Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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The first dedicated international conference on SiC and related devices, "ICSCRM," was held in Washington, DC, in 1987. But only recently, the commercialization of SiC and GaN devices has happened. Due to its material properties, Si as a semiconductor has limitations in high-temperature, high-voltage, and high-frequency regimes. With the help of SiC and GaN devices, it is possible to realize more efficient power systems. Devices manufactured from SiC and GaN have already been impacting different areas with their ability to outperform Si devices. Some of the examples are the telecommunications, automotive/locomotive, power, and renewable energy industries. To achieve the carbon emission targets set by different countries, it is inevitable to use these new technologies. This book attempts to cover all the important facets related to wide bandgap semiconductor technology, including new challenges posed by it. 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He received the B.Sc. degree from Himachal Pradesh University, India in 2002 and the M.Sc degree in Physics from Punjab University, Chandigarh, India in 2004. Following this, he had worked as a lecturer for three years in a college, teaching mathematics and physics courses. Later, he moved to the USA to pursue his Ph.D in 2007. He started his integrated Ph.D. program at Auburn University, AL, US in wide band gap semiconductor technology, SiC and GaN. He completed his second Masters degree in applied physics in 2009 and Ph.D. degree in 2012. During his Masters he worked on GaN Schottky diodes and AlGaN/GaN HEMTs for bio sensing applications. His Ph.D work was to electricallly improve the SiO2/4H-SiC interface, which is a crucial area for SiC MOS technology advancement, even today. He worked on two projects - Thin PSG and Nitrogen Plasma processes to improve the interface, and the successful execution of these projects resulted in peer-reviewed journal papers and invited talks at various international conferences. Immediately after finishing his Ph.D. in Dec 2012 he moved to University of Warwick, Coventry, U.K. as a Research Fellow and continued working on SiC technology. At Warwick University he was involved with two EPSRC funded projects - the development of 600 V–1200 V 3C-SiC power devices, and 10 kV MOSFETs on 4H-SiC for high power applications. Currently, he is based as Principal SiC engineer at Dynex Semiconductor in the R&D department. He is actively involved with the UK government funded TSB (Technology Strategy Board) projects. He has been working on two TSB projects - SiCER and TraSiCa. He has authored/co-authored over 50 technical/conference papers. 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1. Introduction
There are over one hundred species of plants of the genus Erythrina in the tropics and many of them are native to the American continent (Neill 1988). Erythrina species are known to produce alkaloids, flavonoids and terpenes (Garcia-Mateos et al., 1998). As with other species of Erythrina, alkaloids appear to be one of the main constituents mulungu (Parsons and Palframan, 2010). Mulungu (Erythrina mulungu) is a branched tree native to Brazil, growing in rain-forestry of Amazonia. Since its flowers are the same red color as coral, the plant is sometimes also called "flor de coral" and in English literature "coral tree". The designation Erythrina also includes the species Erythrina velutina, endemic to the semi-arid regions of Northeastern Brazil, and Erythrina mulungu, a plant native to Southern Brazil.
In native herbal medicine, a leaf or bark decoction or tincture from mulungu has long been used in folk medicine due to their tranquilizing effects and as natural sedative. It is also anxiolytic and antibacterial (Garín-Aguilar et al., 2000). In both Brazil and Peru mulungu is used for epilepsy (Vasconcelos et al., 2007). Practitioners in the United States use mulungu to quiet hysteria from trauma or shock, as a mild sedative to calm the nervous system, to treat insomnia and promote healthy sleeping patterns. Anxiety disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric diseases and mulungu offers novel therapy chance (Balbani et al., 2009; Patocka, 2009). Latest the present results suggest that Erythrina has anxiolytic-like effects on a specific subset of defensive behaviors, particularly one that has been related in clinical terms to generalized anxiety. These observations support the popular use of extracts of the plant as tranquilizing agents.
2. Ethnobotany
Erythrina is a genus of flowering plants in the pea family, Fabaceae. It contains about 130 species, which are distributed in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. They are trees, growing up to 30 m in height. The generic name is derived from the Greek word ερυθρóς (erythros), meaning "red", referring to the flower color of certain species. These trees are religious for some ethnic minority and are used as floral emblems in many countries. For example Cockspur Coral Tree (E. crista-galli) is the national flower of Argentina and Uruguay. The Coastal Coral Tree (E. caffra) is the official city tree of Los Angeles, California. The state trees of Mérida and Trujillo in Venezuela are "bucaré ceibo" (E. poeppigiana) and Purple Coral Tree ("bucaré anauco", E. fusca), respectively. E. variegata is used as floral emblem in Yonabaru, Okinawa. Some coral trees are used widely as street and park trees, especially in tropical countries. These trees are very suitable as "frame tree" for vanilla vines to grow up on or are used as "shade trees" in coffee or cocoa plantations (Westley and Powell, 1993). The plants of the genus Erythrina were used in Pre-Columbian America in traditional medicine (Towle, 2007) to calm agitation and for insomnia and other disorders of the nervous system.
3. Ethnopharmacology
Pharmacological assays performed with the alkaloids of Erythrina americana have shown anticonvulsant, hypnotic and analgesic effects (Garín-Aguilar et al., 2000; Koné et al., 2004). The species Erythrina glauca and Erythrina lysistemon have been reported to possess antiviral, antibacterial, and estrogenic activity (Ito, 1999; Tanee et al., 2007). Furthermore, analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects were observed for an aqueous extract of the stem bark of Erythrina senegalensis (Saidu et al., 2000).
Erythrina mulungu, tree high up to 10 m, is at home in South America. In Brasilia it is known as colorines, chilicote or tzompanquahuitl (Agra et al. 2007). In herbal medicine, a leaf or bark decoction or tincture from mulungu is considered to calm agitation and other disorders of the nervous system, including insomnia (Rodrigues and Carlini, 2003; Vasconcelos et al., 2007). Mulungu also decreased blood pressure and normalize heart arythmia (Begossi et al., 2004). There have also been some reports on the therapeutic use of the plant\'s inflorescence by herbal practitioners (Onusic et al. 2003). In Pre-Columbian civilizations decoction from the bark of this tree was used for suppression of fight fear and wartime hardship (Duke, 2008). At present, mulungu is used in the area of South America, mainly in Brasilia and Peru, as sedative and also in epilepsy (Teixeira-Silva et al., 2008).
People\'s healers and some practitioners in The United States use mulungu to quiet hysteria from trauma or shock, as a mild, hypnotic sedative to calm the nervous system, to treat insomnia and promote healthy sleeping patterns, to regulate heart palpitations, and to treat hepatitis and liver disorders. Nevertheless, despite its wide popular utilization, the supposed therapeutic properties of Erythrina mulungu only recently began to be evaluated in preclinical studies.
4. Chemistry of Erythrina constituents
The chemicals constituents of mulungu have been studied extensively after modern medical science find health potential of this biomedicine. In this biological material have been found large amounts of novel flavonoids, triterpenes, and alkaloids (Da-Cunha et al., 1996; Majinda et al., 2005; Cui et al., 2009). The genus Erythrina is very rich in secondary metabolites particularly of the flavonoids class. A literature survey showed the presence of flavanones, flavonols, chalcones, cinnamoylphenols, stilbenoids, isoflavones, isoflavans, isoflavanones, pterocarpans, isoflav-3-enes, 3-phenoxychromones, coumastans, 3-phenyl-coumarins, lignans, cinnamate esters, simple phenolics, triterpenes, sesquiterpenes, long-chain carboxylic acids, and long-chain alcohols (Majinda et al., 2005). Flavonoids represent a group of very active chemicals with various properties and are almost always present in Erythrina species.
