\r\n\tAbout 25 percent of all foods produced globally are lost due to microbial growth. L. monocytogenes is a microorganism ubiquitously present in the environment and affects animals and humans. L. monocytogenes can enter a factory and is able to survive in biofilms in the food processing environment. The use of adequate sanitation procedures is a prerequisite in risk prevention. Moreover, effective control measures for L. monocytogenes are very important to food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tThe safety and shelf life maximizing of food products to meet the demand of retailers and consumers is a challenge and a concern of food operators.
\r\n\r\n\tTo obtain food systems more sustainable, several developments are ongoing to ensure safe food products with an extended shelf life and a reduction of food loss and waste. The problem of antimicrobial resistance is also a great issue that must be taken into consideration.
\r\n\r\n\tThe implementation of natural antimicrobials, using food cultures, ferments, or bacteriophages, is one approach to control L. monocytogenes in food products that meet the consumer preference for clean label solutions.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art about Listeria monocytogenes in terms of occurrence in humans, animals, and food-producing plants. Its control by more natural agents allows for more sustainable food systems and points future directions to transform challenges into opportunities.
Blackberry fruits are an important source of bioactive compounds, among which are flavonols, anthocyanins, and catechins. These compounds exhibit beneficial effects on human health, which is the main reason they have become so popular nowadays, especially because they are easy to include in diets, at least in developed countries where incidence of pathologies is high. Among these health benefits are their general antioxidant effects, as all these compounds can scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS), anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effect, glucose metabolism, and leukocyte migration (effects in both inflammation and cancer) [1, 2]. Catechins and anthocyanins have also proved their ability to improve endothelial function, hypertension, coronary heart disease, obesity, insulin resistance, as well as glucose and lipid metabolism [3, 4]. Hence, including blackberry on human diet is beneficial for health, since a high content in flavonoids has been reported, and, in addition to its beneficial effects, it lacks adverse or secondary effects. Moreover, these compounds are also responsible for major organoleptic, nutritive, and processing characteristics of feed, food, and beverages, and impact many agronomical crop traits [5, 6].
In addition to the relevance for human health, flavonols, anthocyanins, and catechins play a key role on plant physiology. As secondary metabolites, they play a wide variety of functions, mainly helping the plant to adapt to the environment, among which the following have been reported, namely (i) UV radiation and oxidative stress protection, (ii) pathogen interactions (pathogen resistance), (iii) protection from herbivore, (iv) allelopathy, (v) nodulation (symbiosis), (vi) auxin transport, and (vii) they also attract different organism for pollination because of the color of the flower [1, 7, 8].
Despite the agricultural and biological importance of the genus
Phenylpropanoid pathway.
Subgenus | Number of species |
---|---|
6 | |
5 | |
1 | |
2 | |
14 (4 series) | |
5 | |
4 | |
117 (9 sections) | |
10 | |
115 (7 sections) | |
19 | |
132 (6 sections) |
Plants that belong to the subgenus
Variety | Anthocyanins (mg eq cyanidin/100g FW) | Flavonols (mg eq catechin/100g FW) | |
---|---|---|---|
Thorny | Darrow | 99.33 ± 48.32 | 4.23 ± 0.48 |
Early Wilson | 64.76 ± 23.68 | 3.21 ± 0.38 | |
Gazda | 27.97 ± 13.71 | 6.52 ± 0.82 | |
Lesniczanka | 96.63 ± 32.18 | 5.36 ± 0.45 | |
Zagroda | 143.66 ± 52.59 | 4.98 ± 0.52 | |
Thornless | Black Beaty | 179.46 ± 57.84 | 3.06 ± 0.40 |
Black Satin | 175.52 ± 53.97 | 1.58 ± 0.31 | |
Chester Thornless | 200.34 ± 65.58 | 3.68 ± 0.46 | |
Hull Thornless | 105.39 ± 31.08 | 0.82 ± 0.35 | |
Loch Ness | 220.11 ± 81.07 | 2.39 ± 0.28 | |
Orkan | 142.42 ± 44.01 | 2.26 ± 0.25 | |
Smoothstern | 186.55 ± 58.94 | 2.32 ± 0.33 | |
Tayberry | 177.84 ± 56.20 | 1.7 ± 0.32 | |
Thornless | 147.46 ± 44.02 | 1.07 ± 0.33 |
Phenolic compound contents of thorny and thornless blackberries (mg/100g FW) [13].
