the Gates Foundation to discuss the impact of rising CS rates on maternal and infant mortality in LMICs highlights the international importance of the issue. Knowledge of CS determinants is a first step in the effort to define strategies to reduce unnecessary CSs. Previous studies showed that the main reasons for performing CS are clinical factors. However, non-clinical factors such as demographic, health system factors, organizational variables were overlooked determinants that best predicted which women have a higher risk of CS.",signatures:"Awoke Giletew Wondie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77477",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77477",authors:[{id:"342301",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Awoke Giletew",surname:"Wondie",slug:"awoke-giletew-wondie",fullName:"Awoke Giletew Wondie"}],corrections:null},{id:"75893",title:"Association of Pre-Pregnancy Body Mass Index and Gestational Weight Gain with Preterm Delivery in Pregnant Women",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96922",slug:"association-of-pre-pregnancy-body-mass-index-and-gestational-weight-gain-with-preterm-delivery-in-pr",totalDownloads:370,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The perinatal mortality rate, which is one of the important adverse pregnancy outcome and includes stillbirths and infant death within first week of life is estimated to be nearly 40 deaths per 1,000 pregnancies in Gujarat. Also the infant mortality rates have been estimated to be 50 deaths before age of one year per 1,000 pregnancies. It is stated that children whose mothers are illiterate or belong to low socio-economic class have two and half times more chances to die within 1 year of their birth compared to those whose mothers have completed atleast 10 years of education or belong to high socio-economic class. There are nearly 13% of women who does not receive proper antenatal care and facility during pregnancy. In India, there are nearly half of the women (52%) who possess normal BMI range: rest are either underweight or overweight. Approximately 55% of the women of total population in India are anaemic. These maternal parameters directly affect the children causing 48% of the children to be malnourished and 43% to be underweight. Therefore, it is imperative to examine the association of pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index (BMI) as well as Gestational Weight Gain (GWG) with diverse pregnancy outcomes such as gestational diabetes, gestational hypertension and also with preterm delivery, caesarean delivery, etc. The present study was designed to investigate the prevalence, GWG, various pregnancy outcomes of underweight, overweight or obese pregnant women, and to explore the relationship between pre-pregnancy BMI as well as gestational weight gain during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes. This is a prospective, multi-centric study involving pregnant women with gestation week ≤20 weeks in Ahmedabad in Gujarat region. Our study observed that out of 226 women enrolled, 44 women (19.47%) were underweight, 137 women (60.62%) were normal, 30 women (13.27%) were overweight and 15 women (6.64%) were obese. The incidence of caesarean delivery (56.92%) was found more in nuclear family as compared to joint family (46.92%). It was found that in women taking no junk food at all, the chances of LBW were 16.39%, which was less as compared to mothers who had junk food. It was also observed that amongst women taking 1 glass milk daily (42.92%), about 55.67% of had normal type of delivery. Amongst women taking 1 fruit daily (57.52%), 53% women had normal delivery. Present study spotted decrease in risk of caesarean delivery with increase in maternal haemoglobin level from 9.0 gm/dl till 12.0 gm/dl. Average weight gain observed in underweight was 12.93 ± 1.90, in normal 12.32 ± 1.71, in overweight 10.23 ± 1.28 and in obese 9.6 ± 1.50. A negative correlation was found between GWG and pre-pregnancy BMI, i.e. as pre-pregnancy BMI increase, the GWG decrease. The incidence of pre-term delivery (9.49%) was much less in normal BMI range. The average infant birth weight observed in underweight women was 2.63 ± 0.47, in normal was 2.9 ± 0.49, in overweight was 2.92 ± 0.56 and in obese was 2.95 ± 0.86. It is observed that highest birth weight is obtained in obese women, which decreases as the maternal BMI range decreases. The incidence of LBW in normal and overweight women was 15.33 and 16.67%, which was low as compared to obese and underweight women. Our study reveals that parameters such as GWG, type of family, intake of milk, fruits and junk food, haemoglobin concentration directly affects the pregnancy outcomes such as term of delivery, type of delivery and infant birth weight.",signatures:"Bhavya Baxi and Jigna Shah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75893",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75893",authors:[{id:"332797",title:"Prof.",name:"Jigna",surname:"Shah",slug:"jigna-shah",fullName:"Jigna Shah"},{id:"332798",title:"Ms.",name:"Bhavya",surname:"Baxi",slug:"bhavya-baxi",fullName:"Bhavya Baxi"}],corrections:null},{id:"76917",title:"Prevention of Cesarean Scar Defects: What Is Possible?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97618",slug:"prevention-of-cesarean-scar-defects-what-is-possible-",totalDownloads:215,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Defect healing of the uterotomy at ceasarean section (CS) results in a morphological und probably functional disruption of the anterior uterine wall. Clinical sequelae concern subsequent pregnancies with a broad range of complications before and during pregnancy as well as at birth. In the following chapter, we provide an overview about the definition, diagnosis, symptoms and pathogenetical mechanisms of CS scar defects. Keeping in mind the pathogenesis allows to introduce preventative approaches.",signatures:"Christian Litzka, Annegret Schnabel, Maria Emilia Solano and Angela Köninger",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76917",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76917",authors:[{id:"344361",title:"Prof.",name:"Angela",surname:"Köninger",slug:"angela-koninger",fullName:"Angela Köninger"},{id:"354893",title:"Dr.",name:"Annegret",surname:"Schnabel",slug:"annegret-schnabel",fullName:"Annegret Schnabel"},{id:"354894",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Litzka",slug:"christian-litzka",fullName:"Christian Litzka"},{id:"354895",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Emilia",surname:"Solano",slug:"maria-emilia-solano",fullName:"Maria Emilia Solano"}],corrections:null},{id:"77610",title:"Optimizing Techniques and Suture Materials for Caesarean Section",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97930",slug:"optimizing-techniques-and-suture-materials-for-caesarean-section",totalDownloads:410,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cesarean section is an important part of comprehensive emergency obstetric and neonatal care and their numbers are increasing worldwide in the recent times. Proper healing of the scar after cesarean section is of paramount importance to avoid various obstetrical complications in future pregnancies. There is no standard technique on the method of closure following cesarean delivery. It is unclear as which technique and suture material should be used for closure of cesarean section in order to get the best results with minimal complications. The objective of this chapter is to review the literature, analyze the available resources and evaluate the evidence for closure of each layer post cesarean section. The following discussion will review closure of each step post cesarean section and provide evidence-based recommendations for closure technique.",signatures:"Padmasri Ramalingappa, Raksha Shivaramegowda and Shruthi Holavanahalli SrinivasaMurthy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77610",authors:[{id:"288654",title:"Prof.",name:"Padmasri",surname:"Ramalingappa",slug:"padmasri-ramalingappa",fullName:"Padmasri Ramalingappa"},{id:"349512",title:"Dr.",name:"Raksha",surname:"Shivaramegowda",slug:"raksha-shivaramegowda",fullName:"Raksha Shivaramegowda"},{id:"349513",title:"Dr.",name:"Shruthi",surname:"Holavanahalli SrinivasaMurthy",slug:"shruthi-holavanahalli-srinivasamurthy",fullName:"Shruthi Holavanahalli SrinivasaMurthy"}],corrections:null},{id:"75863",title:"Characteristics of Catch-Up Growth in Very Low Birth Weight Infants (<1500 g)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96933",slug:"characteristics-of-catch-up-growth-in-very-low-birth-weight-infants-1500-g-",totalDownloads:108,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Features of catch-up growth are not well established in very low birth weight infants (VLBW). The aim of this study is to analyze the catch-up growth in height and some factors associated in a cohort of VLBW (<1500 g) from birth to age 14 years. Retrospective registration of weight and height at birth and ages 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 years in a cohort of 170 VLBW have been recorded Anthropometric variables were compared with those from a control group. Sixty-nine (40.6%) were small for gestational age (SGA subgroup) and 101 (59.4%) were appropriate for gestational age (AGA subgroup). Thirty-seven (21.8%) were extremely low birth weight (ELBW), and 32 (18.8%) extremely preterm (EPT). At age 2, 4 and 10 years, 49.4%, 78.9% and 87.1% VLBW, respectively, did reach normal height. Between 4 and 10 years of age, only 8.2% of VLBW reached normal height. At 10 years of age, 7% of VLBW (1000–1500 g) and 35% of ELBW (<1500 g) showed short stature (p = 0.001). Almost the entire sample of VLBW with normal height at age 2, 4 and 10 have reached an adequate catch-up growth in weight in the previous evaluations. ELBW, SGA and EPT were found to be independent predictors for inadequate catch-up growth in height at 2, 4, and 10 years of age. The growth pattern of children born preterm has particular features: they have a lower rate and/or slowness in the catch-up growth in height with respect to that described in full-term small-for-gestational-age infants. Catch-up in weight appears to be a decisive factor for catch-up in height, and, on this basis, we recommend a rigorous nutritional follow-up in these individuals. If these measures do not help improve catch-up in height, they may be eligible for the establishment of rhGH therapy.",signatures:"Teodoro Durá-Travé, Isabel San Martín-García, Fidel