Relationship between production planning and control activities and the characteristics of a remanufacturing system [14]
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1958",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals - Global Approaches to Their Role in Nutrition and Health",title:"Phytochemicals as Nutraceuticals",subtitle:"Global Approaches to Their Role in Nutrition and Health",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Phytochemicals are biologically active compounds present in plants used for food and medicine. 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\r\n\tAdvances in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine as well as drug delivery system require designing 3D scaffolds with structural and functional similarities to native tissue. 3D scaffolds are fabricated using natural and synthetic materials in various forms depending upon the requirements of human tissue. Topographical features, mechanical, biochemical and physicochemical cues of 3D scaffolds are essentially important to regulate regenerated cell properties in vitro and/or in vivo. Moreover, scaffolds may require functionalization by integrating stimuli such as bioactive compounds (growth factors, peptides, plant extracts etc.) to facilitate regeneration of tissues.
\r\n\tThis book aims to highlight the novel and innovative techniques for designing and fabricating 3D scaffolds, their physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, the role of scaffolds on cellular behavior such as proliferation, migration, differentiation, and alignment of cells in vitro and in vivo tissue development, targeted delivery and sustain release of drugs and bioactive compounds, and development of acellular tissue substitutes.
\r\n\tThe scope of this book will include, but will not be limited to, following topics:
\r\n\t- Fabrication and characterisation of 3D scaffolds
\r\n\t- Incorporation of bioactive compounds on materials for biofunctionalisation
\r\n\t- Cellular behaviours on functionalized biomaterials
\r\n\t- Development of tissue substitutes
\r\n\t- Drug delivery system for targeted delivery and sustain release
\r\n\t- Acellular tissue substitutes for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine
Nowadays, the continuous technological innovations and the growing consumerism accelerate the rate at which products are replaced, causing the exponential increase in the production of waste and landfills’ saturation. The production processes of many products, however, requires a large amount of non-renewable resources and of substances that represents a potential threat to environment and human health if those products are not recovered or disposed of properly. This situation has turned on the environmental awareness of consumers and sensitized legislator from different countries to enact and implement specific laws and directives for the management of the end of the life cycle of products and to regulate the employment of hazardous materials. However, although disposed product represent a threat, they represent, also, a resource for companies that have to manage them, more if the recovery activities are properly integrated into the product’ design phase and manufacturing activities. In fact this situation is pushing toward new profit models, based on an integrated product life cycle management. The innovative policies oriented to recover disposed products on the one hand improve the efficiency in natural resources consumption, but on the other hand show new business opportunities to original equipment manufacturers and third-party companies. Among the different recovery options, remanufacturing is an important and interesting one. The aim of this chapter is to increase the wealth of technical/managerial ability to integrate the production cycle of new manufactured products with the recovery of discarded products In particular the multifaceted field of remanufacturing will be targeted identifying those strategic factors making the remanufacturing business sustainable from an economic point of view. In the second section the various models for an integrated product life cycle management will be presented together with the several recovery options. A brief discussion will be conducted on the impact of these choices on configuring a reverse logistics network. In the third section a profile of the remanufacturing industry has been drafted considering in particular its model of business. In fact, factors that have led various OEMs to undertake remanufacturing programs on their products are different and in many cases dependent on actors’ geographic location and the product category. Although many companies have started this activity as a mere compliance against increasingly compelling regulations aimed at products recovery, the empirical evidence shows that in the most successful cases companies simply tried to seize business opportunities already identified on that market. Companies designing remanufacturing programs within an integrated business model, with the aim to build a durable competitive advantage, put profit before legislative requirements and incentives. The purpose of this section, then, is to dissect the business of remanufacturing in order to highlight their strengths and weaknesses, its opportunities and its dangers. In the forth section we sum up some results of this study and future possible developments.
The recovery of the product,as an alternative to traditional disposal, is a response to environmental damage caused by the disposal of end of life products. Product recovery, in fact, minimizes the demand for energy and raw materials and the environmental impact of waste, and also provides the opportunity to start a profitable business. Therefore, environmental issues, eco-sustainability and production cost aspects are linked together.
Product recovery implies reviewing the management logic of product lifecycle, from an "open" production system to a "closed" one of variable length [1]. In the open loop logic, the process starts by taking resources from the ecosystem, when raw materials and energy are channeled into the transformation process, and ends with landfill disposal or incineration process. This situation is sustainable only if the natural resources consumption is lower than eco-system\'s ability to regenerate them.
On the other hand, in a closed loop supply chain some recovery activities delay the product disposal by starting new production cycles on the product, its part and components or raw materials. The adjective "closed", however, should not suggest a completely self-sufficient system, since the use of new resources is almost always necessary at each new cycle and it is related with the recovery option considered. Undoubtedly such a new approach to product lifecycle management improves the efficiency of the exploitation of natural resources and opens, at the same time, new business opportunities. The end of life phase is transformed into a testing time, to establish the most suitable recovery option to extend the product’s useful life. (Figure 1).
Products at final stage of their lifecycle, can be recovered in many ways and with different levels of efficiency in exploiting natural resources. In literature, these recovery options can be found (Figure 2):
reuse;
restoration;
refurbishing;
remanufacturing;
cannibalization;
recycling.
Open loop and closed loop supply chains [
Recovery options in a closed loop supply chain [
The recycling process is at the lowest level of recovery efficiency, it allows to recover only raw materials but not the added value of production cycle. Higher efficiency options, where the whole product, part or components are recovered, are reconditioning, remanufacturing and cannibalization. Intermediate options, are repair and reuse. A closed loop system consists of distribution, product recovery and waste management. The products and/or components, that come back through the reverse logistics channels, can be directly sold, recovered or disposed off.
The original definition of the remanufacturing concept is due to Robert Lund, professor at Boston University, a luminary in the study of this sector. His contribution paved the way for a systematic study of this recovery option. In literature there are many definitions of the remanufacturing concept [3,4] and a meaningful one is: "….remanufacturing is an industrial process whereby products referred as cores are restored to useful life. During this process the core pass through a number of remanufacturing steps, e.g. inspection, disassembly, part replacement/refurbishment, cleaning, reassembly, and testing to ensure it meets the desired product standards” [5].
The previous definition clearly refers to remanufacturing as a process, a set of linked activities, rather than a single step aimed at restoring the performance of a product. The same cannot be said, for example, for repair or reuse, which are simply defined as an activity.
This option is applied firstly to electronic and mechanical products and components, as they maintain, when recovered, a relatively high added value with respect to the market evaluation or to their original cost [6]. Gaudette and Giuntini consider this practice as the most evolved form of recycling: "…It Conserves not only the raw material content but also much of the value added during the processes required to manufacture new products " [7]. In fact, the energy used to remanufacture a product, basing on a study of Lund, is, on average approximately 20-25% of that required for an ex-novo manufacture, while the remanufacture cost is equal to about 60% of the original [8,9].
In Figure 3, the fundamental differences between the options of remanufacturing, reconditioning and repair are depicted, basing on three dimensions: warranty, product performance and content of work needed.
Hierarchy of recovery processes of a product intended for a secondary market [
The entire remanufacturing process can be decomposed in three sequential sub processes: disassembly, overhaul, reassembly. “The coordination of these sub-systems is key for a successful production planning and control system” [11].
According to Steinhilper [12] and Sundin [5] the activities composing a remanufacturing process can be divided into (Figure 4):
disassembly;
inspection;
sorting;
cleaning;
reprocessing;
reassembly;
checking and testing.
A generic remanufacturing process [
Empirical evidence shows that companies, involved in remanufacturing activities, organize their processes in different ways. Although the sequence disassembly -restore-assembly appears to be a fixed point, activities such as inspection, cleaning or testing have not an unique position into the process. The sequence, therefore, must be chosen considering the recovery process, the characteristics of the product, and the technology available for treatment.
The disassembly activity is located upstream of the entire process and it is extremely critical, since its implementation directly affects the quality of recovered material for successive activities. This step plays a central role in preserving the value of recovered cores. The main reasons for that are high incidence of manual labor, necessity of specialized equipment or time required. These issues are directly influenced by the design quality and its capability to respond not only to customer requirements but also to recovery necessity with higher environmental-friendly criteria. Several researches report that this phase is mainly carried out in a manual way, while the use of automation occurs only in case of large batches of standardized products [13]. The disassembly activity could be more complicated, if conducted by a third-party operator as it must develop a reverse engineering, rarely having access to OEM specifications.
The inspection and sorting phases are closely related: the second activity can be seen as the completion of the first one. The result is the sorting of cores into three subgroups:
"as is" reusable cores without need of revision;
Recoverable cores, for which a refurbish activity is necessity;
Not recoverable cores.
After inspection and sorting, it is possible to proceed to the cleaning phase of recovered parts. Cleaning goes beyond the elimination of dust and dirt from components [12]. Many cleaning processes cannot derive from the common ones of manufacturing processes. Therefore, the development of new ad-hoc solutions is necessary. As new methods are developed, they are more and more environmental friendly. It is crucial to implement such an operation with techniques and products that do not affect the component quality and combine a low environmental impact.
Reprocessing activities involve all those operations necessary to the component to provide a planned performance (or even higher if compared to new ones). The technical tools normally used are the same of manufacturing processes. The small size of batches can lead to the prevalence of manual work. There are some cases in which production lines, used for manufacture new products, have been "updated" to remanufacture recovered products.
The reconditioned components represent a large part of the remanufactured product. In order to limit the use of new parts, many times, the number of disassembled units can be increased if compared with the units to be re-assembled with the aim to recover enough parts from the cores.
The reassembly is the final phase to obtain remanufactured products. The greatest difficulty arises from ensuring a continuous flow, quantitatively and qualitatively adequate, in order to avoid blocks or slowdowns, inevitably resulting in higher costs and lower profits. The reassembly operation can be carried out with reprocessed or reused components, with new components or with cannibalized components. A monitoring problem arises as it is impossible to know in advance how many components can be reused or reprocessed. A possible solution is to purchase and store new components in case of need. However, this solution is not always suitable, because it increases the inventory level and obsolescence problems. It can be difficult to coordinate the reassembly of the various parts, if the reprocessing lead-times are uneven.