The aim of this chapter is to review the literature about blackberry and report the state of the arts about this plant species. As the genome is not reported, data about the core genes in the biosynthetic pathway as well as regulatory genes are referred to as the model plant
Flavonols, anthocyanins, and catechins are molecules belonging to a wider group of secondary metabolites, the flavonoids. Flavonoids represent a large subgroup of a phenolic class of plant specialized metabolites, which are found in almost every plant in the nature. The basic flavan skeleton that forms all flavonoids is a 15‐carbon phenylpropanoid core (C6‐C3‐C6 system), which is arranged into two aromatic rings (A and B) linked by a heterocyclic pyran ring (C). They are characterized by the presence of a double bond between C‐2 and C‐3, and the attachment of the B ring to C‐2. According to the oxidation status and saturation of the heterocyclic ring, flavonoids are categorized into flavonols, flavones, catechins, flavanones, anthocyanins, and isoflavonoids [1]. The most abundant compounds present in blackberry (also in berries) are flavonols, anthocyanins, and catechins (Figure 2).
Flavonol, anthocyanin, and catechin molecular structures and common substituents.
Flavonols have a 3‐hydroxyflavone (IUPAC name: 3‐hydroxy‐2‐phenylchromen‐4‐one) as the main structure. The diversity of these compounds is derived from the different positions of the hydroxyl groups of the phenolic ring that are usually glycosylated and can undergo further modifications like acylations; in this group, the three main families are derived from kaempferol (4′OH), quercetin (3′, 4′, 5′OH) and rutin (3′, 4′OH).
Anthocyanins are mainly glycosylated as well, being the aglycon the anthocyanin molecule. The chemical structure of this aglycone is the flavylium ion (2‐phenyl‐benzopirilo) that has a benzopyran aromatic ring, and a phenolic ring. There are six different families within this group, namely cyanidin, pelargonidin, delphinidin, malvinidin, peonidin, and petunidin. As in the case of flavonoids, the greatest source of chemical diversity is the number and position of sugars for glycosylation. Acylation is another main biochemical mechanism leading to diverse anthocyanin molecules in
Catechins have two benzene rings (A‐, B‐) and a dihydropyran heterocyclic ring (C) with a hydroxyl group over carbon 3. As a result of this structure, catechins have four diasteroisomers, two with
Biosynthesis of the flavone backbone is originated from the phenylpropanoid pathway followed by the flavonoid biosynthetic branch (Figure 1). The phenylalanine ammonia‐lyase (PAL) deaminates the phenylalanine, being converted into trans‐cinnamate, after that a hydroxyl group is introduced on the phenyl ring by cinnamic acid 4‐hydroxylase (C4H), being the trans‐cinnamate converted into 4‐coumarate. The carboxyl group of p‐4‐coumarate is then activated to form 4‐coumarate‐CoA (by a thioester bond), catalyzed by 4‐coumarate‐CoA ligase (4CL). This product, 4‐coumarate‐CoA, is substrate for different enzymes, so it represents a branching point of the pathway to either stilbenes of flavonoids. In this case, 4‐coumarate‐CoA is then condensed with three units of malonyl‐CoA by the chalcone synthase (CHS, first enzyme of the flavonoid pathway), forming the naringenin chalcone (flavonone), which is transformed into naringenin by the chalcone synthase (CHI). Naringenin is hydroxylated by flavonone‐3‐hydroxylase (F3H) being converted in dihydrokaempferol, which is then hydroxylated by flavonoid‐3′‐hydroxylase (F3′H) and transformed in dihydroquercetin or by flavonoid‐3′‐5′‐hydroxylase (F3′5′H) to form dihydromyricetin. Flavonols are synthesized at this point by the flavonol synthase (FLS), which introduces a double bond between C2 and C3 in either of the three above‐mentioned molecules forming kaempferol, quercetin, or myricetin, respectively. Dihydroquercetin is reduced by dihydroflavonol reductase (DFR) to obtain leucocyanidin; similarly, dihydrokaempferol is transformed in leucopelargonidin and dihydromyricetin in leucodelphinidin. Anthocyanins are synthetized at this point by the anthocyanidin synthase (ANS) obtaining cyanidin, pelargonidin, or delphinidin, respectively. Catechins include (+)‐catechin and (−)‐epicatechin; (+)‐catechin is obtained when leucocyanidin reductase (LAR) reduces leucocyanidin, and (−)‐epicatechin is obtained when anthocyanidin reductase (ANR) reduces cyanidin [1, 7, 8].