The most considerable group of biologicaly active compounds of mulungu are alkaloids (Ozawa et al. 2009). The alkaloids have been found in 78 of 107 species in the genus Erythrina; mulungu is documented with 20 isoquinoline alkaloids (Tanaka et al., 2008; Parsons and Palframan, 2010). The alkaloids accumulated not only at the end of maturation in the seeds but also in young tissues. On a dried basis, a high content of alkaloids was observed in flowers and dry seeds in comparison to low levels in dry pods. The highest concentrations were found in the mature seeds (García-Mateos et al., 1996). Many of these have demonstrated anti-inflammatory, cardioactive, narcotic, and sedative activities (Parsons and Palframan, 2010).
The pivotal structure of erythrinan alkaloids is tetraheterocyclic nitrogen compound with tetrahydroisoquinoline moiety called erythrinane (I) (Amer et al., 1991). Compounds of these structure were known for a long time (Koniuszy et al., 1949), but until medical science research of mulungu ignified concern over these alkaloids. Heft of erythrinan alkaloids are derivatives of I substituted at nucleus A and D by hydroxyl or alkoxy groups. The most considerable erythrinan alkaloids are erysotrine (II), erythravine (III), erysodine (IV), and erysopine (V) (Fig. 1) (Flausino et al., 2007a,b). For ever new erythrinan alkaloids are recovered (Tanaka et al., 2008; Cui et al., 2009, Parsons and Palframan, 2010).
Figure 1.
Chemical structures of erythrinan alkaloids. Erythrinan alkaloids are derived from tetraheterocyclic nitrogen compound with tetrahydroisoquinoline moiety called erythrinane (I). Heft of erythrinan alkaloids are derivatives of I substituted at nucleus A and D by hydroxyl or alkoxy groups. The most considerable erythrinan alkaloids are erysotrine (II), erythravine (III), erysodine (IV), and erysopine (V).
5. Toxicology
Mulungu is relatively safe remedy. Acute oral toxicity (LD50) of aqueous extract of stem bark of E. variegata was 425 mg/kg in mice (Pitchaiah et al., 2010). Lollato et al. (2010) estimated for extracts of E. speciosa LD50 value for mice as being higher than 2000 mg/kg.
The toxicity of chloroform stem bark extract of Erythrina senegalensis DC, a medicinal plant with anti-inflammatory activity, was studied in vivo and in vitro by Udem and co-workers (2010). The LD50 intraperitoneal of the extract was 526 mg/kg after an acute toxicity test (24 h). A brine shrimp lethality test with the extract gave LC50 of 60.86 ppm. The chronic studies revealed alterations in the levels of biochemical markers of hepatic and cardiac damage. The alterations were, however, not significant except in the group fed the highest inclusion of the extract (1.0 g extract/kg feed) where significant (p < 0.05) increases in the activities of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase were observed. Hematological assessments of mice in this group showed significant (p < 0.05) decreases in the red blood cell count and the packed cell volume. Increases in the relative weights of the liver and heart were also significant (p < 0.05). Lipid peroxidation product levels assayed as malondialdehyde was significantly (p < 0.05) elevated in the groups fed 0.5 and 1.0 g/kg of feed at day 84. Significant histopathological changes like myocardial hemorrhages and degeneration of hepatocytes were observed in the heart and liver respectively.
Mulungu is less toxic than most of synthetic tranquilizers, e.g. LD50 value for diazepam in mice at peroral administration is 49 mg/kg (Hogskilde et al., 1987). To evaluate the acute toxicity of the aqueous extract of Erythrina velutina leaves, which is frequently used in folk medicine as a tranquilizer, adult Wistar rats were treated per os with the limit dose of 5 g/kg of the extract and then observed for 14 consecutive days. No animals died and no signs of toxicity were detected either during the behavioral observations or at the autopsies, what indicates a reasonable lack of toxicity for the extract (Craveiro et al., 2008).
6. Biological activity
The traditional use of mulungu for anxiety and stress has been validated by researchers in a few studies, where it was shown to alter anxiety-related responses (Flausino et al. 2007a,b). An animal model (correlating to human generalized anxiety disorder, as well as panic disorder) was undertaken on a water-alcohol extract of mulungu (Vasconcelos et al. 2004; Ribeiro et al. 2006; Flausino et al. 2007a). Vasconcelos and co-workers (2004) studied the effects of hydroalcoholic extracts of both Erythrina velutina and Erythrina mulungu on the behavior of female mice submitted to the open-field test and to the elevated plus-maze after oral or intraperitoneal administration. The highest doses (800 mg/kg, oral, and 400 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) of the hydroalcoholic extracts decreased locomotor activity both in the open-field and in the elevated plus-maze test. The authors concluded that these results supported, at least in part, the popular use of the two species of Erythrina as tranquilizers in Brazilian folk medicine. Another study (Dantas et al., 2004) performed with intraperitoneal administration of an aqueous Erythrina velutina extract showed that the extract prolonged the duration of sleep induced by sodium pentobarbital at higher doses and blocked the acquisition of foot shock memory at lower doses. These results led the authors to propose that Erythrina velutina might interfere with the mnemonic process and might have a sedative action (Dantas et al., 4004).
The researchers reported that the mulungu extract had an effect similar to the commonly-prescribed anti-anxiety drug diazepam (Onusic et al. 2003; Ribeiro et al. 2006; Teixeira-Silva et al. 2008). Raupp and co-workers (2008) administered orally the hydroalcoholic extract of the stem bark of Erythrina velutina in mice submitted to the following tests: elevated plus-maze, forced swim, spontaneous locomotor activity, and habituation to active chamber. Chlordiazepoxide and imipramine were used as standard drugs. In the elevated plus-maze test, chronic, but not acute, Erythrina velutina (100 mg/kg) administration increased the percentage of open arm entries, an effect also seen in both acute and chronic treatments with chlordiazepoxide (7.5 mg/kg). In the forced swim test, only imipramine (25 mg/kg) decreased immobility time. Impairment of habituation was seen only with acute imipramine administration and with the lowest doses of Erythrina velutina extract tested in acute (10 mg/kg) and chronic (50 mg/kg) administrations. These results suggest that chronic administration of the hydroalcoholic extract of the stem bark of Erythrina velutina exerts an anxiolytic-like effect on mice, and it could serve as a new approach for the treatment anxiety, although it may have an amnesic effect at low doses.
It was suggested in many studies that the alkaloids in Erythrina may alter GABAergic neurotransmission (Ribeiro et al, 2006; Teixeira-Silva et al. 2008; Khanum and Razack, 2010). GABA acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain and abnormalities with its function is implicated in diseases including epilepsy, anxiety, and depression. Nevertheless, mechanism of anxiolytic effect of erythrina alkaloids is evidently different from diazepines. These alkaloids induced contractions seem to involve GABAA receptor activation, acetylcholine release, muscarinic receptor activation, augmentation of Ca2+ entry through L-type calcium channels, and calcium release from the intracellular stores. These findings provide further support for Erythrina velutina traditional uses (Carvalho et al. 2009).