At the end of the whole process, there is a testing phase to ensure the achievement of quality standard set for this kind of products. Testing in remanufacturing contexts affects all products and is more rigorous than the random sampling in new products case.
Remanufacturing systems have a high level of uncertainty and complexity if compared to the traditional production systems. The management of these aspects makes the role of planning and control systems critical.In fact, companies, involved in remanufacturing activities, have to face a series of problems that limit the efficiency of their production process. These problems are typical of this sector and cannot be addressed by the traditional tools of planning and control. In literature, several technical and management issues have been identified [14]:
difficulties in disassembly of the product;
uncertainty about the quality of returns;
difficulties in matching of the parts;
uncertainty in working cycles and processing times;
the lack of correlation between returns and demand;
uncertainty in quantities and timing of returns;
configuring and managing a reverse logistics network.
From the Table 1 it can be argued that these features impact at various levels on the management of remanufacturing systems and in particular on the planning and production control activities.
Relationship between production planning and control activities and the characteristics of a remanufacturing system [14]
Virtually every manufactured product may be remanufactured at the end of its life cycle. However, aspects such as the business model or product’s design makes remanufacturing a certain product more profitable than others, or in some cases totally not convenient. Literature has tried to trace the profile of a remanufacturable item, using some parameters.
The main orientation of the research activities on this subject has been, not only to evaluate the "remanufacturability" from a strictly technical point of view, but also to verify the conditions that allow a sustainable business for the company. Parker identifies three key parameters for remanufacturable products [15]:
the intrinsic value, the market value of the product being reprocessed;
the re-constructability, the ease of disassembly a product and then its assembly at the end of recovery process;
the evolution rate, the speed at which new variants of the product are launched on the market.
Basing on these parameters, Parker recommends a legislative intervention intended to allow the reuse of components into new products, investments in research to develop the Design for Remanufacturing (DfRem) and the development of a system of services to extend product’s lifecycle and, if possible, to update it from a stylistic and functional point of view [15].
Robert Lund identified 75 categories of remanufacturable products and developed reference criteria also confirmed by subsequent research [6].
These criteria are:
the product is durable;
the product has only failed in its functionality;
the product is standardized and consists of interchangeable parts;
the added value at end of life, is high;
the cost to obtain the core is low if compared with the remaining intrinsic value;
the product’s technology is relatively stable over a period of time that exceeds the single lifecycle;
the consumer should be informed about the availability of remanufactured products, so to create an adequate demand on the market;
a technology exists to remove parts from products without damaging them and to restore the product.
Sundin identifies in a empirical way four relevant characteristics of product/component to simplify the implementation of activities required in a process of remanufacturing [5]:
wear resistant;
easy to identify;
easy to remove;
easy to be reprocessed.
These analysis provide a valuable support to identify those concerns during the design phase to facilitate a proper and simple reprocessing at the end of life.
In the current scenario, there is also the additional requirement of a minimum market value for certain categories of products, to secure a profit at the end of reprocessing. In fact, only on this condition, today, remanufacturing may be considered as an attractive business and not only conceived for environmental issues, but physiologically in loss. The low profit margin is due to the high labor cost involved in the various recovery options. This, however, should become secondary in the future thanks to the increased volumes of products to be treated with positive implications on economies of scale and experience, as well as the degree of automation in the process [16].
The remanufacturing business was born in United States during the Great Depression of the\'30s and achieved the final consecration during the Second World War, when the plants were converted to military commitments. Most of the available resources were reserved for war needs, while those for civilian use were very low. In this context, to balance the decreasing in supply of new products, used products were reprocessed extending their useful life.
This recovery option is currently used for several categories of products among which:
Aerospace and aeronautical;
Automotive ;
Industrial machinery;
gaming machines;
data communication systems;
robot;
electrical and electronic equipment with high residual value ;
compressors;
office supplies;
copiers;
printer cartridges;
musical instruments;
refrigeration appliances;
ATMs.
As it can be seen from the above list, the remanufacturing field mainly concerns consumer and durables goods for professional use. This recovery option has had, until today, a little impact on consumer goods. On these products, in fact, aspects such as fashion design or status, have a strong relevance on the purchase decision.
Today, remanufacturing is widespread in the sector of high value and high technology products. In addition, this recovery option thrives in those sectors that have adopted the concept of Product Service Systems (PSS), the costumer has access to the service provided by the product, without having the property of it. In this case, when the product is no longer able to deliver its performance, it is recovered to be used by other costumers, satisfying shared goals of longevity, durability and performance.
The remanufacturing industry is defined by Lund as an "hidden giant", in fact many companies operating in this sector is not devoted exclusively to remanufacturing activities, but practice them as an aftermarket service.
Data on the remanufacturing sector are rather difficult to find, because of the overlapping between Original Equipment Manufacturers and remanufacturers, among which there are OEM and "third party" operators, independent or working on commission. However, the potential growth of this business is very high, especially in new sectors and in the EU market, where it has so far been undervalued.
Distribution of companies engaged in remanufacturing by industry sector [17]
Basing on the research of Lund [17] the majority of companies engaged in this activity are independent actors with OEMs playing a restrained role. From Table II. 1 it can be argued that most of the US remanufacturers operate in the automotive sector, about 70% of the total. No coincidence that the automotive industry has a long tradition in the recovery of engines, but also of other vehicle parts, which can be used in several lifecycles before the final disposal. However, Table II 1 refers to data older than ten years. Today it is estimated that the weight of the automotive sector has been reduced in favor of other product categories such as office supplies or photography.
Turning to specific examples there are independent firms such as Flextronics, a US firm, with an international vocation and a comprehensive know-how to recover printers, PDAs, cell phones, medical equipment, notebooks and desktops.
About the OEMs, Xerox is a global leader in the remanufacturing of photocopiers and other office equipment, whose return is secured by lease sales [18]. The greatest obstacle to the success of remanufacturing program, according to officials, has been the spread of the idea among some customers that products containing some used parts, may be less in terms of performance to products consisting exclusively of new parts. The unique process, the technologies used and the product’s warranty should ensure that all products regardless of the presence of remanufactured parts, have the same quality standards, the same performance and the same reliability. Other companies like Kodak and Fuji normally practice this option on disposable cameras returning for the development of films. Caterpillar, involved in this business from 1972, recorded in 2005 for "Remanufacturing Division a revenue of $ 1bn. Other well-known brands involved in this field are General Electric, Boeing, Deere, Navistar, HP and Pitney Bowes. In the U.S., however, the larger re-manufacturer still remains the Department of Defense.
Basing on these data it can be noted an intense activity, which, however, is still restricted within specific business ambits. Only in particular cases and conditions, products are recovered on a large scale. However the remanufacturing process has difficulty to come out these limited areas and it is struggling to establish itself as an industrial application on a large scale, beyond the traditional sectors in a consumer goods application.
Remanufacturing companies tend to frame the satisfaction of customers’ need by placing on the market a product that optimizes also its life-cycle costs. More than through the selling activity, they try to create value providing a service through the product in a Product Service System concept, “a system of products, services, infrastructure and support network designed to be competitive, satisfy customers and have a lower environmental impact than a traditional business model” [19].
This business model has a central focus on customer satisfaction and value creation, keeping in mind that these results are not achieved only through technological development, but also emphasizing the contribution of intangible assets such as intellectual property, image, brand, design or style. These aspects, in fact, help the company to differentiate its products from the competition, improving the degree of "customization" of supply and strengthening the relationship between supplier and consumer.
The PSS model is widespread in various business sectors, where the relationship between consumers and companies can be articulated according to the three main approaches in Figure 5 [20]:
product orientation, where the product sale is also associated with additional services such as maintenance contracts and end-of-life repurchase agreements to ensure the functionality and the conservation of the product;
user orientation, where the product still remains central in the relationship but the service provider has the property of the product, that is available to consumers through various contractual arrangements such as leasing etc.;
result orientation, where the supplier and the consumer agree on a service delivery (without specifying a particular product).
The product-service concept [
Whatever is the orientation of the company, in general the value proposition relies on a combination of product and service with different weights. “The
In remanufacturing case, the value proposition is based more on a performance value than on product’s property. Corresponding to low economic sacrifices there are functional and psycho-social benefits. A PSS model emphasizes the de-materialization of the offer and the strict relationship with the consumer. The company’s competitive vision moves towards a product life-cycle perspective that starts from the product development and production, passes through additional services delivery, and ends up with product recovery or final disposal [23]. In addition, a co-creating value process is highlighted: the end user is requested to work together and more closely to the supplier, moving from a logic of satisfaction based on property of the product to one based on access to benefits deriving from its functionalities [24].
Those producers, providing a combination product / service through the remanufacturing option, focus, of course, on the product’s use and on end of life phases aiming at a cost reduction. In this perspective, in fact, many levers of profit for a traditional business (i.e. supply of spare parts and maintenance service) are transformed into additional costs that the company must internalize. Considering that a product will have multiple life cycles, a correct life cycle cost/benefit analysis must take into account not only the initial cost (to which apply the markup), but also those costs related to the whole useful life of the product and the corresponding revenues. The pricing strategy, in particular, will be evaluated according to criteria of multiperiod choice.
The relationship between customer and company becomes very strong. In a traditional business model the profits to companies derive from the costs incurred by customers (e.g. price of the product, cost of spare parts, etc..). The transition to a PSS model, however, distributes these benefits among the actors of the economic system. Both the company and the consumer obtain benefits, creating conditions for a win-win situation.
Remanufacturing business can involve OEMs, which remanufacture their own returned products, independent remanufacturers working on products from various producers, and committed, when OEMs decide to outsource remanufacturing activities. OEMs could face a great difficulty in controlling the entire product’s value chain and this can create the conditions for market entry of independent remanufacturers. In this case, the end of life products are remanufactured by small independent companies, faster to take market opportunities than the large ones. However, when the OEM itself chooses to rely on these independent remanufactures, as in the automotive sector, contracts on orders are developed.