All these aglycons are highly apolar, so they are immediately glycosylated to increase polarity, in order to be stored in vacuoles or translocated throughout the plant, hence glycosiltransferases are very important for glycosylation as well as transport mechanisms. In
Plants have depicted a system in which all these enzymes are extremely well organized in the different compartments within cells, in order to improve efficiency of these natural products’ synthesis. Successive enzymes are arranged in imaginary units termed metabolons, anchored to the ER membrane, ensuring channeling of the intermediate precursors in the complex without diffusing to the cytosol, avoiding metabolic interferences [18, 22].
Enzyme | Regulator |
---|---|
List of the flavonol‐anthocyanin pathway core and regulatory genes in
On the other hand, homologues to all core genes in the flavonol‐anthocyanin pathway have been identified in
Currently, dihydrokaempferol and dihydroquercetin are the only two dihydroflavonol molecules identified in
Group | Compound |
---|---|
Flavonols | Quercetin‐rhamnoside‐hexoside |
Quercetin‐hexoside‐rhamnoside | |
Quercetin‐3‐O‐rhamnoside | |
Quercetin‐rhamnoside dimer 1 | |
Quercetin‐rhamnoside dimer 2 | |
Quercetin‐rhamnoside dimer 3 | |
Quercetin‐rhamnoside dimer 4 | |
Quercetin‐di‐rhamnoside | |
Quercetin‐3‐O‐glucoside | |
Kaempferol | |
Kaempferol‐rhamnoside | |
Kaempferol‐rhamnoside‐hexoside | |
Kaempferol‐3, 7‐di‐O‐rhamnoside | |
Kaempferol‐3‐O‐glucoside‐7‐O‐rhamnoside | |
Isorhamnetin‐hexoside‐rhamnoside | |
Isorhamnetin‐di‐rhamnoside | |
Isorhamnetin‐rhamnoside | |
Anthocyanins | Procyanidin dimer |
Procyanidin trymer | |
Procyanidin tetramer | |
Procyanidin pentamer | |
Procyanidin hexamer | |
Procyanidin heptamer | |
Catechins | Epicatechin |
Compounds identified by LC‐MS‐MS in seed extracts of wild type
The metabolic profile of flavonols and anthocyanins in blackberry fruits is formed by the flavonols kempferol and quercetin and their respective derivatives, while cyanidin derivatives are the unique anthocyanidins present. Interestingly, catechins and epicatechins are also present, especially upon fruit ripening [26, 35]. The specific composition for blackberries obtained from
Group | \nCompound |
---|---|
Flavonols | \nRutin |
Kaempferol‐glucoside | |
Quercetin‐glucoside | |
Kaempferol‐rutinoside | |
Quercetin‐3‐O‐glucoside‐6”‐acetate | |
Anthocyanins | \nCyanidin‐3‐glucoside |
Cyanidin‐3‐arabinoside | |
Catechins | \n(+)‐Catechin |
(−)‐Epicatechin | |
Epicatechin isomer |
Compounds identified in
Plants are sessile organisms, due to this fact they have developed different methods for protection against the stressful conditions of the surrounding, including abiotic and biotic stimuli. The most important mechanism is the production of secondary metabolites, like flavonols, anthocyanins, and catechins [36, 37].
There is an increase in the production of these compounds under adverse or stressing conditions, such as intense UV radiation, heat, drought, and salt stress, presence of heavy metals, herbivores, insects, nematodes, etc., because reactive oxygen species (ROS), the natural products obtained from metabolic reactions, play a relevant role in cell signaling and homeostasis. In certain situations, as previously described, ROS levels can undergo a mild increase, triggering defensive responses as SAR or ISR [38], or suffer a dramatic increase that results in cell damage (lipids, DNA, and protein structures) if not controlled.
Living beings have different methods to get rid of these ROS, enzymatic and nonenzymatic; but if the amount is too high the organism cannot transform all of them, causing the damages described before. Phenylpropanoids and flavonoids, in which flavonols, anthocyanins, and catechins are enclosed, are the nonenzymatic antioxidants known to have high antioxidant activities, because of their capacity to directly quench ROS, thanks to the hydroxyl group present in rings A and B; they also interfere over the enzymatic systems composed of cyclooxygenase (in animals only), lipoxygenase, glutathione S‐transferase, and xanthine oxidase, which is the other system in charge of ROS removal, together with the SOD‐APX and the ascorbate‐glutathione cycle enzymes that contribute to ROS control [39]. Hence, these compounds are involved in fine tuning of defensive and adaptive metabolisms, integrating all the external information, to optimize plant energetic resources for survival.
Flavonoids are known to be nonessential regulators auxin transport, modulating different transporters such as PIN proteins, and the transporter superfamily (ABCB) [40–42] proteins involved in their transport along the plant. It has been demonstrated that changes in flavonols accumulation lead to changes in auxin transport, therefore changes in auxin distribution [43], and the corresponding changes in plant physiology.