Hydroalcoholic extracts from the stem bark of rythrina velutina and Eerythrina mulungu have anticonvulsant effects only in the strychnine-induced seizure model, suggesting their possible action in glycine system and a potentiation of pentobarbital sleeping time, suggesting depressant action in the CNS (Vasconcelos et al. 2007). Data of Dantas and co-workers (2004) showed that the crude extract of E. velutina at lower doses interferes with mnemonic process for different tasks, while at higher doses, the sedative and neuromuscular blocking actions are the main effects. Anticonvulsant profile of erythrina alkaloids was recently studied by Faggion et al. (2011). They isolated the alkaloids (+)-erythravine and (+)-11-α-hydroxy-erythravine from the flowers of Erythrina mulungu and evaluated the action of these compounds against chemically induced seizures in rats (Faggion et al. 2011). These results showed that the administration of different doses of (+)-erythravine inhibited seizures evoked by bicuculline, pentylenetetrazole, and kainic acid at maximum of 80, 100, and 100%, respectively, whereas different doses of (+)-11-α-hydroxy-erythravine inhibited seizures at a maximum of 100% when induced by bicuculline, NMDA, and kainic acid, and, to a lesser extent, pentylenetetrazole (60%). All animals were protected against death when treated with different doses of (+)-11-α-hydroxy-erythravine in the tests using the four chemical convulsants. Identical results were obtained when using (+)-erythravine in the tests of bicuculline, NMDA, and pentylenetetrazole, and, to a lesser extent, kainic acid.
Further research has validated the traditional use of mulungu as an antimicrobial agent for throat and urinary infections. Mulungu has demonstrated antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and antimycobacterial activity against Mycobacterium fortuitum and M. smegmatis (Virtuoso et al., 2005; Ferreira de Lima et al., 2006). Some isoflavonoids, mainly erycristagallin (3,9-dihydroxy-2,10-di(gamma,gamma-dimethylallyl)-6a,11a-dehydropterocarpan), isolated from Erythrina variegata have antibacterial activita against cariogenic oral bacteria (Sato et al., 2003). The findings indicate that erycristagallin has a potential as potent phytochemical agent for prevention of dental caries by inhibiting the growth of cariogenic bacteria and by interfering with incorporation of glucose responsible for production of organic acids.
Two new compounds with antibacterial effect, erybacin A and erybacin B, were isolated from the roots of Erythrina herbacea. Their structures were established on the basis of spectroscopic analyses. Erybacin A is a rare, naturally occurring 1-hydroxy-1,3-diphenylpropan-2-one derivative. The isolated compounds were evaluated for their antibacterial activity against 13 strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The new compound erybacin B showed a potent bactericidal activity against MRSA (Tanaka et al., 2010b).
Hydroalcoholic extracts from the stem bark and leaves of Erythrina velutina and Erythrina mulungu have also antinociceptive effects which was not reversed by naloxone, i.e. these are independent of the opioid system (Vasconcelos et al., 2003; Marchioro et al., 2005).
Alkaloid erysodine is a competitive antagonist at neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (Mansbach et al., 2000). The potent and competitive nature of erysodine\'s antagonism together with its ability to enter the brain after systemic administration suggest that erysodine may be a useful tool in characterizing neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (Decker et al., 1995). Recent findings show that erysodine and also dihydro-beta-erythroidine are potent and selective competitive inhibitors of alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (Iturriaga-Vásquez et al., 2010).
Erythrinan alkaloids cristanine A and cristanine B were isolated from the bark of Erythrina crista-galli. In Brazil, the bark of the title tree is used for the treatment of rheumatism and hepatitis as well as for sedation and hypnogenesis. However, the title alkaloids cristanine A and B are inactive concerning the inhibitory activity on lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production (Ozawa et al., 2010). Probably erythrinan alkaloids are also responsible for the antiinflammatory and analgesic effects of the ethanolic extract of Erythrina indica (Rajeev eta l. 2010). Erythrina indica leaves are traditionally used in Kerala to treat inflammation, ulcers, earache etc.
7. Current practical use of Erythrina\n\t\t\t
Mulungu, drug from the tree Erythrina mulungu, is not very widely known or used in advanced countries. Mostly appearing as an ingredient in only a few herbal formulas for anxiety or depression. Erythrina plants produce alkaloids, flavonoids and terpenes and are commonly used in folk medicine due to their tranquilizing effects. Currently, the most widely prescribed medications for anxiety disorders are benzodiazepines. However, the clinical uses of benzodiazepines are limited by their side effects such as psychomotor impairment, potentiation of other central depressant drugs and dependence liability. Therefore, the development of new medications processing anxiolytic effect without the complications of benzodiazepines would be of great importance in the treatment of anxiety related disorders.
The use of herbal medicines by physicians in Europe, Asia, and America, exploring their traditional remedies to find a suitable cure of these ‘mind affecting diseases’ and herbal medicines are often considered to be gentle and safe alternative to synthetic drugs. Nevertheless, till this time no relevant clinical study exist.
Recently many studies of other Erythrina species from different parts of world appeared. These studies show that bioactive products of these trees may be useful in modern medicine also in other statements. From the bark of Erythrina addisoniae new flavonoids of stilbenoide type were isolated. These compounds are strong imhibitors of viral neuraminidases. Quite new compound, which is a formylated stilbenoid derivative, exhibited strong inhibition of both influenza H1N1 and H9N2 neuraminidases with IC50 values of 8.80 ± 0.34 μg/mL and 7.19 ± 0.40 μg/mL, respectively (Nguyen et al., 2010).
From the bark of Erythrina abyssinica has been isolated new coumestans and benzofurans with stimulatory effects on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) (Nguyen et al., 2010) which has been proposed as a therapeutic target for the treatment of metabolic syndrome including obesity and type-2 diabetes. These results suggest that benzofurans and coumestans may be new lead compounds for regulating the AMPK enzyme. Prenylated flavanones from the same of source inhibited protein tyrosine phosphatase PTP1B activity in an in vitro assay with IC50 values ranging from 15.2 ± 1.2 to 19.6 ± 2.3 μM, whereas very known potent inhibitor of PTP1B known as RK-682 (Hamaguchi et al., 1995) used as a positive control displayed an IC50 value of 4.7 ± 0.5 μM (Long et al., 2010).
Two new dimethylpyrano-isoflavones, named erymildbaedin A and B, were isolated from the stem bark of Eyrthrina mildbraedi - Cameroonian medicinal plant. Some of them strongly inhibited the growth of human breast, prostate, and endometrial adenocarcinoma celllines (Tchokouaha et al. 2010).