OEMs are becoming increasingly aware of the opportunities offered by remanufacturing. Beyond the possible profits, it offers feedbacks on failure modes and duration of the products, moreover controlling the remanufacturing process allows companies to maintain a good reputation of their brand.
However, for different reasons not always managers have had a positive attitude towards this type of activity. Primarily they raise the problem of cannibalization between new and remanufactured products. “...Cannibalism occurs when the sale of some of a company’s portfolio of products reduces the sale level of one or more products in the company’s portfolio of products” [25].
Although in literature the issue of cannibalization between products has been treated from different point of view, there is not an organic study concerning the cannibalization of new products by the remanufactured ones. However, that is to be considered desirable if it allows to maintain company’s market share [26]. In fact, the incertitude of an OEM may represent a business opportunity for independent remanufacturers, but also for direct competitors.
Even if Linton verifies, for an OEM introducing on the market a remanufactured version of its product, a decrease, in relative terms, in profitability, considering all the market this trend is not so obvious [27]. An increasing in sales of remanufactured products could be accompanied by a lower decrease in sales of new products, perhaps because a diversification of the offer reaches customers who would never have bought new products, or because this move would make the remanufacturing business less attractive to independent actors with a consequent decrease in their competitive intensity. So, there are many good reasons to believe that a certain type of cannibalization can increase the overall level of sales, especially under two conditions:
the remanufactured product, if sold at a lower price, could be used in alternative ways;
the product could be offered to market segments very sensitive to price
The importance of the participation of an OEM to the remanufacturing process causes usually a positive effect on return rate and quality of cores (intermediaries, engaged in the collection of cores, may retain only those of higher quality). However, third parties cannot have the same economies of scale of an OEM and compensate this weakness with a wide freedom of movement both from a strategic point of view (an independent remanufacturer can treat cores of different brands) and technological.
The use of outsourcing for remanufacturing activities can be a complicating factor in this context. Toffel, in fact, recognizes a trade-off between internalization and outsourcing [28]. According to this author, an OEM should consider a vertical integration (or even a joint venture), rather than relying on independent companies, when tacit knowledge, confidential information related to the design, engineering and production phase, are involved. Moreover, this choice should be made when there is a risk of becoming dependent on third-party because of components becoming rare.
So, a competitive or collaborative relationship may develop between the players of this business. The competition may concern both the final market and the procurement market of cores. For this reason, there are various deterring actions for new incomings. They range from legal restrictions (which prohibits a third party to remanufacture products) to technological or economic restrictions, such as encrypted code known only by OEMs or prohibitive tariffs on relicensing software, in order to discourage or, at least, make the process more expensive.
The possible collaboration relationships may be work on commission or full outsourcing. In some cases the practice of de-branding could occur, i.e., the OEM requires that its products, entering a secondary market through third parties, have a different look, in particular, the original brand is removed. However, this operation requires additional work and may be expensive [29]. It is also possible to find cases of
The system value of a remanufacturing process is depicted in figure 6. From this figure it can be argued that the value systems of direct production and remanufacturing are strictly integrated, sharing some upstream stages (on the supply side) and some downstream (on the distribution side). There is a very little difference if an OEM or an independent remanufacturer is involved in the remanufacturing process, in fact the current trend for OEMs is to devote different facilities to manufacturing and remanufacturing activities. In some cases they employ hybrid systems rather than fully integrated production systems because of the specificity and uncertainty characterizing the remanufacturing process. The trend is to configure two different networks for forward and reverse flows.
Value System of remanufacturing The role of information is crucial in influencing consumer’s behaviour. Unfortunately there is not a systematic study on this subject. Nevertheless, basing on [
What distinguishes the
This model of value creation integrates the end customer, not only, as a player in the use phase, but also as a potential supplier of products to recover. The customer becomes a node of the network and with his behaviour impacts on the effectiveness of reverse logistics. If consumers does not return back their end of life products, there is a lacking of raw material to remanufacture. The reverse logistics system creates physical flows of products, but also intangible flows of information. So, the remanufacturing player bets on a collaborative attitude of consumers, moreover it work to formulate specific policies to facilitate it. Remanufacturers rely on networks allowing to save resources and to spread fixed costs over more use cycles of products, whit physical return flows supporting feedback on products’ performance and on market evolution in terms of requirements.
Consumers’ behavior is particularly complex to analyze with reference to the remanufacturing business, since they can cover two potential roles:
purchaser of a product (new or remanufactured);
supplier of a core.
According to a microeconomic approach the preferences of a consumer can be analyzed through the “Willingness to Pay", the maximum price he are willing to pay for a certain good. This parameter can be measured through questionnaires, games, auction mechanisms, etc.. Camacho et al. studied the willingness to pay for an environmentally friendly product using surveys and economic experiments [30].
An interesting aspect of this study is that the participants said they were willing to pay for a product improvement in an ecological sense, but this inclination was not related to the magnitude of improvements made. This situation has important implications for corporate strategy, because the company could benefit from a rise in consumer WTP only marginally improving product’s environmental performance. Therefore, it depends much on the marketing policy adopted, than on the actual environmental performance delivered. Needless to say that situations which may lend themselves to abuse must be faced.
An index to monitor the behaviour of the consumer as a supplier of used products may be the "Willingness to Receive" (WTR:), the minimum price at which a person is willing to make his product available to supply a reverse logistics program. In this situation, the customer must be encouraged to return its product through specific policies (e.g., repurchase price, leasing, buy-back transactions, etc.).
The WTR is, also, influenced by the exchange of information between the parties. With other conditions being equal, we can expect a high WTR if the company organizes an effective collecting system for end of life products, because this can be interpreted by customers as the demonstration of company’s interest towards the product.
On the contrary, if the collecting phase is conducted by a no profit organization the WTR lowers significantly and philanthropic purposes take over. Contracts, linking enterprise and consumer, may be critical: in a leasing case, in fact, the company don’t have to push the consumer to return the product back. Moreover, it is important how the consumer perceives the value of used products. The remanufacturing is focused on preserving the added value of products, but in many cases the consumer is not aware of it [31].
It must be also considered the fact that, although European legislation is based on maximum transparency in order to promote an informed purchase, in many countries, especially developing ones, there is no obligation to communicate to consumers the status (remanufactured or not) of a certain product. In these cases firms may exploit the information asymmetry to their advantage, keeping silent about product’s nature. In contrast to it, there could be an information campaign with emphasis on the value proposition, namely low economic sacrifices to get the product in exchange for high returns for consumers in both functional (performance is comparable or higher of new products) and psycho-social (think about the value of environmental benefits for ecologically sensitive subjects). In many cases the result of information campaigns has been to overcome the distrust of the market, especially if it starts from a proper definition of the target customer profile.
The potential market consists of consumers and businesses. The drivers, that may spark interest for a remanufactured product, environmental sensibility, or in the case of durable goods, product’s features that discourage or not allow access to a new one. In a vertically segmented market, a company may choose to serve two different target customers with the same product, using variables such as price and quality. So, on the same iso-value line, it is possible to locate “the primary market” and “the secondary market”. The two offers are the same in relative terms, but different in absolute terms.
On the primary market the value proposition concerns the best quality products sold at a high price, on the secondary market, on the contrary, are sold low quality products sold at a lower price. The product’s quality refers not only to functional aspects but also to product’s image and its perception by the customer himself. In fact, many remanufactured products are sold at a lower price than the new ones, even if they have similar characteristics, due to its perception by the consumer, who associates the concept of remanufactured product with that of used product.
The different perception linked to new and remanufactured products is closely related to the philosophy of product recovery and not only to the specific required remanufacturing activities. Some firms, for example, might sell new products at a certain price and remanufactured products (or
The type of products (new, remanufactured or refurbished) sold in the primary market, depends on the specific situation considered. Primary and secondary markets are generally separated from a geographical point of view, but this is not always true because in some cases they can even overlap. This is the case of offers devoted to consumers sensitive to the environmental impact of purchasing decisions, to the less affluent social groups most sensitive to price or, in general, to consumers of products with very high price elasticity (i.e. office consumables materials).
However, in these evaluations are also involved aspects such as product’s characteristics, its intrinsic value or its propensity to technological obsolescence, brand policy, characteristics of the target market. For example, primary and secondary markets, which tend to be separated in the case of mobile phones, overlap when automotive components and industrial machinery are considered. The concept of primary and secondary markets are connected to the several possibilities of product recovery and to different prices of recovered products.
The development of secondary markets, especially for Electric and Electronic Appliances, is strongly linked to growth in demand for these products in developing countries. It is easy to understand how these markets are definitely the most attractive to businesses. In areas like Latin America or Equatorial Africa, in fact, demand for these products is growing at two-digit rates. For example in Nigeria that, from 2000 to 2006, there has been an increasing number of mobile lines (from one to about 25 million). Because of the economic conditions of that population, a significant share of this demand was satisfied with mobile phones and accessories (210,000 used cell phones imported only in 2005) used or remanufactured imported from more developed countries.
In Nigeria there is a high rate of repair and reuse of mobile phones. This extends their life from about 18 months in developed countries to approximately 7 years. A further aspect that encourages the use of remanufactured products is the high availability of cores, especially in developed countries.
In addition to Nigeria and other African countries, a significant demand also comes from countries of South America and Asia, particularly from Brazil and China. It has been estimated that the demand for second hand mobile phones is still higher than their availability [32].
Offering a remanufactured product can increase the usefulness perceived by the consumer, whose willingness to pay for products in like-new conditions should increase with respect to second hand products. Meanwhile the manufacturer can increase its profits leveraging on products that can become attractive after appropriate transformations. Therefore, changes on the demand level and price could occur [33].
The importance of secondary markets for companies is demonstrated, also, by the fact that often a product not having demand in the primary market, could still have a certain attractiveness in secondary markets. For mobile phones, for example, the secondary market cannibalizes less than 1% of sales of new products [29]. Another type of secondary market is that of components. For example, computer chips may have an alternative use in devices simpler from a technological point of view, like toys etc..