Gallinas-Victoriano, María Malumbres-Chacón, Paula Moreno-González and María Urretavizcaya-Martinez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75863",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75863",authors:[{id:"53819",title:"Prof.",name:"Teodoro",surname:"Durá-Travé",slug:"teodoro-dura-trave",fullName:"Teodoro Durá-Travé"},{id:"60541",title:"Dr.",name:"Fidel",surname:"Gallinas-Victoriano",slug:"fidel-gallinas-victoriano",fullName:"Fidel Gallinas-Victoriano"},{id:"334083",title:"Dr.",name:"Isabel",surname:"San Martín-García",slug:"isabel-san-martin-garcia",fullName:"Isabel San Martín-García"},{id:"338016",title:"Dr.",name:"María",surname:"Malumbres-Chacón",slug:"maria-malumbres-chacon",fullName:"María Malumbres-Chacón"},{id:"338017",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Moreno-González",slug:"paula-moreno-gonzalez",fullName:"Paula Moreno-González"},{id:"338018",title:"Dr.",name:"María",surname:"Urretavizcaya-Martinez",slug:"maria-urretavizcaya-martinez",fullName:"María Urretavizcaya-Martinez"}],corrections:null},{id:"75846",title:"The Extremely Low Birth Weight Infant",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96921",slug:"the-extremely-low-birth-weight-infant",totalDownloads:249,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Extremely low birth weight infants (ELBW) are defined by birth weight of less than 1000 g and are frequently born at 27 weeks’ gestation (GW) or younger. The neonatologists’ efforts focused on improvement of intact survival rate, especially for those born at the frontiers of viability at 22/23 GW. Survival rates of >80% for the advanced gestations and > 50% for 23–24 GW have been reported. Higher gestational age and birth weight, female gender, better maternal education, and white race have been recognized as significant predictors of decreased morbidity in ELBW infants. Although the mortality rate has significantly contracted for this group with improved technology and better understanding of pathophysiology, the proportion of surviving infants without sequelae, has not improved as noticeably. We review the short and long-term morbidities in ELBW infants and compare own and literature data. We analyze some of the specific immediate problems for this group such as: respiratory problems, infection, thermoregulation, impaired glucose homeostasis and disturbed cardiovascular and excretory functions as well as late morbidities such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia, late-onset infections, central nervous system occurrences, retinopathy and anemia of prematurity. We also deal with preventive and therapeutic strategies for improved outcome in this sensitive group of patients.",signatures:"Anet Papazovska Cherepnalkovski, Vesna Pavlov, Ivanka Furlan and Marija Bucat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75846",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75846",authors:[{id:"297251",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Anet",surname:"Papazovska Cherepnalkovski",slug:"anet-papazovska-cherepnalkovski",fullName:"Anet Papazovska Cherepnalkovski"},{id:"333286",title:"Dr.",name:"Vesna",surname:"Pavlov",slug:"vesna-pavlov",fullName:"Vesna Pavlov"},{id:"333287",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivanka",surname:"Furlan",slug:"ivanka-furlan",fullName:"Ivanka Furlan"},{id:"333288",title:"Dr.",name:"Marija",surname:"Bucat",slug:"marija-bucat",fullName:"Marija Bucat"}],corrections:null},{id:"75906",title:"Haemodynamic Changes during Preterm Birth Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96923",slug:"haemodynamic-changes-during-preterm-birth-treatment",totalDownloads:239,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The well-being of the fetus depends on the efficiency of its circulatory system and the proper maternal-fetal exchange. Hemodynamic changes can occur due to disturbance of fetal and maternal homeostasis, malformations, pregnancy pathology, and medications. Preterm labor directly affects maternal-fetal haemodynamics, both due to uterine contractions and medications used to inhibit it. Research on maternal-fetal haemodynamics in preterm labor is currently focused mainly on the safety of the used tocolytics. In this chapter, we will discuss the basic principles of fetal haemodynamics, ultrasound methods of maternal-fetal circulation assessment, and the influence of preterm labor on maternal-fetal haemodynamics, with particular emphasis on medications used in threatening and progressive preterm labor.",signatures:"Szymon Bednarek, Małgorzata Głogiewicz, Rafał Adamczak and Mariusz Dubiel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75906",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75906",authors:[{id:"331814",title:"Prof.",name:"Mariusz",surname:"Dubiel",slug:"mariusz-dubiel",fullName:"Mariusz Dubiel"},{id:"342065",title:"Dr.",name:"Szymon",surname:"Bednarek",slug:"szymon-bednarek",fullName:"Szymon Bednarek"},{id:"342066",title:"Mrs.",name:"Małgorzata",surname:"Głogiewicz",slug:"malgorzata-glogiewicz",fullName:"Małgorzata Głogiewicz"},{id:"342067",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafał",surname:"Adamczak",slug:"rafal-adamczak",fullName:"Rafał Adamczak"}],corrections:null},{id:"76525",title:"Preterm Birth and Inflammation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96970",slug:"preterm-birth-and-inflammation",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Half of all preterm births are caused or triggered by an inflammation at fetal-maternal interface. The sustained inflammation that preterm neonates are exposed is generated by maternal chorioamnionitis, premature rupture of membranes. This inflammation will facilitate the preterm labor, but also plays an important role in development of disease like: bronchopulmonary dysplasia, necrotizing enterocolitis, retinopathy of prematurity, intraventricular hemorrhage and periventricular leukomalacia. Preterm neonates have immature immune system. The fragile co-regulation between immune defense mechanisms and immunosuppression (tolerance) is often disturbed at this category of patients. They are at high risk of sepsis due to this imbalance between the defense and suppression mechanisms but also several injuries can contribute to the onset or perpetuation of sustained inflammation. They experience altered antigen exposure in contact with hospital-specific germs, artificial devices, drugs, nutritional antigens, and hypoxia or hyperoxia. This is more significant at extremely preterm infants less than 28 weeks of gestation as they have not developed adaptation processes to tolerate maternal and self-antigens.",signatures:"Melinda Matyas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76525",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76525",authors:[{id:"219800",title:"Dr.",name:"Melinda",surname:"Matyas",slug:"melinda-matyas",fullName:"Melinda Matyas"}],corrections:null},{id:"76152",title:"Approaches at Community Level for Care of the Preterm Neonates in Low-Income Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96920",slug:"approaches-at-community-level-for-care-of-the-preterm-neonates-in-low-income-countries",totalDownloads:121,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The survival of preterm babies has significantly improved over the last several decades in the high-income countries because of the availability of Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICU’s) in both large and small hospitals, presence of specially trained physicians, nurses, and other health care personnel with easy access to sophisticated equipment. However, the bigger public health advances that saw improvements in socio-economic status of the populations, improvements in education and sanitation conditions and reductions in malnutrition and rates of infectious diseases were probably the main reasons for this improved survival rates for preterm neonates. Low in-come countries are currently highest bearers of the burden of preterm morbidity and mortality. The current preventive and care interventions do not reach all the neonates and their mothers, the coverage has remained low, access is poor and the quality of care is low. The aim of this chapter is to propose ideas on how the current preterm neonatal care interventions can be adapted for community scale up through community-based health system structures like community health workers to improve survival of neonates who have been delivered from home or after they have been discharged from hospital.",signatures:"Pontius Bayo and Juliet Ajok",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76152",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76152",authors:[{id:"333441",title:"Dr.",name:"Pontius",surname:"Bayo",slug:"pontius-bayo",fullName:"Pontius Bayo"},{id:"345017",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliet",surname:"Ajok",slug:"juliet-ajok",fullName:"Juliet Ajok"}],corrections:null},{id:"76599",title:"In the Crossing of Politics With Science: Medical Arguments on the High Rate of Cesarean Sections in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97635",slug:"in-the-crossing-of-politics-with-science-medical-arguments-on-the-high-rate-of-cesarean-sections-in-",totalDownloads:198,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Brazil is the second country with the highest rate of cesarean sections in the world. Most of these procedures are without medical reasons, representing risks for the mother and baby. Obstetric doctors are appointed as the main responsible for this index. The reasons given are for financial reasons or for the convenience of predictable and planned births, and in these cases, cesarean sections are performed without sufficient clarification to pregnant women about their risks and their real need. In this context, there is a constant conflict between doctors and social movement activists in favor of the humanization of childbirth. The purpose of this paper is to analyze from an anthropological point of view the arguments that doctors use to defend themselves against these accusations. Through participant observation at scientific events and meetings of representatives of medical entities, it was found that obstetricians argue that they are based on “medical evidence” and accuse humanized childbirth activists of being based on “ideology”. These arguments reflect the current political context in Brazil marked by intolerance and the advance of neoconservatism.",signatures:"Jaqueline Ferreira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76599",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76599",authors:[{id:"344338",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaqueline",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"jaqueline-ferreira",fullName:"Jaqueline Ferreira"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6191",title:"Selected Topics in Breastfeeding",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3334b831761ffa52e78de6fc681e33b3",slug:"selected-topics-in-breastfeeding",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría P.