Another flavonoids with the antibacterial activity were isolated from Erythrina caffra, deciduous subtropical tree indigenous to South Africa. All the compounds were active against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The minimum inhibitory concentration values obtained (MIC) ranged from 3.9 μg/mL to 125 μg/mL (Chukwujekwu et al., 2010). A new bis-isoflavonoid, biseryvarin A, was isolated from the roots of Erythrina variegata. Biseryvarin A is the first dimeric isoflavonoid possessing isoprenoid groups from the genus Erythrina. Biseryvarin A showed low activity MRSA. The methanol extract of the bark of Erythrina variegata showed significant anti-malarial activity toward Plasmodium falciparum\n\t\t\t\tin vitro using the lactate dehydrogenase assay. The ethyl acetate fraction showed the most activity, exhibiting equipotency against both strains of parasite with IC50 of 23.8 µg/mL against 3D7 and 9.3 µg/mL against K1. Furthermore, by using the anti-malarial activity to follow separation, the ethyl acetate fraction was separated by combination of column chromatography to yield an active compound. The chemical structure of active compound was determined on the basis of spectroscopic evidences and comparison with those previously reported and identified as an isoflavonoid, warangalone. The warangalone showed anti-malarial activity against both strains of parasite used with IC50 of 4.8 µg/mL against 3D7 and 3.7 µg/mL against K1 (Herlina et al., 2009). Next flavonoids were isolated from Erythrina vogelii, a Cameroonian medicinal plant (Ali et al. 2010), in Erythrina senegalensis were found hepatoprotective flavonoids (Njayou et al., 2010) with low toxicity (Atsamo et al., 2010). Flavonoids of pterocarpane-type with antibacterial, antiplasmodial and cytotoxic activities, were isolated from the stems of Erythrina fusca (Innok et al., 2010).
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/18347.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/18347.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18347",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18347",totalDownloads:4510,totalViews:863,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:56,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 25th 2010",dateReviewed:"March 28th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 29th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/18347",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/18347",book:{id:"236",slug:"anxiety-and-related-disorders"},signatures:"Patocka Jiri",authors:[{id:"30331",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Patocka",fullName:"Jiri Patocka",slug:"jiri-patocka",email:"prof.patocka@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Ethnobotany",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Ethnopharmacology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Chemistry of Erythrina constituents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Toxicology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Biological activity ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Current practical use of Erythrina\n\t\t\t",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AgraM. F.BarachoG. S.NuritK.BasilioI. J. L. D.CoelhoV. P. M.2007Medicinal and poisonous diversity of the flora of “Cariri Paraibano”, Brazil J Ethnopharmacol; 111383395'},{id:"B2",body:'AliM. I.AhmedZ.WaffoA. F.MSAli2010Flavonoids from Erythrina vogelii (Fabaceae) of Cameroon. Nat Prod Commun.; 56889892'},{id:"B3",body:'MEAmerSharmma. M.FreyerA. J.1991The tetracyclic arythrina alkaloids. J Nat Prod; 542329363'},{id:"B4",body:'AtsamoA. D.NguelefackT. B.DattéJ. 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1. Introduction
In recent years, the set of technologies encompassed under the name of the Internet of Things has experienced its greatest evolution and is currently approaching the slope of enlightenment of the hype cycle according to Gartner [1]. It has been applied in numerous areas, notably changing and improving the way in which different tasks and activities, both business and personal, are approached in daily life. Devices such as home assistants, home automation devices, and activity monitors are used more and more widely, providing information and functionalities that can be used quickly and easily.
One of the fields where there is more expectation about the application of this set of technologies is that related to healthcare and telehealth. Currently, there are several problems inherent in the health field that can be addressed thanks to the remote communication offered by the IoT. Advances in telehealth allow medical consultations and follow-up of patients in remote and isolated places, or with the limited mobility [2]. On the other hand, they enable the interconnection between health centers and remote systems that monitor elderly or disabled people who live alone or spend part of the time without company at all times, controlling vital signs or possible events such as falls that could endanger their lives [3].
Likewise, health services can be improved and optimized when health centers are provided with the capacity to integrate and interconnect devices that collect biomedical information with electronic health records [4]. Diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up in recovery from illnesses can be benefited in many cases by the continuous collection of these data [5], which complements the information obtained with specific observations that the medical professional can make during consultations, often limited in time. In addition, the data collected are a valuable source of information that can be used by Big Data and Artificial Intelligence applications to make new discoveries.
Although the advantages of these technologies applied to healthcare are clearly beneficial in many areas, there are also many aspects that make their implementation a challenging task. Due to the sensitive nature of the information, the technologies that must be implemented are those with characteristics that allow compliance with data privacy and security policies and standards [6]. On the other hand, they require health systems to have an appropriate infrastructure to accommodate these new technologies, as well as the adaptation of their protocols [7]. The training of health technicians, professionals, and patients to adapt them to these new systems is another relevant factor, and one that is related to usability and user experience [8].
Our purpose with this work is to analyze the evolution of IoT applied to healthcare and telehealth in recent years, the trends in application and what challenges currently exist. To address this objective, we will analyze the most relevant works in the recent years to draw conclusions about the global evolution of these technologies, check in more detail the problems they face, and identify whether there are standards, norms, or common complementary technologies to give a solution.
The rest of the article is divided as follows: In section two, the methodology of collection and analysis carried out are presented, detailing the aspects and characteristics on which we focus, in section three the results obtained are presented, and finally, the last section presents the conclusions.
2. Methodology
2.1 Search approach
The criteria established for the inclusion of studies in the analysis were that they had to be published in journals that appeared in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) or in conferences included in prestigious journal editorials and digital libraries. The search engine used for the search engine was Google Scholar. The search was limited considering articles published in the last 5 completed years, that is, from January 2017 to December 2021 inclusive. The queries created to be used in the search engine consisted of the combinations of the term “IoT” with “healthcare,” “ehealth,” and “telehealth.” The search for these terms was established to be carried out on the full text of each work, not only on the title and abstract. Since the purpose is to collect current advances and trends, we exclude from the analysis those articles with a scoping review nature. Similarly, we exclude studies that were written in a language other than English.
Regarding the results obtained after carrying out the search, the first three hundred were taken for each year in order of relevance, and one hundred for each of the three keywords considered in combination with “IoT,” that is, “healthcare,” “telehealth,” and “ehealth.” It was established to do a sequential filtering on the set, checking on each result that it meets each of the established inclusion requirements; otherwise, it will be discarded from the final set of results to be considered in the analysis. In the first place, the character of a high-impact journal paper or publication presented at a conference contemplated in prestigious digital libraries was verified, for which those results that were books or book chapters were also discarded. Next, the discarding of articles that were not written in English was applied. We considered that, to have a meaningful sample of current trends, a sample of 25 results would be taken for each combination of keyword and year. The most cited articles were used as a selection criterion. On this sample, studies consisting of bibliographic reviews were discarded. This last-filtering process was carried out firstly by analyzing the title of each publication and secondly by analyzing the abstract. Additionally, it was observed whether any study was replicated in the set or belonged to the same authors and the purpose was the same, in which case the study with the latest publication date was discarded.
For the initial purpose of filtering, basic information about these works was collected, specifically the title of the article, abstract, authors, access link to the publication, the number of citations, and character of the document according to Google Scholar. All the analyses of the information and filtering process were carried out jointly by the authors and verified between them.