A remanufacturing process can allow an higher saving of natural resources if compared to other forms of reuse. According to the Energy Systems Division of Argonne National Laboratory, through this type of product recovery the equivalent of 422 * 1021J of energy per year can be saved. This energy would be used to satisfy the need of new components, that in the remanufacturing case is reduced of about 80%.
The energy saving is associated with lower emissions of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere for 800.000 t. In a long term perspective if everything would be recovered from returned products, a closed loop cycle for management of products / wastes could occur eliminating the use of landfill.
Waste form electronic and electric appliances, in particular, can cause serious health damage, since they contain a wide range of hazardous substances such as cadmium, chromium or mercury. For these reasons, the legislation from several countries in the world have been improved several times to ensure a correct management of potentially dangerous products during their lifecycle.
However from an environmental point of view it is important to check the opportunity of prolonging the life of a product, especially if potentially obsolete or polluting. In fact, that the impact of many products is higher during the use phase than in the disposal one [34].
Therefore even the best environmental intentions can lead to product take-back regulations counterproductive if not coordinated with the type of materials resulting from the recovery process. This lack coupled with the breakthrough role of technology has created a strange situation that still does not find solution.
The product recovery can be a profitable business, in fact a remanufacturing process can allow a general price reduction of 35% - 40% with an average margin of 20% [16]. Furthermore, the reuse allows saving in raw materials and energy, avoiding the disposal costs that OEM by law have to support.
The cost reduction is at the base of profitability of this business and can ensure appropriate returns on investment. This will benefit the competitive position of the company that can share these benefit with its customers.
In a multi period perspective, the cost reductions do not affect only remanufactured products, but also the new ones. The pricing policy, in fact, has to take into account that many of the costs incurred,during first production cycle, can also be amortized in the following remanufacturing cycles. Often, recovery programs are not started fearing for the negative effect on sales of new products. This is a
Moreover, the strong tensions on market prices of materials, due to the rapid growth of some developing countries, are making the direct costs of materials an increasingly important factor of business profitability, as the labour costs. “…As valuable resources become scarcer and more expensive, companies managing their resources efficiently are likely to gain a competitive advantage” [31].
In many cases, strategies aimed at exploiting the added value of the product, as a policy of relocation, could be source of competitive advantage. Therefore, the profitability of this business is more pronounced if the incidence of raw materials, on the full cost of the product, is high.
Among the benefits of a remanufacturing program we can find the achievement of economies of scale and experience. The increase of production size allows to spread fixed costs over a higher volume of output. However, the economies of experience allow to maximize the overall efficiency of the process optimizing the use of variable factors and the time required for operations. For example, the benefits may relate to aspects such as quality of recovered materials, waste reduction, processes organization. In this case tacit knowledge is very important. It becomes crucial how this resource is managed by the organization to allow a wide spread use and exploitation, through various stages of socialization, externalization, combination and internalization in order to create explicit knowledge [35].
Ferrer and Guide argue that ethical and environmental reasons alone are not sufficient to justify a remanufacturing program [36]. Each firm to produce profits focuses on core activities and outsources the others. Eco-friendly production logic and principles of CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) follow this approach.
In the US the business of product recovery and remanufacturing, has not developed only for regulation reasons or environmental awareness. Legislative obligations, incentives and taxes intended to address the problem, were not the key determinants for the emergence of this industry. This is also testified by the fact that the remanufacturing business was already established in different sectors before the concepts of EPR or Product Stewardship, grow up. The determining factor turns to be the business profitability, beyond environmental aspects or taxes.
The aspects related to policy and corporate strategy, although not directly related to the purpose of profit, could be particularly important for OEMs in starting remanufacturing activities. Among these there are the connotation of brand, the corporate image, the aftermarket coverage, feedback on sold products.
The image is a very critical factor in a successful business because it can only be built through a shrewd marketing policy and substantial investment diluted in time. Products devoted to remanufacturing activities, if not consistent with market expectations, could significantly damage the relationship between consumer and OEM regardless of who has carried out the remanufacturing activities.
For this reason it is crucial for an OEM to be interested in these activities. The purpose may be to stop any remanufacturing activity on its products, preventing others players from exploiting its brand image and possibly causing unwanted effects through lock-out systems, or to manage remanufacturing activities on its products.
As regards the implications of building a strong brand image, the company that enhances, in the public eye, its focus on the environmental problems by means of a suitable marketing strategy, can create an
The information used can be of two types: associated with the lower environmental impact of products and / or related to its higher performance. These two types are not mutually exclusive, rather, from their synergy the company can get the best results in terms of image return.
The first type of information is intended to highlight the aspect of product such as reduced use of resources, greater durability, the reduced number of components, the absence of environmentally hazardous materials in the product or its production process. The latter, instead, aims to highlight the performance which consumers can expect using it as, for example, greater accuracy, increased flexibility, modularity, etc.. The latter, instead, aim to highlight the performance which consumers can expect using it as, for example, greater accuracy, increased flexibility, modularity, etc.. All these information are intended to influence judgments and feelings of consumers, to amplify the potential value of the offer, working on those aspects to which the target market is more sensitive.
For an OEM collecting used components and products from its customers allows to preside over the aftermarket. In many cases this market turns out to be very profitable even more the main one. Recovery activities through the collection of end of life products is a way to preserve the aftermarket by competitors or potential players. The take-back activity represents an opportunity to maintain and increase the value of customer relationships. The product return represents a moment of interaction with customer with the chance to establish a new relationship. Hence the importance of policies aimed at valuing this phase, perhaps through an incentive system that motivates the customer to return the product. Business models like "System Lock-In, Competitor Lock-Out" oriented to a "Restricted Access" can limit the opportunities for contact between the customer and competitors preventing new consumer experiences, and comparisons of several offers. The complementary aspects of the offer and the economies of the system should be taken into account, considering also those systems that allows the multi-period use of products [37].
Conversely, avoiding to consider this option, means not to cover a market opportunity, waiving a retention action, and, yielding to competitors. A evidence of that is represented by the statements of a German manager of the automotive industry: "officially a remanufactured engine can be purchased only if a core is returned. But if a customer provides the core without buying a remanufactured product, we tend to buy it anyway, because otherwise it could become "food" for competitors "[38].
The remanufacturing process allows to extend the offer and introducing also low-cost options, to conquer new market spaces. This could be particularly important when spaces are not relevant [38]. Moreover, for products with a very long life-cycle, remanufacturing represents the only option to ensure replacement parts, because it is very difficult that companies provide new manufactured parts beyond a certain period of time. Remanufacturing activities allow a continuous monitoring of customer needs and conditions of installed products. Basing on these information, companies may decide reformulate its offer in a proactive way. Information highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of products can be collected as an input for the design phase of the product. In particular, the most critical data are the deterioration under the actual operating conditions, since many information are impossible to anticipate or difficult to simulate during experiments.
There are several reasons for considering remanufacturing as a business opportunity very attractive in a competitive advantage view. Savings in terms of natural resources through remanufacturing may be viewed as a reduction of the transactions between the actors involved in order to improve the overall efficiency of the economic system.
However, this improvement should be not considered only from an environmental and sustainability point of view, as produces lower production costs for companies. In fact they limit the purchase of raw materials and maximize the added value of their products with the additional benefits of feedback on products, image, customer relationships, and diversification.
A virtuous business, recovery-oriented, requires the transition from an industrial economy to an access economy, where services and the dematerialization are predominant. Hence, the most advanced form of value proposition based on a remanufactured product is represented by a result-oriented positioning, where there is an agreement contract with the customer based on target performance.
However, not always the relationship between customer and producer has evolved into a pure access one for several reasons: a marked relationship with the ownership of the product still remains for certain categories of products; the companies have not been able to promote correctly their value proposal to the market; the market is not ready yet for this kind of experience.
The criticality of technical, technological and design aspects in remanufacturing, shows that the value system of a remanufactured product goes towards a situation where the presence of independent actors decreases in favor of OEMs, who should overcome, therefore, fears of a possible substitution effect of remanufactured products with new ones.
A future development of this study could be, as a preliminary activity to any remanufacturing program, the development of a logical model for the evaluation of remanufacturability a generic product taking into account logistics, demand and technology aspects of the recovery process.
Technological advances in the areas of computing, software development, internet, internet of things, cloud computing, and several other areas that encompass the New Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) brought changes in work routines, education, and even in social relationships. The ICT concept refers mainly to processes and products related to knowledge stemming from electronics, microelectronics, and telecommunications. These technologies are characterized by being evolutionary - that is to say, they are in permanent transformation. According to [1, 2], the Information Society or Knowledge Society is a phenomenon in which different instances (social, political, cultural, educational) are mediated by technological means. This new articulation allowed the consolidation of several remote activities such as virtual work, online classes, virtual communities for the development of activities of various kinds, providing new forms of the process of generating, acquiring, retaining, and sharing knowledge, with the emergence of platforms dedicated to formal and informal teaching-learning processes in digital media. Some researchers still believe that the maturity and excellence of remote work and education processes has not yet been reached. The processes of knowledge acquisition and sharing in digital environments still present several barriers. [2] emphasizes that access to technology is not what guarantees access to the digital world, as it is necessary “to be in a position to actively participate in the collective intelligence processes that represent the main interest of cyberspace”.
The concepts of digital literacy and media literacy are also relevant, as they are defined in this work as elements linked to the use of ICT that enable the construction and sharing of knowledge. As defined by Livingstone [3], the concept of media literacy is a set of basic and advanced skills relating individual skills to social practices, crossing the border between formal and informal knowledge. For [4], the literacy is conditioned to the process of access to information, its critical understanding, and the production of new knowledge from this process, since they consider that “the critical dimension of literacy is the basis to ensure that participants can not only act in a practice and build a meaning within it, but can transform and actively produce it in various ways”. Thus, digital literacy is related to different competencies that allow network users to access information on multiplatform, to critically and strategically evaluate it, and to use it for different purposes, from the acquisition process to sharing said knowledge, thus reaching the objectives sought.