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6191.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Jovandaric and Svetlana J. Milenkovic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9160.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7132",title:"Complications of Pregnancy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d2bdac8e99a71feab10bd0b9e1063bb9",slug:"complications-of-pregnancy",bookSignature:"Hassan Abduljabbar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7132.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68175",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Abduljabbar",slug:"hassan-abduljabbar",fullName:"Hassan Abduljabbar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8557",title:"Empowering Midwives and Obstetric Nurses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c6d90f0978fbce94e13061740cb1d4bc",slug:"empowering-midwives-and-obstetric-nurses",bookSignature:"Amita Ray",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8557.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"251100",title:"Prof.",name:"Amita",surname:"Ray",slug:"amita-ray",fullName:"Amita Ray"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10929",title:"The Gynecological Papyrus Kahun",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b8818312089bdfb0423707a231e104d8",slug:"the-gynecological-papyrus-kahun",bookSignature:"Helena Trindade Lopes and Ronaldo G. Gurgel Pereira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10929.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"202246",title:"Prof.",name:"Helena",surname:"Trindade Lopes",slug:"helena-trindade-lopes",fullName:"Helena Trindade Lopes"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"416486",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo G.",middleName:"Guilherme",surname:"Gurgel Pereira",slug:"ronaldo-g.-gurgel-pereira",fullName:"Ronaldo G. Gurgel Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/416486/images/system/416486.jpg",biography:"Ronaldo Guilherme Gurgel Pereira is a historian (Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) and archaeologist (Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal). In 2010, he received a Ph.D. in Egyptology from the University of Basel, Switzerland.\nFrom 2012 to 2017, Dr. Pereira was a post-doctoral fellow at CHAM/FCSH – Universidade Nova de Lisboa.\nIn 2018, he became an Onassis Fellow, hosted by the Department of Mediterranean Studies, University of the Aegean, Greece. \nIn 2019, he became an auxiliary researcher at CHAM/FCSH – Universidade Nova de Lisboa. He teaches Middle Egyptian grammar, Hieratic, and disciplines regarding Egyptology, and the history of Phoenician and Greek expansion in the Mediterranean basin. \nIn 2021, he was awarded a CAARI Scholar in Residence Fellowship.",institutionString:"Universidade NOVA de Lisboa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"4",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"8454",title:"Recent Advances in Cesarean Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cf497986f3bacb156aa16c955b83ff2",slug:"recent-advances-in-cesarean-delivery",bookSignature:"Georg Schmölzer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8454.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179622",title:"Dr.",name:"Georg",surname:"Schmolzer",slug:"georg-schmolzer",fullName:"Georg Schmolzer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"erratum-microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",title:"Erratum - Microbial Responses to Different Operating Practices for Biogas Production Systems",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66066.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66066",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66066",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66066",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66066",chapter:{id:"65614",slug:"microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",signatures:"Maria Westerholm and Anna Schnürer",dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 30th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"262546",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Schnürer",fullName:"Anna Schnürer",slug:"anna-schnurer",email:"anna.schnurer@slu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263116",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Westerholm",fullName:"Maria Westerholm",slug:"maria-westerholm",email:"Maria.Westerholm@slu.se",position:null,institution:{name:"Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"65614",slug:"microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",signatures:"Maria Westerholm and Anna Schnürer",dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 30th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"262546",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Schnürer",fullName:"Anna Schnürer",slug:"anna-schnurer",email:"anna.schnurer@slu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263116",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Westerholm",fullName:"Maria Westerholm",slug:"maria-westerholm",email:"Maria.Westerholm@slu.se",position:null,institution:{name:"Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11729",leadTitle:null,title:"Circumcision - Advances and New Perspectives",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tMale circumcision is a procedure that has been practiced since the dawn of human culture more than six thousand years ago. It is performed for both medical and non-medical reasons. Despite being a simple procedure, it may lead to a myriad of minor and even crippling complications, if not done properly, such as iatrogenic injury of the glans or the urethra. Several techniques have been used to perform circumcision including the classic open technique, clamp technique, and laser /electrocautery technique with various safety outcomes. Overtime time, there has been an ongoing debate over the pros and cons of cultural circumcision with a significant dichotomy between the opinions of the experts in the field.
\r\n\r\n\tThe main purpose of this book will aim to present a comprehensive overview of the historic background of circumcision in males and the debate over female circumcision. It is intended to be an addition to a description of the different procedural techniques of circumcision highlighting their potential complications.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-907-0",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-906-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-908-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d4761c03b5694edec9f7fc48092549ce",bookSignature:"Dr. Ahmad Zaghal and Dr. Ali El Safadi",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11729.jpg",keywords:"History Of Circumcision, Male Circumcision, Female Circumcision, Indications, Contraindications, Peri-Procedural Preparation, Analgesia, Clamp, Meatal Stenosis, Iatrogenic Injury, Adhesions, Buried Penis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 29th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 28th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 16th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 15th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Pediatric surgeon and clinical educator, member of Royal College of Surgeons of England, European Pediatric Surgeon’s Association, British Association of Pediatric Endoscopic Surgeons, American College of Surgeons, International Society for Pediatric Wound Care.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Obstetrics and Gynecology trainee and clinical researcher.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"240621",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Zaghal",slug:"ahmad-zaghal",fullName:"Ahmad Zaghal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240621/images/system/240621.jpg",biography:"Ahmad Zaghal, MD, MSc (Clin Ed), FACS, FEBPS, FHEA, graduated from the general surgery-residency program at The American University of Beirut-Medical Center (AUBMC), Lebanon, in 2012. 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As a vector-borne disease, malaria vector control is an important component of malaria control. The malaria parasite has a complex life cycle, having a series of stages in the mosquito and the human host. The transmission of malaria takes place when the parasite enters the host through the saliva of the insect during a blood meal. As mosquitoes continue to threaten human health and existence, there is a need to continually fight back by nipping the malaria vectors in the bud by diverse mosquito control methods.
These concerns necessitate preventive approaches to control malaria by mosquito control methods that involve “nipping in the bud” from the source of the malaria problem.
Mosquitoes are slender, fragile, flying insects of about 3–6 mm in the order Diptera (true flies) within the invertebrate super-phylum Arthropoda. These insects are the deadliest animals on the planet earth, transmitting not only malaria parasites but also filariasis, yellow fever, dengue fever, Zika virus, Mayaro virus, Ross River virus, West Nile virus, Rift Valley fever, Japanese encephalitis, St. Louis encephalitis, chikungunya, and other pathogens and bringing death and misery to millions every year [4]. There are about 40 mosquito genera, and Africa is the home to three important, efficient, and deadly mosquito genera which are
Malaria is a problem in the tropics and not in temperate regions of the world. In the temperate countries, there are mosquitoes, but the life of the malaria parasite inside the mosquito is a race against time. The time taken for the malaria parasite to go through its growth and development is close to the average life span of the mosquito itself. This period is longer in the temperate areas where the survival of the parasite is on the knife edge, and temperature below certain point reduces the life span of the mosquito before it can transmit malaria [6].