2.2 Extracted information
Once the filtering process was carried out, the next step was to extract the relevant information for the analysis of the current situation, limitations, challenges, solutions, and current trends of IoT applied to healthcare and telemedicine. Mainly, we focus on extracting the most used communication technologies to provide solutions or address current problems in this area of research. Other relevant characteristics extracted were the scope of application from the point of view of what aspect of healthcare is intended to address or what characteristics of the infrastructure are intended to be addressed in the study. Related to the field, we also extract information on the technological aspects of the solution provided. Additionally, the country of the institution that supports each investigation was taken, in order to identify those countries that have the greatest impact worldwide in IoT for ehealth and telehealth fields.
3.2 Countries with contribution with higher impact
Figure 1 illustrates the percentage of publications according to the country of the institution of the corresponding author. In those cases in which the corresponding author was not reflected, the institution of the main author was taken as reference. The graph shows that the institutions with the greatest impact in recent years are India (19.3%) and China (13.4%). The rest of Asian countries (including those located in the Persian Gulf and Russia) contribute 25.8% to this statistic. Approximately 21% corresponds to institutions in European countries, approximately 6% to entities in Africa (mainly Egypt and Tunisia), and 4% to countries in Central and South America. The United States and Canada add 7.5% and Australia and New Zealand approximately 4.8%.
Figure 1.
Publications with more impact per country (N = 186).
3.2.1 Analysis of scopes of higher impact
With the term “scope,” we refer to the topics on which each study focuses on contributing to the area of IoT systems applied to ehealth and telemedicine. After the analysis, we have found studies whose scope is related to the provision of a health service, proposing models, system designs, and/or implementations of a complete system or a component of an IoT system. On the other hand, scopes focused on improving some characteristic of IoT systems that are relevant when applied to healthcare have also been identified.
Figure 2 illustrates the scopes in the analysis. It can be seen that the majority of studies focus on providing solutions for the field of monitoring. The reader should know that a division has been made in this scope, distinguishing between studies that explicitly indicated or from which the character of real-time monitoring could be clearly inferred. The total number of studies that fit this domain was 83. These data show that the main purpose of the application of IoT to healthcare is to monitor patients, ubiquitously or integrated into rooms, for better control of vital signs or physiological parameters. This result is consistent with the main use for which IoT systems are used. Continuing with the analysis focused on areas of application, the next most common are those related to diagnosis. The creation of models that help the medical professional to give a diagnosis stands out mainly Machine Learning models that can be integrated into the system, sometimes complemented with architectures equipped with resources to apply Fog computing, as well as with the decentralization of processing with computing at the edge, trend that is currently increasing with the optimization of hardware and AI frameworks for model integration and consumption reduction [195]. Additionally, the applications are not restricted to the field of healthcare in the personal context, but also in the workplace [196]. To a lesser extent, we also find the use of IoT to facilitate the remote diagnosis of the patient. This last result may be related to the existing limitations to provide appropriate resources to remote centers or isolated areas that allow establishing reliable connections with sufficient transmission quality. The least relevant areas currently are self-care and remote rehabilitation. The first of these two areas mentioned was the one that had the greatest impact at the beginning of the use of IoT for healthcare, currently being on the slope of enlightenment or plateau of productivity in the hype-cycle curve. The low frequency of appearance of rehabilitation as a field of study may be due to the difficulty in carrying out rehabilitation tasks remotely.
Figure 2.
Scope of the studies considered in the analysis.
Focusing on areas related to the improvement of system features, studies focused on maintaining the security of the IoT system are more frequent, that is, on avoiding transmission failures, network hacks, or data corruption. Additionally, we find studies focused on providing encryption protocols to ensure the authenticity and privacy of the patient. These last two scopes are often intrinsically related to system security. These results reveal the great challenges that exist in the integration of IoT systems in the Electronic Health Records of health systems: to be able to relate the data to the patient without compromising their privacy, as well as to manage the enormous amount of information collected avoiding losses, falsification information, and other security breaches. Very close in relevance we find the improvement of the performance of the system, that is, looking for better response times in the transmission and processing of information. Again, it is a challenging topic, especially in combination with equipping the system with authentication, privacy, and security protocols, which slows down IoT systems, which must be addressed for this type of system to be useful in terms of practicality.
In the results, we also observe that the studies related to the study of interoperability and the analysis of usability, user experience, and degree of acceptance have very little impact. These types of studies are not frequent, and yet, they address determining aspects in the adequacy of IoT systems to the health environment; its correct application depends on the fact that the implemented system is practical and perceived as useful. The little research on these issues may be the greatest limitation of these systems in the future.
Figure 3 shows the trend of these areas in the years considered for the analysis. Although a drop in the number of papers is perceived in 2021, this may be due to the fact that there has not yet been a stabilization in the number of citations on studies that contribute novelties to the field of research. Both graphs show how in recent years there has been a decrease in the impact of research aimed at providing solutions with IoT systems, and instead, there has been an increase in interest in research that focuses on improving some characteristics of the system architecture, mainly in security and privacy. This result again reveals indications of the situation of these systems in the hype-cycle curve, seeing reduced interest in deepen for new applications and consolidating their use by focusing on the greatest limitations that this set of technologies has, that is, aspects of security, privacy, and performance.
Figure 3.
Scope trends. At top, classification grouped by year analyzed in the study. At left, scopes related to the system’s application approach. On the right, scopes focused on improving the characteristics of the IoT system.
3.2.2 Interest in applied technologies
Paying attention to communication technologies, the charts in Figure 4 reveal a varied set of alternatives. In these graphs, only those studies that have used and revealed the technologies applied in the implementation of IoT systems are taken into consideration. As a result, 87 articles were considered. The charts highlight the use of Bluetooth technology, in both its older versions and BLE, and Wi-Fi. Despite being a technology adapted to IoT, the use of LoRa is not frequent. GSM and GPRS technologies continue to be used, mainly because they have a greater network infrastructure for these technologies and because they are more in line with the user profile that these systems are aimed at, mainly older people or those who are not familiar with new technologies.
Figure 4.
Most common communication technologies in studies that carry out an implementation of an IoT system (N = 87). Top-right chart considers only those studies whose sensing acquisition devices are wearable (N = 36).
Among the studies that reveal the communication technologies used, only 36 focus on the use of systems with exclusively wearable devices for data acquisition. In these studies, a lower use of MQTT is revealed in favor of the use of technologies such as Zigbee. Wi-Fi technology is still the most frequently used; however, there is a remarkable decrease.
The most frequent technologies identified in the analyzed studies include Machine Learning and Deep Learning for the fields of monitoring and diagnostic support. In the fields of security, privacy, and authentication, the use of Blockchain stands out. On the other hand, Fog computing and edge computing are the technologies for which the greatest interest is shown in the field of performance improvement. This is one of the most current trends, driven by systems equipped with more specialized hardware processing units [197].
4. Conclusions
The results obtained from the analysis of impact studies in recent years regarding IoT in healthcare show that Asian and Middle Eastern countries contribute to this area to a greater extent, especially India and China. With regard to the areas with the greatest impact today, we find the application to monitoring as the greatest representative. However, this type of study has reduced its relevance in recent years and instead has grown interest in the integration of security, privacy, and authentication measures to IoT systems, which gives indications of the stabilization of IoT technologies, and there is a tendency to investigate the improvement of the most important weaknesses. Infrequent and low-impact study topics are the analysis of the perceived usefulness of these systems, as well as interoperability, which may imply limitations and obstacles in the future in the implementation and use of these systems. The most used communication technologies are Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, with a smaller representation of technologies such as LoRa, Zigbee, and mobile data transfer technologies. The design and implementation of systems exclusively equipped with wearable acquisition devices is reduced. Machine Learning, Blockchain as well as edge and fog computing are the most trending technologies.