Abiotic stress is defined as the negative impact caused by the nonliving factors in the plant. Under adverse conditions, like intense UV radiation, heat, drought, and salt stress, presence of heavy metals, etc., there is a high increase of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) that lead to signal transduction to activate plant defense or to oxidative damage, as described above.
The UV radiation causes a stressful situation for plants [44], which is handled in two ways. First of all flavonoids and other pigments present mainly in the outer parts of the plant (epidermis and mesophyll tissues) absorb and considerably reduce the amount of radiation; the second one would consist in decreasing the effect of ROS caused by the radiation by scavenging of ROS [7]. Among flavonols, the main compound related to light absorption is kaempferol 3‐O‐glucoside because of its monohydroxy B‐ring, and the flavonol with the greatest antioxidant properties is quercetin 3‐O‐glucoside, because of its dihydroxy B‐ring. It has been shown that upon different UV exposure, synthesis of phenolic compounds is increased [45]. This may be the primary mechanism of response, which can be followed by others such as accumulation of pigments or lignification processes. Hence, flavonoids and anthocyanins are involved in protection against oxidative stress due to high UV radiation.
The impact of drought and salt stress on flavonoid biosynthesis has been studied in
These studies carried out in
Concerning fruit quality, there is a great concern in the endurance of the fruit after harvest; it is one of the most important traits for commercial value and economic profit. The relationship between the overripening and the antioxidant properties has been evaluated [48]. A study on tomato overexpressing AtMYB12, the transcription factor activating the flavonol anthocyanin pathway, showed a notable increase in flavonoid biosynthesis, as well as its antioxidant capacity. The high anthocyanin and high flavonol profiles resulted in a longer, more durable shelf life, comparing with control plants, indicating that the endurance is directly correlated with this profile. Based on this data, it seems that the overripening time is determined by the oxidative damage of the fruit under changing conditions [49]. Therefore, an increase in flavonoids and anthocyanins is related to better fruit quality during the postharvest period.
Another stress factor is the levels of heavy metals. As a consequence of industrial development, pollution with heavy metals has dramatically increased. Heavy metals toxicity can result from different mechanisms, the first one is the generation of ROS by Fenton reaction and autoxidation [7], blocking of essential functional groups in biomolecules, and displacement of essential metal ions from biomolecules. Cadmium and other metals provoke a depletion of GSH and inhibit mainly the glutathione reductase (among other enzymes implicated in the ROS cycle) [45]; in consequence, the plant has to increase dramatically other antioxidants such as flavonoids in order to keep a normal the normal homeostasis of the plant cells. Flavonoids are known to form specific union with heavy metals, providing a great adaptation method to heavy metals toxicity autoxidation [7]. Based on these characteristics, some applications derived from these studies have been proposed to improve survival of plants in hostile environments, for example, increasing flavonoid synthesis to allow plant growth in the presence of heavy metals, so soil detoxification can be achieved by phytoremediation [50].
Flavonoids are important molecules for plant adaptation under adverse conditions, among which defense to biotic stress is included. These molecules have a nonspecific mechanism of action; their effect is partly derived from their antioxidant properties, because of the ROS generated by plants when they are attacked by some pathogen. Flavonoids are involved in the earliest defense mechanism and the programmed cell death, and they have been found in necrotic and adjacent cells to pathogen invasion in the hypersensitive response [46, 51].
Their role in defense is not limited to the hypersensitive response, since consistent with their ability to chelate metals, they are able to inhibit some pathogen enzymes, mainly those involved in digesting the cell wall by chelating metals, blocking, or retarding pathogen invasion [52]. Different studies have shown that there are different mechanisms of action against pathogen infection, inhibition of cellulases, pectinases, and xylanases, chelation of metal ions that belongs to cell membranes and enzymes, and more general detoxifying cells of ROS [45].
They can also affect bacterial DNA synthesis, by interacting with DNA gyrases, as the B ring of flavonoids can form hydrogen bonds with nucleic acid bases, or by direct interaction with the ATP binding site of the gyrase, leading to an inhibition of the synthesis of new DNA. This may be their method of protection against virus [45].