The adaptability of
Mosquitoes naturally infest ponds, marshes, puddles, swamps, and other wetland habitats. However, mosquitoes can also breed in any collection of still or stagnant waters [7].
Adult female mosquitoes may live up to a month in extreme cases in captivity but up to 2 weeks in nature. They are poikilothermic and have amazing adaptability such as suctorial mouthparts, holometabolous life cycle, and great diversity which are some of the secrets behind their success [8].
Both male and female
Distribution and incidence of vector-borne diseases are determined by the ecological conditions that favours them [10]. There is a relationship between the environment and mosquito abundance [11]. There are evidences that mosquito can adapt to environmental changes and even water pollution [12]. Today’s mosquito breeds even where we thought they can never thrive due to environmental changes [9]. It has been established that climatic factors have profound influences on mosquito’s life span [13]. As ecosystems are being modified across the planet, the habitat is altered, and malaria territories are being extended because of global warming. Consequently, any small variations in microclimate can affect the mosquito’s chances of survival or longevity [14].
These include factors such as temperature, rainfall and humidity which are important factors for mosquito development, and longevity [15]. Changes in the local environment are important as they create or reduce the number of suitable breeding sites for vectors, so affecting their abundance and transmission pattern [16]. Temporal and spatial changes in temperature, precipitation, and humidity under different climatic conditions will affect the biology and ecology of malaria vectors and consequently the risk of malaria transmission [15].
This factor has been regarded to be the most important factor affecting mosquitoes [17, 18]. A drop in temperature can change a mosquito’s life span by more than 1 week. Small changes in temperature result in large differences in availability and development of mosquitoes. This implies that if temperature rises, the larvae takes a shorter time to mature and more offspring are produced. In fact, temperature affects metamorphic changes of mosquitoes in their breeding water sites [18]. This also means that the frequency of sucking and digesting of blood meal by female mosquitoes increases, and this has grave implications for malaria transmission [17].
This factor also plays a role in mosquito ecology as it increases the availability of surface water and so more breeding sites and affects relative humidity and hence longevity of the adult mosquito [6]. There is relatively lower temperature but higher relative humidity. Biting intensity of mosquito reduces as rainfall reduces and can be suspended at low temperature. Rainfall also determines the type of predominant malaria vector species. For example,
Mosquitoes will rest in houses after feeding if there is no outdoor resting site. Vegetation increases outdoor resting sites and mosquito abundance, and type of species could relate to type of vegetation cover [19]. For example, it has been reported that
Malaria is the most widespread mosquito-borne disease in Nigeria where it has a holoendemic status, the most vulnerable groups being children aged 0–5 years and pregnant women [3]. The disease accounts for 25% of infant mortality and 30% of childhood mortality [2]. Nigeria contributes the highest burden to global malaria morbidity and deaths. This is about 25% of global malaria cases, about 30% of global malaria deaths [20]. Malaria is one of the greatest causes of outpatient visits and work and school absenteeism in Nigeria [21, 22]. It has a familiar reputation of causing fever, headache, and teeth chattering shills and shakes [22]. Malaria is the number one killer disease in Nigeria where unfortunately, it is called “common” malaria. This is an irony! Malaria death has been described by an expert as causing death more than the deaths due to the first and second world wars [9]. No wonder the World Health Organization described mosquitoes as the deadliest animals on the planet earth [4].
Nigeria is a large country and the most populous country in Africa (169 million; Nigeria population commission) and one of the hardest hit by malaria in the entire globe [25].
The Nigeria Federal Ministry of Health reported that Nigeria loses about 1.1 trillion naira annually to control malaria. A lot of funds have been invested on malaria drugs, insecticides, and mosquito nets for control of malaria. The Nigerian Minister of Health claimed that malaria reduces the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) by 1% annually [26].
The burden of malaria in Nigeria is being managed through effective case management and vector control measures, including the use of insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS). ITNs are now distributed freely to vulnerable groups in Nigeria. IRS is also one of the major vector control interventions used in Nigeria today. However, these methods have limitations in their usage [27].
Vector control has proven record in the prevention and control of vector-borne diseases. However, it is bad news that despite all the efforts to control mosquitoes in Nigeria, they are not even threatened or on the verge of extinction [9]. Malaria still remains a deadly scourge and formidable foe of public health concern. These are the main challenges:
Malaria transmission dynamics is a complex system that is superficially understood. For example, one has to deal with diversity of mosquito species in the tropics. The
The
The behavior of each of the sibling species in both complexes varies and so their roles in malaria transmission. Hence, targeting only one sibling species by whatever method is not going to curb the menace of malaria. The diversity of the epidemiological situations within sub-Saharan ecotypes presents different malaria situation [31]. Comprehensive knowledge of behavior and heterogeneities that exist within, and among these vectors, will always be of benefit. Any strategy aiming at control will have to account for this heterogeneity in species diversity [32].
Malaria transmission dynamics is variable throughout Africa with huge variability in transmission patterns even within villages few kilometers apart [33]. The correct analysis of the distribution of specific malaria vectors is one of the prerequisites for meaningful epidemiological studies and for planning and monitoring of successful malaria control or eradication program [34].
In the past, large areas of Nigeria had no reliable data in the past on presence and absence of vectors [23]. It has been established that there are diversities of malaria vectors in Nigeria and they have different bionomics and vector competences. In Nigeria today, 35
Control measures can only be effective if the abundance, behavior, and proportion of the vectors are known. The existence of species complexes containing morphologically cryptic sibling or isomorphic forms presents a major challenge to malaria control program as these require vector identification using molecular techniques [32].
Failure to know which sibling species one is dealing with will result in wasting scare resources and time to control non-malaria vectors [9].
The malaria problem in sub-Saharan Africa represents a peculiar case because the vectorial system is the most complex anywhere. This vectorial system diversity absolutely impacts malaria epidemiology and control [35].
Vectorial capacity and vectorial competence have been used interchangeably to describe the ability of mosquitoes to serve as a disease vector. The two terms are not synonyms because vectorial capacity is qualitative and is influenced by such variables as vector density, longevity, and vector competence itself [3]. Vectorial capacity takes into account environmental, behavioral, and cellular and biochemical factors that influence the association between a vector, the pathogen transmitted by the vector, and the host to which the pathogen is being transmitted [36].
However, vectorial competence is a component of vectorial capacity which is governed by intrinsic and generic factors that influence the ability of a vector to transmit a pathogen. For example, the susceptibility of an
The main factor governing the ability of
Malariogenic activities and lifestyles are human activities that promote the transmission of malaria. The ability of mosquitoes to thrive even outside their natural habitat makes them a nuisance to mankind. Man and environment are created to interact with each other on a balance basis, but man has failed in his duty to the environment. The responsibility of man is to respect, protect, and care for the environment [9, 12].
By sheer negligence, mosquito breeds just under our nose, right inside our homes, so house spraying and screening are obviously inadequate. People store water in containers in their homes because of poor water supply, being ignorant of the consequences.
In residential areas, human activities create mosquito breeding sites such as discarded trash cans, open buckets, clogged gutters, abandoned vehicles, tires, drainages, ditches, natural depressions, or just anywhere that can retain water. Inside homes, endophilic female mosquitoes rest in dark places, corners of rooms, and behind curtains, but the exophilic biters rest on vegetation after feeding. When the eggs are about to be laid, they go into any suitable water within and outside the houses to oviposit.
It will be cost-effective to deal with mosquitoes by “nipping them in the bud” through eliminating their very source. The remote source of the malaria problem in the tropics is the mosquito’s adaptability to environmental conditions and diversity and indiscriminate types of breeding sites which are of great importance [16]. The crux of the matter is that the intricacy of mosquitoes extends even into their breeding sites [9].
There is a considerable paucity of adequate information regarding vector oviposition habits, where
This information is critical for control efforts as we will not need to bother too much on the species or sibling species type or their vectorial capacities.