Starting from the ICTs, the concepts of digital and media literacy, and the processes of knowledge sharing in LMS, we enter into the contemporary proposals of the use of gamification for the development and consumption of teaching-learning platforms and contents. From this introduction, the chapter structure presents the methodology used, the gamification relationships with accessible LMS, the use of Design Thinking as a model for building the gamification process, the importance of developing accessible LMS, strategies for the development of accessible platforms from gamification and design thinking, and the conclusions and proposals of future works.
The research methodology adopted was qualitative, with an exploratory and descriptive study approach. According to [5, 6], through the qualitative method, one seeks in the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data, paradigms that can validate the observations and considerations regarding the research. [5] also points out that during the process, the researcher immerses themselves in the environment in which the research is being developed to relate their object of research to the study environment, drawing the conclusions in relation to the initial proposal.
The bibliographic review was carried out in books, articles, journals, dissertations, and theses, and with research also supported in scientific databases. The themes cut out for this first filter were the search for works that brought approaches related to objects of learning, gamification, design thinking, and accessibility on the web.
Then, we sought to filter the results of the first research with the scope of developing education platforms, accessibility, and possible gamified approaches. As an exploratory study, we sought to use the collection of information and studies from the bibliographic review, identifying the possibilities of applying gamification and design thinking in the development of accessible LMS, aiming to list steps to develop an accessible LMS with gamified resources for visually and hearing-impaired people, and the proposal to use design thinking and also gamification for organizing the flow of production and development of LMS, exploring gamification with a focus on accessibility tools, stimulating their implementation since the beginning of the project. Combined with the exploratory and descriptive study, Design Science Research - DSR precepts were adopted. The method is based on Design Science and was chosen for bringing an iterative construction proposal according to the prototyping, construction, and product evaluation processes.
The Design Science methodology seeks a scientific or technological gain from a raised problem. Technological research points to the design of an artifact to solve the problem and/or contribute to the area through gains in the field of research. But in addition to building a product, model, artifact, method, instance, it is essential to advance the theory and that the knowledge produced is disseminated in academic bodies and in the area in question, so that it can spread the dissemination of the knowledge produced to researchers, scientists, professionals and/or users in the research area, in order to guide them in solving problems. The choice of DSR is justified because, according to [7] the method “underlies and operationalizes the conduct of research when the objective to be achieved is an object or prescription”.
Under the DSR’s precepts, the path outlined in the research used the following DSR steps:
Problem identification;
Awareness of the problem,
Literature review;
Identification of artifacts and configuration of problem classes;
Proposition of artifacts to solve the problem.
As mentioned, the DSR methodological scope was not applied in full, as the following steps (artifact design and artifact development); evaluation of the artifact; clarification of learning) will be applied in future steps, as we present in this chapter the scope of the research project and artifact proposal.
The initial steps of the research are presented here due to their relevance to the particular discussions regarding the artifact, which according to [8], is the organization of the components of the internal environment to achieve objectives in a given external environment.
Figure 1 shows how the design of an artifact should consider the different layers of the artifact’s development process:
Layers of the artifact development process: Adapted from [
Thus, artifacts are built to seek a solution in a given class of problems. According to [8], before starting the design or development of an artifact, it is necessary to consult what exists about this artifact in the scientific bases as well as its application in real environments. With this, it is possible to ensure greater assertiveness of the researcher when proposing the artifacts that can solve a given problem situation. Once a possible artifact solution is chosen, the researcher must take care of the development of the artifact itself. From the DSR, this research presents the DSR as a basis for the research, development and testing of the artifact, also associating the steps of design thinking with the method.
Gamification is presented in this research as a tool to enhance learning in accessible LMS, as well as to stimulate the development of accessibility tools by developers. For [9], the resource can help in the enrichment of educational experiences, as a way in which the student recognizes and responds through a differentiated use experience, very close to the experience he has in the simple act of playing. The term gamification was used for the first time in the early 2000s, but it was not noticed as something that deserved the attention of the industry. As of 2010, its use began to be observed in a series of conferences and events of great public in the world [10]. According to [9], the use of game design elements outside the context of games is called gamification. [11] see in gamification a possibility of creating “learning spaces mediated by challenge, pleasure, and entertainment”. [12] defend the use of gamification in education, suggesting that the use of game mechanics in the learning process increases the commitment of users, making activities more attractive and captivating. Based on the authors, it is pointed out that in addition to the proven benefits to the target audience, also proposing that the development of software with game elements can bring benefits to the final product, as the developers are also experiencing the user experience process by following a gamified dynamic.
Gamification appears as a possibility of education in which the barriers of time and space can be broken with the use of appropriate technologies. However, changes in the behavior of the subjects involved in the teaching and learning process are necessary so that demotivation does not occur and the main focus, which is education, is not lost. [13] present several characteristics and recommendations for the use of gamification in learning objects, among which we can mention the use of challenges, the possibility of teamwork, self-motivation, and the construction of social bonds. [14] bring other essential characteristics: the goal of the game, the well-defined rules, the feedback system, and voluntary participation.
For [15], gamification is formed by four principles - the basis, mechanics, esthetics, and thinking as in a game:
the foundation of games is the creation of an environment or system in which people want to invest their cognition, time, and energy. Basically, it seeks to favor the engagement of individuals in abstract challenges defined by rules that have interactivity and feedbacks that result in quantifiable responses, culminating emotional reactions;
mechanics are crucial blocks of rules used in the gamification process. Mechanics alone are not enough to transform a given experience into an engaged one, but they contribute to it;
esthetics corresponds to the look and feel of experience, essential elements in the gamification process. It encompasses how the experience is esthetically perceived by the individual;
thinking as in a game is the most important attribute in the gamification process - It corresponds to the idea and thought of converting a boring or monotonous task into a motivating activity, applying elements such as: competition, exploration, cooperation, and narrative. It becomes a virtual facts manager that promotes insights into real-world operations.
The development of platforms, LMS and other content flows related to knowledge has been increasingly developed through gamification. Among the justifications for its use, [16] points out that the challenges present in the games are invitations to the adventure of knowledge and to a dynamic learning experience within the work and education processes.
In relation to the learning mobilized in gamified LMS, for Piaget, errors mobilize learning because they allow reflection to solve problems. The immersion process of students within the LMS is enhanced by the gamification process and the experience can even articulate interactions and collective missions between students, providing the construction of knowledge shared through the Human Computer Interaction – HIC - process. This correlation indicates the associative potential of the gamification process with learning objects in classroom or distance education. The process uses an articulation of knowledge through an initial base, challenges to promote acquisition and sharing, missions that allow and enable learning from mistakes and the achievement of objectives, culminating in performance feedback and the advancement of levels, with benefits and prizes.
According to [17], “the evolution from
Analyzing the use of the Design Thinking approach to education and the gamification process, we can see the possibility of applying some of the concepts proposed by [18] such as empathy, prototyping, and design of experiences. In this perspective, the gamification process based on design thinking must work with the construction of a platform and its contents using steps like discovery, interpretation, ideation, experimentation, and evolution.
As [19] point out, this type of development must be collaborative and integrated, with group-oriented actions, collective participation in decision-making, self-regulating coordination, systemically organized thinking, and by building relationships through empathy.
Design thinking associated with gamification seeks to optimize products by matching human needs with available technical resources and considering the practical constraints of the projects. Thus, in the development of gamified platforms under the precepts of design thinking, the teacher and the team of developers carry out an intense investigation of how the platform and its contents meet the needs of students, as well as how to create added value for students who use it. To [20] the design thinking process is essentially centered on the human being who emphasizes observation, collaboration, rapid learning, visualization of ideas, rapid construction of prototypes, learning from failures, allowing a project to be validated more effectively and with public feedback.
This project model used in gamification in education contributes to the development of platforms closer to the needs of students, since, according to [21], agents are organized based on behaviors derived from mental models, focused on insights, observation and empathy, linked to other concepts of design thinking such as collaboration, creation, experimentation, and prototyping. From the initial ideas, one can use premises and hypotheses developed from the students’ experiences, bringing to their content the insights; the “collaboration” process with the multidisciplinary team; the creation of prototypes in a simplistic and objective way, and experimentation of prototypes with students to collect feedback on inconsistencies and errors, redefining the product.
This process should always be guided by the student’s needs, raised at the beginning of the project and the premises of knowledge construction through game strategies that, according to [22] mobilizes students to interact with the gamified environment receiving immediate feedback of their actions, being able to interpret their choices according to their goals. When they continuously repeat this cycle (action-feedback-interpretation) it allows players to gradually develop their cognitive abilities. Combined with design thinking, gamification allows developers and users to benefit from these processes, allowing LMS to be thought of since its development with triggers to stimulate immersion and the “Flow State”, defined as “an activity carried out without the expectation of any future benefit, but simply because doing it is the reward itself” [22]. Figure 2 shows the flow path:
Diagram showing the path for the flow state (source: Adapted from Csikszentmihalyi for authors, p. 74).
The Theory of Flow by Csikszentmihalyi presents how some experiences can take its participant to a Flow state. Mihaly created the autotelic experience model, considered “a self-sufficient activity, carried out without the expectation of any future benefit, but simply because doing it is the reward itself” [22]. With the proposal to develop an accessible LMS with gamification we intend to promote this flow from A1 to A4, promoting students and developers of different profiles to rise from their challenges occurring according to their ability (A1). When starting the path, the Flow state is suggested, but this soon turns into boredom (A2), as the skills have already increased and no longer correspond to the initial challenge. But as soon as a new challenge is proposed, the feeling becomes anxiety (A3), since now the person intends to overcome this new challenge and reach the Flow state (A4) again. According to [23] the individual reaches their Flow state in two moments: A1 and A4, which are equally pleasant. What differs these times is the level of skill acquired, because upon reaching the full Flow state the individual realizes that his skill corresponds to the level of the challenge proposed, transforming motivation into stimulus.