Acknowledgments
This work has been supported by “Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional” (FEDER) and “Consejería de Economía, Conocimiento, Empresas y Universidad” of the Junta de Andalucía, under Programa Operativo FEDER 2014-2020 (Project US-1263715).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Real-time healthcare data transmission for remote patient monitoring in patch-based hybrid OCC/BLE networks. Sensors. 2019;19(5):1208'},{id:"B161",body:'Kaw JA et al. A reversible and secure patient information hiding system for IoT driven e-health. International Journal of Information Management. 2019;45:262-275'},{id:"B162",body:'Almulhim M et al. A lightweight and secure authentication scheme for IoT based e-health applications. International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security. 2019;19(1):107-120'},{id:"B163",body:'Hossein KM et al. Blockchain-based privacy-preserving healthcare architecture. In: 2019 IEEE Canadian Conference of Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE). Piscataway, New Jersey, US: IEEE; 2019. pp. 1-4'},{id:"B164",body:'Ben Hassen H et al. An E-health system for monitoring elderly health based on internet of things and fog computing. Health Information Science and Systems. 2019;7(1):1-9'},{id:"B165",body:'Alassaf N, Gutub A. Simulating light-weight-cryptography implementation for IoT healthcare data security applications. International Journal of E-Health and Medical Communications (IJEHMC). 2019;10(4):1-15'},{id:"B166",body:'Celesti A et al. How to develop IoT cloud e-health systems based on FIWARE: A lesson learnt. Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks. 2019;8(1):7'},{id:"B167",body:'Ali R et al. Q-learning-enabled channel access in next-generation dense wireless networks for IoT-based eHealth systems. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking. 2019;2019(1):1-12'},{id:"B168",body:'Tuli S et al. HealthFog: An ensemble deep learning based smart healthcare system for automatic diagnosis of heart diseases in integrated IoT and fog computing environments. Future Generation Computer Systems. 2020;104:187-200'},{id:"B169",body:'Hamza R et al. A privacy-preserving cryptosystem for IoT E-healthcare. Information Sciences. 2020;527:493-510'},{id:"B170",body:'Jamil F et al. Towards a remote monitoring of patient vital signs based on IoT-based blockchain integrity management platforms in smart hospitals. Sensors. 2020;20(8):2195'},{id:"B171",body:'Ray PP et al. Blockchain for IoT-based healthcare: Background, consensus, platforms, and use cases. IEEE Systems Journal. 2020;15(1):85-94'},{id:"B172",body:'Vedaei SS et al. COVID-SAFE: An IoT-based system for automated health monitoring and surveillance in post-pandemic life. IEEE Access. 2020;8:188538'},{id:"B173",body:'Khan MA et al. A secure framework for authentication and encryption using improved ECC for IoT-based medical sensor data. IEEE Access. 2020;8:52018-52027'},{id:"B174",body:'Patan R et al. Smart healthcare and quality of service in IoT using grey filter convolutional based cyber physical system. Sustainable Cities and Society. 2020;59:102141'},{id:"B175",body:'Cai G et al. Design of an MISO-SWIPT-aided code-index modulated multi-carrier M-DCSK system for e-health IoT. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. 2020;39(2):311-324'},{id:"B176",body:'Yew HT et al. Iot based real-time remote patient monitoring system. In: 16th IEEE International Colloquium on Signal Processing & its Applications (CSPA). Piscataway, New Jersey, US: IEEE; 2020;2020:176-179'},{id:"B177",body:'Almogren A et al. Ftm-iomt: Fuzzy-based trust management for preventing sybil attacks in internet of medical things. IEEE Internet of Things Journal. 2020;8(6):4485-4497'},{id:"B178",body:'Uddin MA et al. Blockchain leveraged decentralized IoT eHealth framework. Internet of Things. 2020;9:100159'},{id:"B179",body:'Chowdhury MZ et al. A new 5g ehealth architecture based on optical camera communication: An overview, prospects, and applications. IEEE Consumer Electronics Magazine. 2020;9(6):23-33'},{id:"B180",body:'Rub JNS, Gondim PRL. Interoperable internet of medical things platform for e-health applications. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks. 2020;16(1):1550147719889591'},{id:"B181",body:'Zhang L et al. A multi-stage stochastic programming-based offloading policy for fog enabled IoT-eHealth. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. 2020;39(2):411-425'},{id:"B182",body:'Ghosh A et al. Energy-efficient IoT-health monitoring system using approximate computing. Internet of Things. 2020;9:100166'},{id:"B183",body:'Kaur M et al. Secure and energy efficient-based E-health care framework for green internet of things. IEEE Transactions on Green Communications and Networking. 2021;5(3):1223-1231'},{id:"B184",body:'Gadekallu TR et al. Blockchain-based attack detection on machine learning algorithms for IoT-based e-health applications. IEEE Internet of Things Magazine. 2021;4(3):30-33'},{id:"B185",body:'Ayub MF et al. Lightweight authentication protocol for e-health clouds in IoT-based applications through 5G technology. Digital Communications and Networks. 2021;7(2):235-244'},{id:"B186",body:'Chehri A. Energy-efficient modified DCC-MAC protocol for IoT in e-health applications. Internet of things. 2021;14:100119'},{id:"B187",body:'Deebak B, Al-Turjman F. Secure-user sign-in authentication for IoT-based eHealth systems. Complex & Intelligent Systems. 2021:1-21'},{id:"B188",body:'Said AM et al. Efficient anomaly detection for smart hospital IoT systems. Sensors. 2021;21(4):1026'},{id:"B189",body:'Frikha T et al. Healthcare and fitness data management using the iot-based blockchain platform. Journal of healthcare. Journal of Healthcare Engineering. 2021;2021:12'},{id:"B190",body:'Huang C et al. A deep segmentation network of stent structs based on IoT for interventional cardiovascular diagnosis. IEEE Wireless Communications. 2021;28(3):36-43'},{id:"B191",body:'Hussain A et al. Security framework for IoT based real-time health applications. Electronics. 2021;10(6):719'},{id:"B192",body:'Alzahrani BA. Secure and efficient cloud-based IoT authenticated key agreement scheme for e-health wireless sensor networks. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering. 2021;46(4):3017-3032'},{id:"B193",body:'Iqbal N et al. A scheduling mechanism based on optimization using IoT-tasks orchestration for efficient patient health monitoring. Sensors. 2021;21(16):5430'},{id:"B194",body:'Amato F et al. A security and privacy validation methodology for e-health systems. ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications, and Applications (TOMM). 2021;17(2s):1-22'},{id:"B195",body:'Luna-Perejón F, Domínguez-Morales M, Gutiérrez-Galán D, Civit-Balcells A. Low-power embedded system for gait classification using neural networks. Journal of Low Power Electronics and Applications. 2020;10(2):14'},{id:"B196",body:'Escobar-Linero E, Domnguez-Morales M, Sevillano JL. Worker’s physical fatigue classification using neural networks. Expert Systems with Applications. 2022;198:116784'},{id:"B197",body:'Civit-Masot J, Luna-Perejón F, Corral JMR, Domínguez-Morales M, Morgado-Estévez A, Civit A. A study on the use of edge TPUs for eye fundus image segmentation. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. 2021;104:104384'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Luis Muñoz-Saavedra",address:null,affiliation:'
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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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850 GBP Chapter - Book Series Topic (Annual Volume)
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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850 GBP Journal Article (Across Portfolio)