However, most researchers do not take into account the menace of mosquito breeding sites and the attendant environmental factors. The source of mosquito problem can be just near you or about anywhere where stagnant or still water collects or is stored in homes. This should be appropriately incorporated into vector control program.
Integrated management approach has been said to be the best for malaria control program, but they must take into account the breeding sites of mosquitoes.
Knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) is the educational diagnosis of a community and is also essential for control program.
Health and environmental education of the populace on preventing domestic mosquito breeding is essential. The following steps should be noted.
Objects, excavations, plants, and anything that can hold water must be eliminated. Water storage containers in homes should always be covered.
People should dispose unused containers and place useful ones upside down under a roof or seal with a tight cover.
People must change frequently the water troughs of domestic and pet animals and garden flower pots around homes.
People should keep trash cans tightly sealed and drill a hole at the bottom in order not to retain water that may serve as breeding sites.
People should fill up eroded soils, natural depressions, and excavations and empty rain-filled receptacles. Swimming pools in homes should not be left unused and untreated.
Outdoor spraying of domestic animal shelters, garages, outdoor latrines, and tree hole fillings must be carried out regularly.
People should spray oil on stagnant pools around them to kill mosquito aquatic stages.
Drainage system, ditches, and gutters must not be dumped with waste to avoid clogging, thereby making them stagnant for mosquitoes to breed.
People should take action to prevent sewage effluents, soakaway, domestic runoffs and empty soft drink bottles from becoming breeding sites of mosquitoes.
People should adhere to basic architectural designs; house designs with excavations or rain-filled receptacles should be discouraged such as the eave tube technology in Benue State, Nigeria [40]
Environmental sanitation should be everybody’s business. Enforcement of environmental sanitation by clearing bushes, cleaning drainages and open gutters, destruction and removal of containers, plants, tires, sachets, and anything that can hold water around homes will go a long way. Therefore education of the populace on mosquito breeding sites in homes is advocated.
No doubt, human malaria affects the health, wealth, and welfare of human populations.
The disease causes serious morbidity, human suffering, and mortality. These adverse consequences have led to increased need to wage a continuous war against malaria vectors by prevention not only at the local, national, and global levels but also at the domestic level.
Malariologists and vector biologists will benefit tremendously if the source of mosquito breeding sites is located and destroyed. This will reduce the transmission threshold of malaria to a considerable level. Malaria will not be readily controlled if we continue to ignorantly breed mosquitoes domestically.
Health education, the principle by which individuals and groups of people learn to behave in a manner conducive to the promotion, maintenance, or restoration of health, is applicable to malaria control. It not only teaches prevention and basic health knowledge but also conditions ideas that reshape everyday habits of people with unhealthy lifestyles in developing countries. This type of conditioning not only affects the immediate recipients of such education, but it also impacts the future generations who will benefit from improved and properly cultivated ideas about health that will eventually be ingrained with a ripple effect.
I thank Intech for the invitation to contribute this book chapter.
The author confirms that there is no conflict of interest.
The history of the citrus industry in Brazil is intimately linked to its own history. Sweet orange seeds were introduced by the Portuguese jesuits 30 or 40 years after the discovery of Brazil (1500), in the States of Bahia and São Paulo. Due to favorable ecological conditions, the trees (as seedling) produced quite well. The activity remained unknown until the nineteenth century when, during the colonial period, the fruits of the ‘Bahia’ (‘Washington Navel’) orange, originated in the Bahia State, were recognized by the Portugal reign as being larger and juicier than those produced in that country. More important fact, however occurred after its introduction in California it was recognized as ‘more important as the gold extracted from the soils of the Golden State’ and considered as responsible for the development of the citriculture in the five continents. Nevertheless, only in the 1930s, the citriculture began to be implanted commercially in States of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Bahia, with greater growth rate in the states of the Southeast. This chapter is a review on the Brazilian citriculture focusing the four main citrus poles (Figure 1) with their respective producing states and geographical locations, climate, harvested area, production and yield.
Map of Brazil with the physiographic regions and the main citrus poles. (1) South, represented by the State of Rio Grande de Sul (temperate climate), (2) São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Paraná States (central part of the country), (3) Amazon basin, represented by the States of Amazonas and Pará (equator region) and (4) Northeast, represented by the States of Bahia and Sergipe (typical tropical region).
There are no climatic limitations for citrus growing in Brazil. Irrigation is not necessary, except in the semiarid areas of the Northeast, where the rainfall is below 700 mm and in the south where frosts can occur. The altitude varies from 20 to 500 m. Rainfall varies from 1,000 to 1,800 mm, during the winter in the Northeast (March–August) and in the summer in the Southeast (September–March). In Rio Grande do Sul, the rainfall is almost monthly. The relative humidity is higher in the Northeast, where in the winter it almost reaches 100%, with the annual average being between 75 and 80%. The annual average temperature varies from 19°C in the South to 25°C in the Northeast. Independent of the area, flowering occurs in September, one or more times depending on the distance to equator. The farther from the equator, smaller are the fruits but they stay on the trees longer. The soils of the citrus-growing areas are sandy/loam, deep, well drained, but with poor fertility especially in phosphorous. Except the shallow soils of some areas, like the cocoa-growing area in Bahia, the humid Amazonian area or the loamy areas of the States of Paraná and São Paulo, where the coffee and the sugarcane are cultivated, there is an immense area which is available to the citrus industry in Brazil. In an analysis on the Brazilian territory (8.5 millions square meters), it would be possible to adopt a classification of the citriculture on four main citrus poles which are described as follows.
The citrus production in the South of the country is represented by the State of Rio Grande do Sul, which is achieved in 2016, 553,372 tonnes, being the largest concentrations of sweet orange (71.5%) and mandarin (25.4%) [8].
There are 35 microregions in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, 34 of them produce citrus (Figure 2). The regions that most stand out are: Montenegro, Frederico Westphalen and Erechim. The microregion of Montenegro has its production concentrated in orange (45.8%) and mandarin (47.0%) and only 7.2% in lemon. The most important counties are Montenegro, Harmonia, Pareci Novo, Tupandi and São José do Hortêncio. From these, Montenegro highlights the production of mandarin. The second most important microregion is Frederico Westphalen, whose participation in the production was 91.9% of orange, 7.1% of mandarin and 1.0% of lemon. From the 27 remaining countries that compound the microregion, only 3 deserve special mention: Liberato Salzano, Planalto and Alpestre. The microregion Erechim comes next and it is composed of 30 counties, the most important ones being Aratiba, Itatiba do Sul and Mariano Moro.
Concentration of the citrus production in Rio Grande do Sul in the principal microregions. Source: [
In the State of Rio Grande do Sul, the latitudes varies from 27°14′56″ S in Alpestre to 30°53′27″ S in Santana do Livramento do Sul near to Uruguay. Longitudes varies from 53°02′06″ to 55°31′58″ W in the same municipalities. Annual media temperature varies from 19.8 to 18.4°C and the rainfall from 1,892 to 1,467 mm in the same municipalities. The climate of the State of Rio Grande do Sul is humid subtropical (or temperate). It is constituted by four reasonably well-defined seasons, with moderately cold winters and hot summers (mild in the higher parts), which are separated by intermediate seasons of approximately 3 months of duration and rains well distributed along the year. Due to its latitudinal situation (inserted in the context of the average latitude), Rio Grande do Sul presents peculiar features different from the climate of the rest of Brazil. The temperatures of the state, in diverse regions, are among the lowest ones of the Brazilian winters, reaching 6°C in cities like Bom Jesus, São José dos Ausentes and Vacaria, where frequent frosts and occasional snowfall happen, and where it is not recommended in the planting of citrus. There are still the altimetric differences, with special feature for Serra do Sudeste and Serra do Nordeste, which is not recommended for planting of citrus because of the high frequency of frosts. During autumn and winter, the state is also liable to the summer phenomenon, which consists of a succession of days with not normal high temperatures for the season. Different from the other states of Brazil, the occurrence of heavy frosts is relatively strong in the whole state demanding the usage of rootstock tolerant to cold.