In the article “Flow in games (and everything else)”, [24] it is pointed out that Csikszentmihalyi’s research and personal observations identified eight major components of Flow that can be associated with the gamification process: challenging activity requiring skill; a merging of action and awareness; clear goals; direct, immediate feedback; concentration on the task at hand; a sense of control; loss of self-consciousness; an altered sense of time. In addition to platforms that allow dynamic knowledge, that encourage and mobilize students to learn, exchange experiences, and share knowledge, it is also important to think about the experience of the different users who can use the platforms. In this context, in addition to the development of the platform and its contents and dynamics, the accessibility of disabled people must also be taken into account, following the accessibility guidelines from the beginning of the project to allow any user to have access to the available content.
People with any type of disability have always lived on the margins of society for centuries. According to [23], the history of prejudice has always been present and many people have been placed on the margins of society because they have some type of disability. The search for inclusion begins to occur mainly in the post-1960s period, as a result of the struggle of organizations working to defend the rights of disabled people. Through innumerable guidelines, regulations and norms carried out, actions emerge that mobilize the path of social inclusion. In the search for rights, a very important motto for disabled people arises: “Nothing About Us Without Us”. According to [25], the motto communicates the idea that no policy or decision regarding the rights of disabled people without the full and direct participation of the members of the group affected by this policy. The author also points out that in the words of the disabled person, there would be the understanding that “no matter how good the intentions of non-disabled people, public agencies, companies, social institutions or society in general, we no longer accept to receive results forged against us, even for our benefit.”
Ref. [25] also points out that inclusion is necessary, as it cannot be seen as a utopia, but a possibility before the eyes against prejudices and masked forms of exclusion. It is not possible to think about inclusion without fighting the processes of exclusion inherent in life in society.
In this research, we propose the development of accessible environments based on the recommendations made by groups such as the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and Global Learning Consortium (GLC), including Web Accessibility Initiative - World Wide Web Consortium (WAI-W3C), IMS GLC - Accessibility Guidelines (IMS GLC-ACC) and Web Accessibility Initiative - Accessible Rich Internet Applications (WAI-ARIA) and [26] proposal, in which he proposed based on the web accessibility guidelines, on universal design and their possibilities to promote inclusion in Learning Objects accessible to people with visual impairments and people with hearing impairments. According to the researcher, to promote accessibility in digital content, varied media such as texts, audio, videos, animated images, static images, etc. should be used. The guidelines created provide recommendations for making media elements accessible by making alternative media available.
According to [26] alternative media are alternative content which function as an extension of equivalent content and are provided in different ways, but with the same ultimate learning objective. Alternative texts can be considered alternative texts; textual transcription of the video; extended audio description; audio description synchronized with the video; subtitles or captions for sounds; sign language interpretation for sounds. Equivalent media, on the other hand, are content identical to each other, but provided in a different mode, for example, a text available in the LMS and the same text associated with a file for printing in Braille.
But in addition to the recommendations of the W3C and GLC groups - categorization of menus and submenus and high-contrast, for example, the researcher also proposed as alternative media to ensure accessibility the use of resources that must be available to be activated in digital environments such as printing Braille text, audio description, sign language, subtitles for the deaf and people with hearing loss.
The general organization of the media and the alternatives required to ensure accessibility of the content must be thought of from the initial design of an LMS, promoting the native development of the environment to ensure accessibility. Using the proposed by [26], this research makes an initial cut for the development of accessibility in LMS for people with visual impairment and people with hearing impairment, presenting some peculiarities in the next items.
For educators, the concern with blindness focuses on the necessary and appropriate conditions for satisfactory development and learning. The moment in which blindness occurs is also important. For [27] “the person who is born blind, who establishes his object relations, structures his ego, and organizes all of his cognitive structure from hearing, touch, kinesthesia, smell, and taste, differs from someone who loses their vision after their development has already occurred”. This distinction is made because the perceptions constructed by those who have had visual acuity are imagery.
The references of those who were born blind - or became blind until the age of 5 - are built and centered in other senses, having a different perception of the world in relation to those who have low vision or acquired blindness. Thus, this relationship with the imagery world is compromised but this does not mean the loss of their ability to understand. Researchers start to emphasize the disabled person as a social being in which, their marginalization in relation to the world deprives them of a development of the senses. [28] brought this reflection in relation to the construction of identity, pointing out that blindness is not a defect, a lack, a weakness, but in some sense, it is also the origin of a new manifestation of skills, an additional, a strength - however strange and paradoxical that this idea may seem. The researcher starts to interpret the lack of a sense - the vision - as a means of linking a process of improvement of the other cognitions, in which they start to develop and refine the touch, smell, and hearing to compensate for the loss of vision. In relation to learning, [29] point out that the individuality of each person, in a more latent way for the visually impaired due to their lack or reduced vision, makes the learning processing mode also present specific characteristics, combining remaining sensory information for the mental construction of space. The researchers reinforce the value of language and the social experience it provides among people with sight loss and people with vision. Through language, the visually impaired individual is able to approach the culture and context of the person with vision.
Thus, it is essential that the materials available on the internet and in VLE have alternative media resources (such as text resources with larger sources or audio description, for example) to provide access and mediation to language and knowledge. As previously mentioned, the process of knowing and relating to the world goes through the process of language acquisition and mastery that can be of an oral, written, visual, and gestural nature, mediated by different cognitive senses.
Hearing loss is expressed by the reduction or absence of the ability to perceive sounds. According to [30] it can be understood as a type of sensory deprivation whose common symptom is an abnormal reaction to the sound stimulus, expressing the hearing loss through deafness or low hearing. For [31], deafness is called the decrease in the capacity of normal perception of sounds, and is considered as being deaf the person whose hearing is not functional in ordinary life. Many people develop hearing problems throughout their lives, due to accidents or illness.
By having their capacity for sound perception reduced, the person with hearing loss has difficulty understanding the language used through orality - which has its expressive mark in the sound expression, in synchrony with the gestural. [32], define that it is through language that human beings establish communication with others around them, thus allowing the production of new knowledge. When sensory factors (such as hearing loss, for example) prevent oral language from being established, new forms of linguistic manifestation begin to emerge, such as visual and sign language, which allows the deaf person to have a new possibility of contact with the world, because the insertion of a deaf person in the digital environment faces the same challenges already experienced throughout their history. If, on the one hand, the standards established by WCAG 2.0 favor the accessibility of disabled people in the web environment, on the other hand, the question of language remains the obstacle that separates the deaf from their first language.
It can be seen that although there are different definitions and categorizations for hearing loss, it should be understood here that promoting accessibility on the web and VLE for people with any type of hearing loss, regardless of the language it expresses, is a step to reduce exclusion.
Another important point is the relationship of language built in these environments and their adaptations to promote accessibility. [33] point out that research related to didactic content for people with hearing loss in virtual environments points out the need to adapt short texts, reduce difficult vocabulary, use images to introduce a concept, use -when necessary- video with a Brazilian Sign Language interpreter, videos with sizes suitable for visualization of sign language and lip reading, adequate presentation speed, clear navigation.
When thinking about the precepts of web accessibility, we bring the concept of universal design, which, according to [34], is defined as a product, a physical environment or information, which must be accessed, understood, and used without the need for adaptation, modification or use of specialized solutions by anyone, regardless of their skills or disabilities. For an accessible LMS, the validation of the Universal Design concept only occurs when people with any type of disability or restrictions can have access to a product, physical environment or information.
Regarding the web, some sites are already looking to make adaptations for accessibility, but there is still much to be done. The WCAG guide and the W3C web “Accessibility Booklet” present the main idea contained in the Universal Design that the projected world should adapt as best as possible to all people, instead of requiring a great effort to adapt. However, most websites and LMS available on the Internet do not yet have accessible resources such as audio description, subtitles and sign language translation. Thus, the use of Universal Design means a big step towards an increasingly more inclusive world, which adapts to the different skills and needs of people, with less individual adaptive effort.
For the development of accessible education and learning platforms, let us start with the theoretical framework related to the development of computer systems. According to [35], quality in Software Engineering must be directed taking into account three aspects: product quality, quality of the development process and quality of the development team. [35, 36] consider that the processes used to develop the software are directly linked to the quality of the product. Regarding development standards and quality, [37] considers that it is not uncommon for software development companies to deliver their products with features that were not requested by users, with delays in the schedule and low quality of the final product. Some processes are indicated by the authors, which show that many organizations that have adopted agile methodologies for software development has several benefits as result: more satisfied customers, better rates of return on investment, reduced development costs, faster results, among others.
Associated with agile methodologies, gamification and design thinking can be used to produce environments with accessibility.
For [38], one of the main objectives of agile software development is to develop the software more quickly and with quality through a series of iterations (short periods of time) that are feasible in terms of cost and time. Each iteration produces a version of the software bringing business value to the customer in a way that ensures that the defined requirements have been implemented.
Unlike traditional software development methods, agile methods are marked for being more collaborative and for encouraging team interaction through constant communication [39]. For [40], “We are discovering better ways to develop software by doing it ourselves and helping others to do it. Through this work, we started to value individuals and interaction between them more than processes and tools; Software in operation more than comprehensive documentation; Collaboration with the client more than contract negotiation; Responding to change rather than following a plan.” The ‘Agile Manifesto’ does not reject processes and tools, documentation, contract negotiation, or planning, but it simply shows that they are of secondary importance when compared to individuals and interactions, with the software being executable, with customer collaboration and quick responses to changes and changes.
Based on what was proposed by [41], the use of design thinking for the process of developing accessible platforms is possible through the organization of multidisciplinary teams, with research teams from the design areas; programming; communication and accessibility specialist consultants. Starting from Theory of Flow, it was listed which premises could be followed in the stages of Empath, Definition, and Ideation, correlating to these processes the concepts of gamification and the accessibility guidelines in education platforms, as shown inFigure 3.
Correlation between the theories presented and the empath, definition, and ideation steps. Source: from the authors.