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+5,700 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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Dariva and Alexandre F. Galio",authors:[{id:"169261",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:"G.",surname:"Dariva",slug:"camila-dariva",fullName:"Camila Dariva"},{id:"170138",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Ferreira",surname:"Galio",slug:"alexandre-galio",fullName:"Alexandre Galio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"76780",title:"Basics of Clay Minerals and Their Characteristic Properties",slug:"basics-of-clay-minerals-and-their-characteristic-properties",totalDownloads:1930,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Clay minerals such as kaolinite, smectite, chlorite, micas are main components of raw materials of clay and formed in presence of water. A large number of clays used to form the different structure which completely depends on their mining source. They are known as hydrous phyllosilicate having silica, alumina and water with variable amount of inorganic ions like Mg2+, Na+, Ca2+ which are found either in interlayer space or on the planetary surface. Clay minerals are described by presence of two-dimensional sheets, tetrahedral (SiO4) and octahedral (Al2O3). There are different clay minerals which are categorized based on presence of tetrahedral and octahedral layer in their structure like kaolinite (1:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers), smectite group of clay minerals (2:1 of tetrahedral and octahedral layers) and chlorite (2:1:1 of tetrahedral, octahedral and octahedral layers). The particle size of clay minerals is <2microns which can be present in form of plastic in presence of water and solidified when dried. The small size and their distinctive crystal structure make clay minerals very special with their unique properties including high cation exchange capacity, swelling behavior, specific surface area, adsorption capacity, etc. which are described in this chapter. Due to all these unique properties, clay minerals are gaining interest in different fields.",book:{id:"10949",slug:"clay-and-clay-minerals",title:"Clay and Clay Minerals",fullTitle:"Clay and Clay Minerals"},signatures:"Neeraj Kumari and Chandra Mohan",authors:[{id:"258132",title:"Dr.",name:"Chandra",middleName:null,surname:"Mohan",slug:"chandra-mohan",fullName:"Chandra Mohan"},{id:"352399",title:"Dr.",name:"Neeraj",middleName:null,surname:"Kumari",slug:"neeraj-kumari",fullName:"Neeraj Kumari"}]},{id:"51535",title:"An Introduction to Hydrogels and Some Recent Applications",slug:"an-introduction-to-hydrogels-and-some-recent-applications",totalDownloads:11734,totalCrossrefCites:70,totalDimensionsCites:140,abstract:"Hydrogels have existed for more than half a century, and today they have many applications in various processes ranging from industrial to biological. There are numerous original papers, reviews, and monographs focused on the synthesis, properties, and applications of hydrogels. This chapter covers the fundamental aspects and several applications of hydrogels based on the old and the most recent publications in this field.",book:{id:"5251",slug:"emerging-concepts-in-analysis-and-applications-of-hydrogels",title:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels",fullTitle:"Emerging Concepts in Analysis and Applications of Hydrogels"},signatures:"Morteza Bahram, Naimeh Mohseni and Mehdi Moghtader",authors:[{id:"179718",title:"Prof.",name:"Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Bahram",slug:"morteza-bahram",fullName:"Morteza Bahram"},{id:"185713",title:"Dr.",name:"Naimeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohseni",slug:"naimeh-mohseni",fullName:"Naimeh Mohseni"},{id:"185714",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehdi",middleName:null,surname:"Moghtader",slug:"mehdi-moghtader",fullName:"Mehdi Moghtader"}]},{id:"70661",title:"Bioremediation Techniques for Polluted Environment: Concept, Advantages, Limitations, and Prospects",slug:"bioremediation-techniques-for-polluted-environment-concept-advantages-limitations-and-prospects",totalDownloads:2672,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"Environmental pollution has been rising in the past few decades due to increased anthropogenic activities. 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Bioremediation is the most effective, economical, eco-friendly management tool to manage the polluted environment. All bioremediation techniques have its own advantage and disadvantage because it has its own specific applications.",book:{id:"9343",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",fullTitle:"Trace Metals in the Environment - New Approaches and Recent Advances"},signatures:"Indu Sharma",authors:[{id:"301262",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Indu",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"indu-sharma",fullName:"Indu Sharma"}]},{id:"18275",title:"Modeling and Identification of Parameters the Piezoelectric Transducers in Ultrasonic Systems",slug:"modeling-and-identification-of-parameters-the-piezoelectric-transducers-in-ultrasonic-systems",totalDownloads:10197,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"201",slug:"advances-in-ceramics-electric-and-magnetic-ceramics-bioceramics-ceramics-and-environment",title:"Advances in Ceramics",fullTitle:"Advances in Ceramics - Electric and Magnetic Ceramics, Bioceramics, Ceramics and Environment"},signatures:"Pawel Fabijanski and Ryszard Lagoda",authors:[{id:"13086",title:"Dr.",name:"Pawel",middleName:null,surname:"Fabijański",slug:"pawel-fabijanski",fullName:"Pawel Fabijański"}]},{id:"60680",title:"Environmental Contamination by Heavy Metals",slug:"environmental-contamination-by-heavy-metals",totalDownloads:16251,totalCrossrefCites:187,totalDimensionsCites:407,abstract:"The environment and its compartments have been severely polluted by heavy metals. This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. Muedi",authors:[{id:"225304",title:"Dr.",name:"Vhahangwele",middleName:null,surname:"Masindi",slug:"vhahangwele-masindi",fullName:"Vhahangwele Masindi"},{id:"241403",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Khathutshelo",middleName:"Lilith",surname:"Muedi",slug:"khathutshelo-muedi",fullName:"Khathutshelo Muedi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"14",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83055",title:"Boron Clusters in Biomedical Applications: A Theoretical Viewpoint",slug:"boron-clusters-in-biomedical-applications-a-theoretical-viewpoint",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106215",abstract:"In this chapter, we presented an analysis of the recent advances in the applications of boron clusters in biomedical fields such as the development of biosensors and drug delivery systems on the basis of quantum chemical calculations. Biosensors play an essential role in many sectors, e.g., law enforcement agencies for sensing illicit drugs, medical communities for detecting overdosed medications from human and animal bodies, etc. The drug delivery systems have theoretically been proposed for many years and subsequently implemented by experiments to deliver the drug to the targeted sites by reducing the harmful side effects significantly. Boron clusters form a rich and colorful family of atomic clusters due to their unconventional structures and bonding phenomena. Boron clusters and their complexes have various biological activities such as the drug delivery, imaging for diagnosis, treatment of cancer, and probe of protein-biomolecular interactions. For all of these reactivities, the interaction mechanisms and the corresponding energetics between biomaterials and boron clusters are of essential importance as a basic step in the understanding, and thereby design of relevant materials. During the past few years, attempts have been made to probe the nature of these interactions using quantum chemical calculations mainly with density functional theory (DFT) methods. This chapter provides a summary of the theoretical viewpoint on this issue.",book:{id:"11762",title:"Characteristics and Applications of Boron",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11762.jpg"},signatures:"Ehsan Shakerzadeh, Elham Tahmasebi, Long Van Duong and Minh Tho Nguyen"},{id:"83048",title:"Structural, Magnetic, and Magnetodielectric Properties of Bi-Based Modified Ceramic Composites",slug:"structural-magnetic-and-magnetodielectric-properties-of-bi-based-modified-ceramic-composites",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106569",abstract:"In this chapter, we introduce a promising composite material, which can be used as a potential candidate in the field of charge storage, sensors, and spintronic devices. The structural, magnetic, and magnetodielectric properties of the