The citriculture of the State of Rio Grande do Sul comprehends an almost complete chain, involving around 20,000 farmers, more than 100 nurserymen, producers of various inputs, beneficiators of fruit, industries of concentrated and ready to drink juices and of others byproducts of the fruit, wholesalers, marketers, retailers and around 11 millions of consumers. The annual production of orange is 396,000 tonnes (24,000 ha), of mandarin is 141,000 tonnes (11,000 ha) and of acid limes and true lemons is 17,000 tonnes (1,400 ha), being the state, respectively, the sixth, the fourth and the sixth greatest national producer of these fruits [8]. Even so, Rio Grande do Sul imports from others states, especially from Paraná and São Paulo, and from others countries, principally from Spain and Uruguay, almost 50% of the citrus which consume fruit and juice. The vast majority of the citrus growers is family-based, being the average planted area with citrus beneath two hectares per property. The business citriculture is conducted by less than a hundred producers located mainly in the regions of Vale do Caí and Campanha Gaúcha, with the cultivated area of 3–300 ha per property. The associativism is very practiced in Rio Grande do Sul, notably in Vale do Caí, wherewith the small citrus growers seek to overcome their limitations of production, mostly in the processing and in the marketing of the fruit. The principal poles of production are found in Vale do Caí, Campanha Gaúcha and in the northwest region of the state. The citriculture of the Vale do Caí exists for three generations, standing out, nowadays, for the production of mandarins. In the northwest region, the citriculture is much more recent and its expansion was supported by Emater – RS, it concerns small orchards where the orange tree Valência is primarily cultivated and good part of the fruits is destined to the industrial process. In the Campanha Gaúcha region, the production pole of seedless citrus is found. It was initiated in 1998 with the support of Embrapa Clima Temperado, where it is cultivated approximately 2500 hectares and the production is marketed in the principal supermarket network of the state and in others parts of the country. For cultivars, the region of the Vale do Caí detaches in the production of Montenegrina (principal), Caí and Pareci mandarins; the northwest region in orange tree Valência (principal) and Folha Murcha; and the Campanha Gaúcha in navel orange tree Navelina, Lane Late and Cara Cara (Figure 3), orange tree Salustiana, mandarin tree Okitsu and hybrids Ortanique and Nadorcott (Figure 4) and other varieties (Figure 5). The Trifoliata is the principal rootstock used, highlighting itself by the longevity of the plants, the tolerance to various diseases and to induce the high quality of the fruits. The system of conventional production is used in the great majority of citric properties. However, there are more than one hundred of organics products and practically the same number using the principles of integrated production. Among the main limitations of the culture, the phytosanitary nature ones are bounced. According to the producers, the black spot disease is outstandingly the biggest problem of the region of the Vale do Caí, followed by the citrus canker and by the brown spot of alternate. These two last diseases have been controlled especially by the usage of tolerant cultivars. The black pint and the brown spot of alternate do not exist up to the moment in the region of the Campanha Gaúcha, where the citric canker is the major limiting factor. These disease is endemic in the larger part of Rio Grande do Sul and it causes great losses notably in the rainy season. The handling of the disease has been conducted by means of spraying copper-based products and specific cultural practices to reduce source of inoculum. The Huanglongbing (HLB) has not been found in Rio Grande do Sul yet, according to the annual lifting accomplished by the Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento (MAPA) in partnership the Embrapa Clima Temperado. However, the vector insect exists in some regions. Although there are around 10 juice and citrus byproducts industries, the production is directed mainly to the market of fresh fruits, prioritizing the state demand.
‘Cara Cara’ (navel) sweet orange in Rio Grande do Sul, the first producing Brazilian state for fresh consumption. Source: Roberto Pedroso.
Harvesting of ‘Nadorcott’ mandarin in Rio Grande do Sul. Source: Roberto Pedroso.
‘Nova’ tangelo and ‘Meyer’ lemon in Rio Grande do Sul. Source: Roberto Pedroso.
The production of citrus in the principal citrus pole of the country encompasses the States of Minas Gerais, São Paulo and Paraná. The production from São Paulo, the most expressive one, is distributed in sweet orange, lemon and mandarin, with volumes of 12.8 million, 875,000 and 345,000 tonnes in 2016, respectively, in order of importance. In the State of Minas Gerais, the citrus production achieved 1,258,767 tonnes being 80% of orange and 13% of mandarin and 7% of lemon. The State of Paraná produced 922,422 tonnes of citrus—80% of orange and 20% of mandarin [8]. There are 63 microregions in the State of São Paulo, and from these, 25 microregions are the most important in the citrus production (Figure 6). Of these 25, the highest concentrations are in 7 microregions, in order of importance: Bauru, Avaré, São João da Boa Vista, Araraquara, São José do Rio Preto, Jaboticabal and Itapetininga. Lower concentrations occur in 18 microregions: Barretos, Botucatu, Mogi Mirim, Pirassununga, Itapeva, Novo Horizonte, Jales, Ourinhos, Catanduva, Limeira, Rio Claro, São Carlos, Franca, Lins, Fernandópolis, Jaú, Piracicaba and Sorocaba. Although Minas Gerais owns 66 microregions, just 2 of them stand out in the production of citrus: Frutal and Uberlândia. Both of them are part of the Triângulo Mineiro and in 2016 they produced about 414,000 and 259,000 tonnes, respectively. In the microregion of Frutal, the most important counties are Comendador Gomes and Frutal, while in the microregion of Uberlândia the counties that most highlight are Prata, Uberlândia and Monte Alegre de Minas. There are 39 microregions in Paraná, of which only 2 do not produce citrus. The two most important microregions in the citrus production are Paranavaí and Cerro Azul. Both microregions produce citrus, but Paranavaí presents the greatest volume in the orange production (99.4%) and Cerro Azul calls attention in the mandarin production (92.4%). The microregion of Paranavaí owns 29 counties, of which 9 do not produce any kind of citrus and the 3 that more stand out are Paranavaí, Guairaçá and Alto Paraná. In the microregion of Cerro Azul, two counties highlight, Cerro Azul and Doutor Ulysses, both of them concentrate their productions to the mandarin fruit.
Concentration of the citrus production in the states of Minas Gerais, São Paulo and Paraná, concerning the principal microregions. Source: [
Citrus trees are cultivated in São Paulo State often under mountain subtropical climate, that is, Cwa according to Köppen’s classification. Considerable areas are in Cfa climate, and minor cultivation is carried under Aw and Cfb climates, respectively, on the coast and in the highlands. Considering Cwa as the prevalent condition, climate is characterized with hot, rainy summers, and dry, relatively cold winters. Two main climate types for citrus cultivation could be described: (i) mean annual air temperature higher than 17°C and annual water deficit of 0–60 mm and (ii) mean annual air temperature higher than 17°C and annual water deficit higher than 60 mm [16]. Minimal air temperatures are in the range of 8–10°C, and maximum can surpass 40°C. Annual rainfall ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 mm, often 1,400–1,800 mm, with distribution concentrated from November to March. Altitude ranges from 400 to 1000 m, but 550–750 m is prevalent. Citrus areas are free of severe frosts in São Paulo, even though it is regularly observed in the South of the State and in Paraná. Prolonged drought is frequent, especially on the North of São Paulo and in Minas Gerais State, as drought intensity decreases with the latitude. In recent years, heat stress associated to drought was reported in the main citrus areas in September–October, which is the period of the main blossom and fruit set.
The citrus belt comprises the Northwest of Paraná State (23°04’ S–52°27’ S); the Triângulo de Minas Gerais region (19°18’ S–48°55’ S) and São Paulo State (21°49’ S–49°12’ S), which is divided in the following areas (as percentage of the total citrus area in this state): North (22%), Northwest (11%), Center (29%), South (20%) and Southwest (18%) [16].