The figure presented in the research “Gamification in Education Through Design Thinking” presents the confluence and the different definitions of the theory of flow, design thinking, gamification, and accessibility in the phases of empathy/discovery; definition, and ideation of design thinking.
In relation to the method, Design Thinking is associated with the Design Science Research method (see Figure 1), with confluent steps in which empathy, definition are associated with “Space of Design” of the DSR, listing requirements and possible solutions to problems and ideation, is associated with the layers of the artifact under construction, presenting the viability, utility and representation of the artifact. The prototype and testing steps are also related to the DSR with the construction of the artifact; and use of the artifact with pilot instantiation and clearance of the artifact.
This research does not include the Prototype and Tests phases, as they are subsequent steps for the construction of the prototype based on the concepts presented.
In software development, it is also possible to use gamification to promote the encouragement of fulfilling the stages in the processes of agile methodologies. It can be organized through groups of hierarchical and partially ordered challenges that must be overcome, with a developer or a team of developers who need to have various skills, different knowledge and organization of workflows. This concept is directly related to the steps of design thinking presented above; the game mechanics present in gamification and the different stages and sprints present in agile methodologies.
This set of characteristics can be organized so that they can learn new skills and knowledge, combine them to overcome challenges during development and be rewarded with effective completion after each stage of the journey, whether they get rewards or not, depending on success or failure, respectively.
The design thinking methodology applied to the project follows the definition of Bootcamp Bootleg by [42]. The approach proposed by [42] is divided into five phases: empathy (user-centered process, to immerse, engage and observe the problem); definition (makes a synthesis, presents a focus of the problem or point of view); ideation (generation of ideas, exploration of solutions); prototyping (producing ideas in a more real context, bringing material character); tests (to redefine solutions and put the prototype in contact with people).
Based on the categorization made by [44], associated with that proposed by [45, 46], we can list similarities between the two approaches. Table 1 shows how the concepts can be related by these categories.
Based on the above, engagement is sought based on the application of the precepts of implementing accessibility for people with vision and hearing disabilities in the programming phases, based on accessibility guidelines, to ensure inclusive access for anyone in online environments through friendly and intuitive interfaces.
This step is already a first challenge, as there are still no recommendations or accessibility guidelines for LMS.
Developers should follow the recommendations made by groups such as the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and Global Learning Consortium (GLC), including Web Accessibility Initiative - World Wide Web Consortium (WAI-W3C)1, IMS GLC - Accessibility Guidelines (IMS GLC- ACC)2 and Web Accessibility Initiative - Accessible Rich Internet Applications (WAI-ARIA)3), which are institutions that created parameters of accessibility in websites and virtual environments, of which they are the bases for the development for this research, because currently they are the ones that determine the guidelines of web accessibility, being the basis of the proposal for the recommendations presented for the proposal for the development of accessible LMS.
In relation to the visually impaired person, in order to browse the websites/web systems, these people make use of assistive technologies, categorized as screen reader software, whose function is to interpret the page code and reproduce by audio through a speech synthesizer. However, the interaction of screen readers on websites will only work properly if certain coding standards are applied in the development, established in the International Web Accessibility Guidelines, which were developed by the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI), an organ created by the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium). Among these initiatives, the WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines) and the WAI-ARIA (Web Accessibility Initiative - Accessible Rich Internet Applications) guidelines will be highlighted, a standard created to make dynamic content and applications more accessible, which together with HTML, guarantee a navigation with accessibility for screen reader users.
When a website is not developed thinking about the access of people with vision disabilities, users of assistive technologies of screen readers not following the international standards mentioned may present several accessibility barriers that will hinder or even prevent access to the functionalities for a great number of people. Hearing impaired people, on the other hand, need resources such as the interpretation of texts in sign language and the use of subtitles for the deaf and people with hearing loss.
With the use of recommendations, WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines), and WAI-ARIA, and, with the production of audio description resources, self-contrast, subtitles for the deaf and people with hearing loss and sign language, it is sought that developers are encouraged to develop these steps with gamified strategies.
From what was proposed, it is then presented what are the strategies for the development of an LMS based on gamification strategies. In the case of this study, the use of challenges is suggested, with the availability of a ranking of scores, as well as the use of badges as trophies, for example.
For the application of the elements of gamification in the design steps aligned with design thinking and accessibility, the steps follow the criteria of scoring and badges present in the gamification mechanics. The main strategy of gamification of the developed learning object occurs through the appropriation of the reward system of conventional games where the player earns points for each development task performed in the correct period and with proposals for solving the problems that arose during the execution.
Scoring rewards are awarded after the completion of each sprint or troubleshooting presented. Also, a forum is proposed between the development teams so that doubts can be exposed to the teams and solutions proposals are sent.
It is therefore suggested that gamification from the rewards system be used for planning the development of the platform in all its phases, from presentation and training in the language chosen for the development to the identification of the system requirements, the test scenarios, prototyping, system modeling, implementation, testing and deployment, delimited by the phases of design thinking and Design Science Research.
The scoring system follows that specified in Table 2.
Concepts of [44] | Concepts of [45, 46] | |
---|---|---|
Feedback | Time that the user takes to dominate the game or perform a certain task | Pleasant productivity, the players see applied efforts and energies achieving the desired results |
Social | Socialization- interaction between the system and users; and duty - the system’s and the generated social relations’ capacity of creating and accepting the user’s emotional investment | Generation of the possibility of working cooperatively, in teams and groups in order to solve problems / Construction of stronger social relationships through emotional bonds |
Competition | Self-competition and effort to overcome the results | Pursuit of self-motivation to remain in the activity (intrinsic motivation) |
Progression | The system’s capacity of providing persistence to the user | Activities created with challenges that can be overcome |
Mechanics | Pleasure that the user finds in the game | Epic meaning of achieving something expected |
Context | Context of the system’s actions | _________________________ |
Activity | Points earned |
---|---|
Complete a step or sprint | 100 points |
Solve a problem | 100 points + trophy |
Post a reply on the forum | 50 points |
Scoring system for gamified development.
For [47] this type of strategy is known in the world of conventional games as badges and consists of an element that integrates reward at the same time. For the author, using badges is equivalent to a process of defining, seeking, and achieving goals and objectives, which increases performance in three ways: increasing the level of expectations regarding the result of the process, which leads the participant to increase his performance; defining clear goals which facilitates self-assessment during the process; and increasing satisfaction from meeting the target. Corroborating with this, in an experiment carried out with students through a virtual learning environment, [48] found an improvement in the results of practical activities through the adoption of gamification strategies with the use of badges.
With the adoption of this system of rewards, what is intended is to use gamification, as raised in the literature, to increase motivation and engagement in activities. In addition to these positive reinforcements materialized through points and trophies, the strategies developed also aim to mitigate negative reinforcements and frustration. In the case of scoring, it works as a personal motivation for development teams to seek to beat their records.
Likewise, winning trophies when correctly completing a step or solving problems generates a reward.
The score ranking serves to encourage developers to achieve leadership, as well as direct their efforts from their greatest qualities. The ranking itself is not just a query tool, but an agent that mobilizes engaged developers to seek to be in good positions on the table. In each of the steps, the following types of punctuation are defined:
User score for each week
Final user score for each sprint
Scoring teams for each week
Final team score for each sprint
Punctuation for forum responses
Trophies will be awarded for specific tasks and achievements, which are strategic for the progress of the project. In this project, they are similar to the reward systems of conventional games and are triggers for interaction, collective work and team engagement, and participation in problem solving. The trophies will be made available for:
The team with the highest score in each step
The developer who solves problems during the process
Presentation of the importance of accessibility in LMS - This process is user-centered to immerse, engage, and observe the problem. Regarding the gamification requirements, we have an emphasis on the social and mechanic requirements of the games, presenting the work of the multidisciplinary team being carried out through the concepts of Design Thinking, seeking a direct relationship with the issue of empathy for a product to be closely related to a social issue, in which users can, through the system, promote relationships of socialization and interaction, triggering the phases of competition and progression also in the product development process. Here, the work in cooperation is also directed, in teams and groups, to solve problems, mobilizing the construction of social bonds and stronger relationships through affective bonds. The mechanics, on the other hand, are directed towards the construction of the gamified LMS based on the generated relational situations.
The association with accessibility in this phase, however, occurs with studies directed to dynamics used in gamified LMS that, from the phases of a merging of action and awareness and concentration on the task at hand; Social and Mechanical, and Accessibility Strategies and Universal Design;
Presentation of the concepts of accessibility, the accessibility guidelines, and case studies - This step makes a synthesis and presents a focus of the problem or point of view. For gamification requirements in this step, we have an emphasis on feedback from the empathy step, with a focus on different skills and a framework of prior knowledge. Thus, feedback related to the time when the user performs a certain task is essential, as well as the feedback regarding mistakes and successes. In the validation phase, this process must be mapped so that it continues and manages to feel the satisfaction of meeting the challenges. With this, the process of progression occurs;
Progression: In order for it to remain stimulated to develop accessibility in the LMS, its goals and actions must be clarified and what are the key points for it to be able to fulfill them. It is suggested to work in the team, with personalized progression according to the profile of the developer or the team, in which the goals are set according to the profile presented. Another possibility is for the developer or team to define their tracks and challenges, directing actions and goals according to their abilities and skills.
Competition: It was decided to seek in the definition step the possibility of, in addition to self-competition, also bringing collective challenges. This feature should be explored, but in a very reflective way in learning environments. Promoting competition in gamification is one of the engines that generates the process of immersion and resumption. As previously mentioned, the scores and trophies in the steps can increase engagement.
Accessibility: Emphasized points: sign language, subtitles, environment architecture for screen readers, and audio description. For accessibility, it is the moment, from the studies and the project proposal stimuli that came with gamification, to elaborate the framework of possibilities for the proposal of an LMS following the IMS-GLC and W3C-WCAG and WAI-ARIA guidelines with accessibility features such as sign language, subtitles, environment architecture for screen readers, and audio description.