pure cum composite samples are investigated. The Rietveld refinement of the X-ray data confirmed the presence of a single (A21am) and mixed phases (A21am + R-3c + Pbam) in the pure and composite sample, correspondingly. The SEM microstructure suggests the contrasting nature of the homogeneous and heterogeneous distribution of grains in the corresponding pure and composite sample. The magnetic properties of the composite sample increase due to the enhanced exchange interaction between the different magnetic ions. The frequency-dependent dielectric subjected to a constant magnetic field indicates the signature of magnetodielectric (MD) coupling for both the samples. The field variation of the MD loop shows the symmetric hysteresis loop in the composite due to the addition of magnetostrictive La0.67Sr0.33MnO3 and the non-collinear antiferromagnetic Bi2Fe4O9 phase. The maximum value of MD% (~0.12%) is enhanced by ~13 times in the composite than in the pure sample. Therefore, the improved MD coupling and symmetric switching of the MD loop of the composite make it a suitable candidate for low power consumption storage devices.",book:{id:"11117",title:"Smart and Advanced Ceramics and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11117.jpg"},signatures:"Rasmita Jena, Kouru Chandrakanta and Anil Kumar Singh"},{id:"83035",title:"Breaking the Property Trade-Offs by Using Entropic Conceptions",slug:"breaking-the-property-trade-offs-by-using-entropic-conceptions",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106532",abstract:"Entropic conception has been used as an effective strategy for developing materials to break the property recordings of current materials, for example, breaking the trade-off between the high-strength and low-ductility structural alloys. The performance of materials usually under a complex circumstance, a balance of multiple properties, for example, combined the high-strength, high ductility, high conductivity, high corrosion resistance, high irradiation resistance, etc., the strategy of high-entropy-alloy (HEA) will provide a materials design and development technology to realize the goal. Magnetic materials usually exhibit excellent magnetic properties but weak mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The reported unique behaviors of HEAs, for example, self-healing effects may be the mechanism for the high irradiation resistance of the HEAs, and self-sharpening behaviors of the tungsten-based HEAs main closely be related to the serration behaviors.",book:{id:"11468",title:"High Entropy Materials - Microstructures and Properties",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11468.jpg"},signatures:"Yong Zhang and Xuehui Yan"},{id:"82929",title:"Prediction of Solubility and Miscibility Parameters of Bismuth-Arsenic Complex and Amorphous Mineral Compounds Using Molecular Dynamics Simulation",slug:"prediction-of-solubility-and-miscibility-parameters-of-bismuth-arsenic-complex-and-amorphous-mineral",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106316",abstract:"Bismuth is one of the most difficult impurities to remove in mining concentrates and low concentrations generate problems in silver and copper refineries. Therefore, financial penalties are established when concentrations exceed 0.05%. Some researchers had used arsenic to remove bismuth with results of up to 52% of extraction. Unfortunately, this mechanism is not yet fully understood. The objective of this research was to obtain the solubility parameters of amorphous mineral compounds, including bismuth-based compounds, through computational simulation using molecular dynamics. The composition of the mineral sample was determined by X-ray diffraction and the crystalline species were obtained and modeled using Materials Studio software. The nanostructures were optimized by an energy minimization methodology using the Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno algorithm and were validated using the figure of merit equation and density. Simulations were performed using the Universal Force Field at constant pressure and temperature. The results of the minerals identified in the sample were compared with arsenic trioxide, indicating miscibility between As2O3 and Bi2O3, possible miscibility with 10 other minerals, and immiscibility with the rest. The results indicate that As2O3 can be successfully used for the removal of Bi2O3 without a negative effect on the recovery of other minerals of higher commercial value.",book:{id:"11467",title:"Bismuth-Based Nanostructured Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11467.jpg"},signatures:"Francisco Adrián De la Torre-Martínez, Efren Delgado, María Dolores Josefina Rodríguez Rosales, Hiram Medrano-Roldán, Javier López-Miranda and Damián Reyes-Jáquez"},{id:"82940",title:"Role of Surface Defects and Optical Band-gap Energy on Photocatalytic Activities of Titanate-based Perovskite Nanomaterial",slug:"role-of-surface-defects-and-optical-band-gap-energy-on-photocatalytic-activities-of-titanate-based-p",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106253",abstract:"In recent years, water pollution has become one of the major challenges faced by humans because of consistent rise in population and industrial activities. Water pollution due to discharge from cosmetics and pharmaceutical wastes, organic dyes, and heavy metal seen as carcinogens has the potential to disrupt hormonal processes in the body. Different approaches such as chlorination, aerobic treatment, aeration, and filtration have been deployed to treat wastewaters before being discharged into the streams, lakes, and rivers. However, more attention has been accorded to treatment approaches that involve use of nanomaterial due to non-secondary pollution, energy efficiency, and ease of operation. Titanate-based perovskite (TBP) is one of the most frequently studied nanomaterials for photocatalytic applications because of its stability and flexibility in optical band-gap modification. This chapter provided an overview of basic principles and mechanisms of a semiconductor photocatalyst, and current synthesis techniques that have been used in formulating TBP nanomaterial. The effect of reaction conditions and approaches such as doping, codoping, composites, temperature, pH, precursor type, surface area, and morphology on surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP nanomaterial was highlighted. Importantly, the impact of surface defects and optical band-gap energy of TBP on its photocatalytic activities was discussed. Finally, how to enhance the degradation efficiency of TBP was proposed.",book:{id:"11469",title:"Recent Advances in Perovskite Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11469.jpg"},signatures:"Izunna Stanislaus Okeke, Priscilla Yahemba Aondona, Amoge Chidinma Ogu, Eugene Echeweozo and Fabian Ifeanyichukwu Ezema"},{id:"82718",title:"Refractories for the Cast Iron Melting",slug:"refractories-for-the-cast-iron-melting",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105973",abstract:"Refractory is a very important component in economically successful melting of cast iron. Refractory is used to line the furnace or any other vessel used for melting or holding of the molten metal. This chapter has discussed the different type of furnaces used for the melting of cast iron, the special features of those furnaces and the operational parameters of those furnaces with special emphasis on the coreless induction furnace, which is most commonly used. It has dealt with the installation practices of the refractory lining and also has discussed the mode of failure of the refractory lining and the precautions to be taken during installation and during use.",book:{id:"11766",title:"Cast Iron - Production, Properties, Characterization, and Casting Defects Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11766.jpg"},signatures:"Prasunjit Sengupta"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:80},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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\r\n\tThis series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in business and management, economics, and marketing. Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11970,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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