São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Paraná had about 430,000, 38,000 and 25,000 ha of sweet orange groves in 2016–2018, respectively [5, 6]. The main varieties are, in decreasing order, Pera (midseason), Valencia (late), Hamlin (early), Natal and Folha Murcha (both late) and the early season varieties of Valencia Americana, Westin and Rubi, although the former four comprise more than 80% of the total trees. Some other varieties including navels and acidless oranges are cultivated in smaller areas. Persian lime and lemons are also cultivated mainly in São Paulo (39,000 ha in 2018), and mandarins, largely Ponkan mandarin and Murcott tangor, are important for all states (12,000; 8,000 and 10,000 ha for São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Paraná, respectively). Sweet oranges are produced mainly for juice processing, and the citrus belt represents more than 85% of the Brazilian production. This is the most important orange production area in the world (34%) resulting in 56% of the juice produced and 76% of the marketed in the world [11]. Almost 97% of the juice is exported, while mandarins are for fresh fruit in the internal market, and limes and lemons are for fresh fruit and few processing, and exportation of fresh fruit too. Rangpur lime was the most used rootstock until the 2000s, as a result of its tolerance to both citrus tristeza virus (CTV) and drought, high and early yield, and great vigor and graft compatibility in the nursery. However, it is sensitive to citrus sudden death (CSD), blight, citrus nematode and gummosis of
The citrus industry in São Paulo, Minas Gerais (Figure 7) and Paraná (Figure 8) employs more than 200,000 people and contributes with US$ 6.5 billion annually. Although about 6,000 farms cultivate oranges, 88% of the growers have less than 50,000 trees, while 12% of farms with more than 100,000 trees correspond to 77% of the total trees (194 millions) [6]. Therefore, the citrus cultivation in the citrus belt is nowadays a highly intensive, technological entrepreneurial activity. However, harvesting and fruit transportation reaches almost 50 of the production cost (Figure 9). Nursery stocks have been grown in insect-proof screen houses since 2003, and about 10 million grafted trees are produced annually in pots filled with potting media. Orchards use currently an average of 484 trees/ha, but new groves increased tree density to 656 trees/ha in average. About a third of the area is currently irrigated, and major cultivated area corresponds to trees from 5 to 15 years old. Citrus diseases and pests are major limiting factors to the citrus industry of the three states that substantially increase the production costs. Huanglongbing (HLB) is the most devastating one, and the average incidence in São Paulo and Triângulo de Minas Gerais was about 17% in 2017 [7]. The smaller the farm, the higher the incidence, because HLB management essentially depends on the eradication of symptomatic trees and on the control of the vector, the Asian citrus psyllid, in addition to control measures on inoculum sources outside the farm. As a result, management is more efficient if taken by all growers in an area wide approach. Other important phytossanitary problems include black spot, citrus canker, leprosis virus, citrus variegated chlorosis, citrus sudden death, post bloom fruit drop (
Ponkan mandarin orchard in Minas Gerais. Source: Eduardo Girardi.
Planting of citrus in Paraná. Source: Eduardo Girardi.
Harvesting of sweet orange in São Paulo, the first citrus-producing state in Brazil. Source: Eduardo Girardi.
Considering the enormous area of Northern Brazil, citriculture is poorly exploited in this region, with the States of Pará and Amazonas showing the highest productions. From 270,370 tonnes of sweet orange, 53,806 tonnes of acid lime and 4,722 tonnes of mandarin, the State of Pará is responsible for 70.8% of sweet orange, 73.9% of acid lime and 20.9% of mandarin, while in the State of Amazonas these values are 14.9, 4.2 and 6.7%, respectively. Cultivated area comprises only 19,515 ha with the following distribution: 15,876 ha of sweet oranges, 3,054 ha of lemons/limes and 585 ha of mandarins. Average yield in these states is 14.1 t/ha indicating that the regional yield is about 54.6% of the national average (25.8 tonnes/ha).
All states in the North of Brazil produce citrus. However, Pará and Amazonas are highlighted once contribute with 70.6 and 13.0%, respectively, of the regional production, and these states rank in seventh and thirteenth position among Brazilian citrus-producing states. There are 22 microregions in the State of Pará, but citrus is cultivated in 17 of them. In this state, the two main citrus-producing areas are Guamá and Santarém. The former has the major concentration of citrus crops (sweet orange, lime/lemon and mandarin) (Figure 10). In the Guamá area, the greatest producer is the municipality of Capitão Poço, most notably with oranges, while in the Santarém area the production of lemon/lime is more important in the municipalities of Monte Alegre and Alenquer. The State of Amazonas has 13 microregions, and citrus production is mainly sweet orange cultivated in the Rio Preto da Eva microregion in the municipality with the same name.
Concentration of the citrus production in the States of Amazonas and Pará, concerning the principal microregion. Source: [
The North region consists of the largest part of the Amazon Basin and it is characterized by low altitudes between 0 and 200 m. The climate is tropical equatorial with predominance of the type Af in the States of Amazonas and Acre, and of the type Am in the States of Pará, Amapá, Roraima and Rondônia. Only the State of Tocantins presents the climate type Aw. Atmospheric circulation systems, in the intertropical convergence zone, are responsible for the climate variability and for the rains in the state of the Amazon Basin. The average annual precipitation exceeds 2,000 mm, as until 3,000 mm in the estuary of the Amazonas River in Belém, and 2,400 mm in the innermost region of the Amazon Basin, in Manaus. In the direction of Roraima, East of Pará, there is less rainfall, with the annual total in the order from 1,500 to 1,700 mm. The rainy season in the greatest part of the region comprehends the period from December to May. During the rainiest months, March and April, precipitations of up to 400 mm monthly are reached. The ‘dry season’ from June to November still shows precipitations of 60–120 mm per month. Unlike, in the State of Roraima, due to the influence of the climatic conditions from the North hemisphere, the maximum rainfall indices occur in the period from April to September, with a longer dry season between October and March. Concerning the temperatures, the predominant climate is hot, with average annual temperatures varying from 22 to 28°C, average temperature of the coldest month of 18°C and maximum of 42°C in the hottest months. The temperatures are high in most of the region with low thermal amplitude except in some locals of higher altitude in Roraima and in Acre. In Rondônia, due to the entrance of cold air masses from the Atlantic Ocean, passing by the State of Mato Grosso, temperatures are reduced causing the phenomenon of ‘coldness’ for short periods of 5–6 days.
Considered as the largest citrus pole in the equatorial zone (Amazon basin), the citriculture of Pará is represented by the municipality of Capitão Poço in an area of 11,000 of hectares [4]. The fruit production, made by at least 1,000 growers, is destined for other states including for juice processing plants. It is reference as organic orange producer, being 70% of family farming, and the municipality restarted its certification process [9]. Different as compared to other producers in Brazil, the harvesting season occurs from September to December with a minor harvest in March and April. As in the Northeast region, the combination scion/rootstock cultivated is ‘Pera’ sweet orange × ‘Rangpur’ lime and the yield of orange and acid lime is very low, around 15 tonnes per hectare per year.
Big ‘Pera’ sweet orange tree in Amazonas. Source: Luciano Souza.
‘Pera’ sweet orange fruits in Amazonas. Source: Luciano Souza.
Sweet orange, lime and mandarin fruits are being produced in the states of the Northeast region, however the States of Alagoas, Pernambuco and Piauí do not produce mandarin. From the nine Northeastern States, Bahia and Sergipe stand out, with 66.2 and 26.1% of the regional production, and second place in the national production. From 1,744,673 tonnes of sweet orange, 169,123 tonnes of acid lime and 34,247 tonnes of mandarin, the State of Bahia is responsible for 64.8% of sweet orange, 88.1% of acid lime and 30.0% of mandarin, while in the State of Sergipe these values are 28.0, 4.9 and 30.3%, respectively. In these states, the citriculture occupies an area of 127,517 ha as follows: sweet orange 118,473 ha, acid lime 7,769 ha and just 1,275 ha with mandarin. The yield average is very low, just 14 tonnes/ha, representing almost half of the national average.
The Northeast region is located between 2 and 18° South latitude and 35° and 50° West longitude. The climate along the sea coast is hot and humid (tropical), with annual temperature average varying between 20 and 28°C and rainfall between 300 and 2,000 mm. The sunshine time varies from 2,300 per year in the humid areas up to 3,000 in the semiarid areas. The largest area in the Northeast is under semiarid conditions (‘Polígono das Secas’)—less than 750 mm of rain per year), The region comprises nine states: Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe and Bahia, that occupies 18.2% of the national territory. Analyzing the regions and its ecological diversity, in relation to the citrus trees, it is possible divide them in three grand zones: (1) sea coast (Coastal Tablelands) represented by the municipality of Cruz das Almas (BA); (2) area of altitude, represented by the municipality of Morro do Chapéu—Chapada Diamantina (BA), over 1,000 m of altitude and (3) semiarid zone, represented by the municipality of Petrolina (PE).