In the ideation, all the information and data obtained during the immersion are gathered and it is time to sit down with everyone involved and devise the possible solutions. It is essential to take into account the point of view of each of the participants at this time, also realizing the various possibilities for the development of the accessible LMS. In this step, the ideas most voted by the team can be scored, with the score and trophies for developers and teams. It is worth remembering that the concepts presented must be articulated so that people with vision or hearing disabilities can explore them. Thus, it defines the importance of using what [4] defines as alternative media that, with studies for the execution of sign language resources and subtitles for people with hearing impairment, and organization of the Virtual Environment architecture according to with the guidelines of IMS-GLC and W3C-WCAG and WAI-ARIA, to be accessed by screen readers, in addition to the audio description feature of videos and images. It is the phase of generating ideas, exploring solutions to define teams and development steps.
As the proposal places LMS accessibility as the main element, in each step the scores must be articulated in relation to the development of accessibility requirements such as:
Organization of navigation elements on the website with the correct semantic structure of HTML provided by WCAG:
Use of headers hierarchically
Objective description in links
Forms developed with labels, differentiated color, HTML fieldset and legend tags, description of the buttons,
Accessible images
Keyboard access
Page titles
Modal window
Insertion of sign language window in the platform texts, videos, audios, podcasts and audiovisual resources.
Inserting subtitles for deaf people and people with hearing loss in videos, podcasts and music
Description of images, Audio description of videos;
High contrast of images and platform.
It is also important to note that when developing a project that contemplates accessibility, it is worth noting the available options such as CMS, frameworks, and libraries. Many of the aforementioned options already have resources in their code to assist in development in compliance with international accessibility standards, providing guidance and information in the respective documentation. We can mention some as “Bootstrap”, “React”, “Angular”, “Wordpress”, “Moodle”, among others. Based on what was discussed above, it is suggested that the entire production flow of an LMS and its tools have a gamified strategy for product development teams.
As previously presented, the next steps (Prototype and Tests) will not be presented, as they will be the scope for the development of accessible and gamified LMS, and will be described in future works.
The research develops the proposal for software development actions so that gamified LMS can be designed and programmed through design thinking, having gamified resources in the development process, encouraging the use of WCAG (Web Content Accessibility Guidelines) accessibility guidelines and WAI-ARIA (Web Accessibility Initiative - Accessible Rich Internet Applications).
From the bibliographic survey and the steps described in Design Science Research and Design Thinking, and the search for accessible and gamified platforms, requirements were raised for a first gamified development experience of an accessible LMS. With the initial questions of this research, a proposal for prior planning is presented so that these platforms and their media - videos, texts, audios, and games contain accessibility resources and allow the disabled public to experience the same processes as those who do not have deficiency. As a way to streamline the workflow and incorporate game elements from the initial design, gamification and design thinking are used as part of the work methodology of the development teams.
The goal is to promote an immersive and gamified experience from the beginning of an LMS project, placing the development team itself in the midst of UXm stimulated by the theory of Flow for the production of the platform and its accessibility features. Gamified development inserts game elements into the various software engineering practices used by the team, and mainly the focus on project management to assist in the gamification of any software process. It is noteworthy that currently many development teams have used the agile methodologies and practices of software engineering expecting that, when applied during the development, the mechanics of the games allow a broad and analytical vision in the process of aligning the steps and sprints with challenges and exchanges between teams being crucial moments for the prototyping and testing phases - which must also be carried out with the disabled public. Thus, the proposal allows to follow the processes of [Lockwood], with the processes of observation, collaboration, rapid learning, visualization of ideas, rapid construction of prototypes, learning from failures, outlined by gamification strategies, allowing a validation of the project more effective.
Regarding the gamification of the steps of software development, it is expected that the teams will encourage increased dedication in carrying out tasks; the search to face the challenges of each step and to solve the problems autonomously; assisting other employees by stimulating punctuation and team satisfaction in seeking the best results from the gamification processes.
With the steps of empathy, definition, and ideation, and the proposal of gamification in the development of accessible LMS, we seek to initiate a path to stimulate new possibilities for software development, as well as the proposal to design LMS with accessibility since its initial draft. In addition to the use of gamification in the development process, this work seeks to bring reflection to researchers, educators, developers, and instructional designers about the need to advance in research that develop alternatives to foster the inclusion process and the active participation of disabled people in society.
For future steps, it is suggested the development of an LMS with accessibility from the model proposals presented in this research;
To present the requirements of an accessible and gamified LMS for the end user, with tests carried out with disabled people;
It is important to emphasize that it is essential to present the execution and validation of a prototype, showing how the concepts of UX and accessibility applied since the development will benefit the accessibility and the gamification resources in the accessible LMS.
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Treatment",slug:"importance-and-significance-of-uf-mf-membrane-systems-in-desalination-water-treatment",totalDownloads:2178,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The proposed chapter addresses a comprehensive overview of the history and future outlook of ultrafiltration/microfiltration (UF/MF) membrane for desalination water pretreatment. Known theories on UF/MF membrane formation from phase inversion (Dr/wet) systems can be prolonged to define the consequences of high or low molecular weight additives. Also, direct material reengineering and surface modification for high-performance anti-fouling of UF/MF membranes are also highlighted. Before the modern final polymeric film, the characterization techniques, particularly molecular weight cut-off, pore size, pore size distribution, and microbiological activity classification, on to the UF/MF membrane surface were presented, respectively. Lab scale to commercial scale UF/MF membrane configuration and market size of UF/MF membranes for pretreatment desalination are described. The significance of UF/MF provided here as an unconventional approach for desalination water pretreatment is in contrast with the current conventionally used technologies. The recent development made in the integration of established desalination processes, such as spiral wound reverse osmosis (SWRO), multi-stage flash (MSF), multi-effect distillation (MED), electrodialysis (ED) desalination, and UF pretreatment, is addressed. Finally, the influence of UF/MF on desalination water pretreatment step on to the energy cost of desalination process system is discussed.",book:{id:"5768",slug:"desalination",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination"},signatures:"Iqbal Ahmed, Khaled S. Balkhair, Muhammad H. Albeiruttye and\nAmer Ahmed Jamil Shaiban",authors:[{id:"197244",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Iqbal",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"iqbal-ahmed",fullName:"Iqbal Ahmed"},{id:"197251",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaled",middleName:null,surname:"S. Balkhair",slug:"khaled-s.-balkhair",fullName:"Khaled S. 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This is associated with increase in water demand over limited resources and poor quality water that adversely affects crop quality and yield and deteriorates soil properties. Even though soil salinity has been affectingagriculture for thousands of years, significant research has been conducted only in the past 100 years. Desalination, which is the process of reducing the salt content in water to an acceptable level, could be an alternative for improving water quality, thereby increasing water sources and reducing the competition among various users of water. Thus, desalination could lead to improved crop quality, improved crop yield, enhanced all‐year round crop production, and as such become an important tool for effective agricultural water management.",book:{id:"5768",slug:"desalination",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination"},signatures:"OrevaOghene Aliku",authors:[{id:"176082",title:"Mr.",name:"OrevaOghene",middleName:null,surname:"Aliku",slug:"orevaoghene-aliku",fullName:"OrevaOghene Aliku"}]},{id:"39734",title:"Transition Metal Sulfide Catalysts for Petroleum Upgrading – Hydrodesulfurization Reactions",slug:"transition-metal-sulfide-catalysts-for-petroleum-upgrading-hydrodesulfurization-reactions",totalDownloads:3767,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:null,book:{id:"2874",slug:"hydrogenation",title:"Hydrogenation",fullTitle:"Hydrogenation"},signatures:"A. Infantes-Molina, A. Romero-Pérez, D. Eliche-Quesada, J. Mérida-Robles, A. Jiménez-López and E. Rodríguez- Castellón",authors:[{id:"126325",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez-Castellón",slug:"enrique-rodriguez-castellon",fullName:"Enrique Rodríguez-Castellón"}]},{id:"55122",title:"Low-Cost Multi-Effect Solar Still: Alternative Appropriate Technology for Personal Desalination",slug:"low-cost-multi-effect-solar-still-alternative-appropriate-technology-for-personal-desalination",totalDownloads:1724,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Multi effect solar still (MES) has a stack of multiple layers for evaporation and condensation. The latent heat dissipated during condensation at the front layers are repeatedly recycled for evaporation at the back layers to increase overall desalination productivity. Despite of high efficiency and long history, MES has not been widely used yet, because of relative high cost. In this chapter, newly designed MES is introduced. Since it has low cost, light weight material and simple structure, it could be easily mass even at less developed country. The cost of production for a 1 m2 unit is expected to be less than 300 USD. Structural features are introduced with experimental result which was outdoor tested with homemade lab prototype with 0.219 m2 effective area. 9kg/m2 per day of fresh water was obtained at sunny day (19.5MJ/m2) in Seoul, Korea, which is close to WHO’s recommended minimal daily water supply for individuals (7.5~15 liters). For more practical implementation, further development on prototype and production process should be made as well as long term outdoor test under actual climate it would be used. Worldwide collaboration would be necessary for speeding up implementation.",book:{id:"5768",slug:"desalination",title:"Desalination",fullTitle:"Desalination"},signatures:"Pak Hunkyun",authors:[{id:"197095",title:"Dr.",name:"Hunkyun",middleName:null,surname:"Pak",slug:"hunkyun-pak",fullName:"Hunkyun Pak"}]},{id:"39725",title:"Asymmetric Hydrogenation and Transfer Hydrogenation of Ketones",slug:"asymmetric-hydrogenation-and-transfer-hydrogenation-of-ketones",totalDownloads:8389,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"2874",slug:"hydrogenation",title:"Hydrogenation",fullTitle:"Hydrogenation"},signatures:"Bogdan Štefane and Franc Požgan",authors:[{id:"146116",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Bogdan",middleName:null,surname:"Stefane",slug:"bogdan-stefane",fullName:"Bogdan Stefane"},{id:"147826",title:"Prof.",name:"Franc",middleName:null,surname:"Požgan",slug:"franc-pozgan",fullName:"Franc Požgan"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"496",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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