The sea coast (Coastal Tablelands) is located along the sea, near the main capitals. The relative humidity is high and rainfalls around 1,000 mm per year but very concentrated during the summer time (December–March). Under these conditions, it predominates the sweet orange group represented almost exclusively by ‘Pera’ sweet orange (Figure 13), which fruit quality is typical in the tropical areas: larger fruits, juicier, less colored and less acid than those produced under subtropical conditions. More recently, the ‘monocitriculture’ of ‘Pera’ sweet orange × ‘Rangpur’ lime rootstock (almost 100% of the orchards) has been broken by the use of ‘Tahiti’ acid lime, unfortunately on the same rootstock. The fruit production destination is divided between the fresh fruit market and for processing (frozen concentrated juice). For a long time, Embrapa is stimulating the scion and rootstock diversification recommending as early varieties: ‘Rubi’, ‘Westin’ and ‘Salustiana’; midseason: ‘Pineapple’, ‘Pera’ and ‘Sincorá’; late: ‘Natal’, ‘Valencia’ and ‘Folha Murcha’ (Curled Leaf) [1], as well the following rootstocks: ‘Indio’, ‘Riverside’ and ‘San Diego’ citrandarins (from USDA), ‘Sunki Tropical’ mandarin and ‘Santa Cruz Rangpur’ lime. News rootstock hybrids are being released by the Embrapa Citrus Genetic Improvement Program [15] due to traditional areas that represent the Northeastern citriculture, the analyses on fruit productions will be concentrated in the States of Bahia and Sergipe. In Bahia, there are 32 microregions but only 4 can be considered as citrus producer: Alagoinhas, Santo Antonio de Jesus, Ribeira do Pombal and Entre Rios (Figure 14). From these, the first presents the largest citrus concentration represented by the municipalities of Rio Real, Inhambupe and Alagoinhas. In the Santo Antonio de Jesus microregion, sweet orange, acid and sweet lime and mandarin fruits are produced in the municipalities of Cruz das Almas, Sapeaçu, Muritiba, Governador Mangabeira and Cabaceiras do Paraguaçu as the most important. In Cruz das Almas, the largest participation comes from acid lime designated to the exporting market. Ribeira do Pombal microregion is concentrated just on sweet orange production and is located in a climatic transition zone which rainfall is less than 1,000 mm. The most important municipality is Itapicuru and its neighbors where exist the most appropriate conditions in the State for the citrus expansion, due to the existence of Tucano aquifer. In Entre Rios microregion, sweet orange production is concentrated in the municipalities of Esplanada and Jandaíra. In Sergipe State, there are 13 microregions being the most important, in a descending order, Boquim, Estância and Agreste de Lagarto. The Boquim microregion is most important in the production of sweet orange, mandarin and limes mainly in the municipalities of Itabaianinha, Cristinápolis, Salgado, Boquim, Arauá, Umbaúba and Tomar do Geru. In the microregion Estância, similarly, the citrus production is concentrated in the same groups. The main municipality producers are Santa Luzia do Itanhy, Estância and Indiaroba. Finally, Agreste de Lagarto microregion is predominated with the sweet orange and mandarin, mainly in the municipalities of Lagarto and Riachão do Dantas.
‘Pera CNPMF D-6’ sweet orange in Bahia—The most popular variety in Brazil. Source: Orlando Passos.
Concentration of the citrus production in the states of Bahia and Sergipe, considering their microregions. Source: [
It is located in the States of Bahia, Pernambuco, Paraíba and Ceará with milder climate, low temperatures in the winter (July is the coldest month), and insufficient rainfall for the culture necessity, what requires complementary irrigation. Inside this ecosystem is the Chapada Diamantina tableland, whose altitude varies between 1,000 and 1,400 m. In this zone, the table fruits should be prioritized, preferably the mandarins without despising the seedless navel oranges (‘Bahia’ sweet orange). Among these fruits, some stand out: ‘Cara Cara’ (‘Bahia’ of red pulp), ‘Baianinha’ (litle Navel) and ‘Lima’ (no acidity). In the mandarins group, beyond the traditional ‘Ponkan’ and ‘Murcott’, special attention should be given to the tangelo mandarin tree ‘Page’ (seedless fruit, in isolated plantation), to the tangor mandarin tree ‘Piemonte’ (Figure 15) and to the BRS Salibe Murcott (fruits with few seeds).
‘Piemonte’ mandarin-tangor in Bahia—A new variety for fresh consumption. Source: Orlando Passos.
The Brazilian semiarid is an ecoregion defined from the isoieta of 800 mm. The climate can be classified, according to Köepen, as type Bswh, which corresponds to a very hot semiarid region. The annual rainfall index is 571.5 mm with concentration from December to March [2]. The average annual temperature is 26.4°C, with average minimum of 20.6°C, and with average maximums of 31.7°C. The daily thermal amplitude is around 10°C, monthly of 5–10°C and annually from 1 to 5°C; very strong insolation (annual average of 2,800 h/year); low relative humidity (annual average around 50% per year); and high evapotranspiration (average of 2,000 mm/year) [10, 14]. In areas of hot or tropical climate, like in the Northeast region, the amplitude is smaller, what implies in the fruit production of less coloring, not just inside but also outside. However, the contents of soluble solids (°Brix) are higher and present low acidity, resulting in sweeter fruits, but with the relation Brix/acidity unfavorable. It is worth pointing out that in hotter climates, like in the Northeastern semiarid, grapefruits and ‘Tahiti’ acid lime present a thin peel and a very colorful pulp, besides a great productivity, when compared to fruits produced in others regions of the country. It is important to accentuate that in citrus cultivation under high temperatures, the period between flowering and maturation is reduced, what enables anticipation of the harvesting in relation to the others producing areas. Although having a potential for grapefruit, lemons and acid limes, there are small areas producing citrus in the São Francisco Valley, specifically with ‘Tahiti’ acid lime (Figure 16) [12]. In 2016, the results were 204 ha of planted area with the yield of 26.2 t/ha, in the following counties: Juazeiro, Casa Nova, Sobradinho and Curaçá [8]. In this region, due to its production characteristics, it is recommended rootstocks that determine reduced size to the canopy, drought tolerance and fruits of good quality, like rootstocks hybrids obtained by Embrapa Citrus Breeding Program in crosses with ‘Trifoliate’ orange, ‘Swingle’ citrumelo and ‘Troyer’ and ‘Argentina’ citranges, among others. The citrandarins ‘Indio’, ‘Riverside’ and ‘San Diego’, obtained by USDA Citrus Breeding Program and recommended by Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticultura, are hybrids of ‘Sunki’ mandarin with trifoliate orange, and have been highlighting in the Northeastern citrus scenario, because of their citrus foot-rot tolerance and production of good quality fruits. In researches with citrus fulfilled by Embrapa Mandioca e Fruticultura in partnership with Embrapa Semiárido, in Petrolina-PE and in Juazeiro-BA, it was verified that the grapefruit and the ‘Tahiti’ acid lime behave well. The Flame grapefruit (Figure 17) present thin peel and deep flesh color and fair balance between Brix/acidity, what are considered outstanding characteristics [12]. Some sweet orange varieties have great potential under semiarid conditions, as the clones C-21, D-9, D-12 and D-25 of Pera, and Rubi, Westin, Salustiana, Natal CNPMF-112 and Valencia Tuxpan, besides ‘Page’ and ‘Piemonte’ mandarin hybrids [3]. Examining the different climatic situations, it is possible to point out as competitive advantages of the Northeast region: (1) multiplicity of climates and soils and area availability; (2) geographic privileged localization in relation to the main markets (Economic European Community and United States of America) in comparison to the others citrus fruit producers regions in the country; (3) non-occurrence of bacterial diseases, like the HLB (huanglongbing, ex-greening) and the citrus canker and others like leprosis (not in endemic form) and the black spot, which are causing serious losses to the Brazilian southwest citriculture, mainly in the States of São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Paraná.
‘Tahiti’ acid lime in Bahia—In Ascension in the northeastern region. Source: Nilton Sanches.
‘Flame’ grapefruit in the São Francisco Valley—An option for the regional citriculture. Source: Orlando Passos.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11421,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. 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