Antifungal properties have also been proved for flavonoids; these properties depend on their structure, for example dihydroquercetin has proved to be much more active against
Flavonoids play a very important role in symbiotic bacteria relations. Bacteria belonging to the family Rhizobiaceae include several genera, each of them specific to a legume species. Rhizobiaceae are capable of fixing nitrogen for the plant; in exchange they obtain photosyntates. First, they need to establish the symbiotic relationship and form the nodule; in this process, flavonoids are key since these bacteria are attracted by these flavonoids that are specific signals for each rhizobia‐legume couple. There are studies of different plants growing in soils with low nitrogen concentration that induces the accumulation of flavonoids [54]. Based on this fact, knowledge of the specific flavonoids that enhance symbiosis establishment could be applied to field production of legumes, in low productivity soils, to enhance nodulation, which in turn, will enhance yield in developing areas. This goal could be achieved at a low cost and easily implemented in local areas therefore contributing to food security, as marked by the FAO.
Connecting with this improvement in production and also with their natural physiological role, flavonoids provide color, taste, and fragrance to the fruit and seeds, and also play an important role in pollination, because these characteristics attract insects [45]. Although these characteristics may attract some organisms can also deter some others, in the cases of herbivores and some nematodes, avoiding to be eaten by these living beings.
Flavonoids are known because of their beneficial effect on human health. It has been known for long time and mainly attributed to its antioxidant potential. Compounds able to scavenge free radicals are in general beneficial for health. As all living beings, humans also produce ROS and there is also a system to get rid of these free radicals to prevent damage of the cells (DNA, lipids, and proteins). These damages are called oxidative damages which have been related to carcinogenesis, neurodegeneration, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and aging; however, the precise underlying mechanisms for these health benefits are starting to be unraveled.
Flavonoids have received increasing attention due to their anti‐inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. Structural‐functional relationship analyses identified luteolin as one of the most potent inhibitors of xanthine oxidase, a key enzyme in ROS production. Reduction of ROS by apigenin prevents endothelial damage during acute inflammation and restores mitochondrial function. Most of the anti‐inflammatory and antimicrobial activities attributed to flavones seem to be centered on their ability to regulate the Toll receptor (TLR)/NFκB axis. This is a central pathway in the host‐pathogen interplay in mammals, responsible for the expression of inflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor (TNFα), interleukin‐1 (IL‐1β) and cyclooxygenase‐2 (COX‐2), an enzyme mediating the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins. Notably, great similarities are found between the mammalian TLR/NFκB and plant pathogen defense pathways, suggesting that flavones may regulate evolutionary conserved targets [55]. It has also been reported that in animal models, apigenin reduces the phosphorylation of the NFκB p65 subunit, required for its transcriptional activity. Inhibition of p65 phosphorylation reduces the expression of inflammatory cytokines, limiting the cell damage characteristic of acute inflammation [56]. Other flavones inhibit COX‐2 by halting NFkB nuclear localization [57]. Overall, glycosides show less anti‐inflammatory activity than aglycones, probably a consequence of their reduced cellular absorption [58]. Recent studies identified additional mechanisms responsible of the anti‐inflammatory activity of flavones, including the regulation of noncoding RNAs. Large microRNA screenings showed that apigenin reduces microRNA155 (miR155) expression, a main inflammatory regulator miR155 binds to 3′‐UTR regions of several inflammatory cytokines, suggesting an additional mechanism by which flavones can restore homeostasis during acute inflammation, independent of their anti‐oxidant activity [1].
Consistent with the ability of flavones to regulate inflammation, interventions with the Mediterranean diet, which is rich in flavonoids, showed improved cardiac function, reduced hypertension and obesity [59, 60]. Flavones also affect leukocyte migration, with very specific targets, deeply affecting cancer and inflammation [61, 62]. Flavones ability to reduce cell migration has great impact on cancer, suggesting alternative therapeutic approaches to reduce metastasis. The anticarcinogenic effect of flavones is given in part by their ability to induce DNA damage, and is accompanied by cell cycle arrest at G1 or G2, depending on the particular cell type. Interestingly, the ability of apigenin to induce cell death in cancer cells is independent of ROS production [63] supporting a beneficial role of flavones independent of their anti‐oxidant activity.
Identification of the direct targets will highly contribute to understand the molecular mechanism related to flavones and health. The use of PD‐Seq (phage display high‐throughput sequencing), a novel approach for small target identification, identified several targets, suggesting that dietary compounds, unlike pharmaceuticals, may target several molecules [64]. This statement encourages the use of healthy plant‐based foods or extracts, rich in polyphenols but with a complex mixture of compounds that will contribute to prevent the onset of disease by reaching many small targets simultaneously. Under this rationale, a study of naturally healthy fruits or plant materials is seriously encouraged to prevent the onset of disease.
As flavonoids, anthocyanins’ health‐promoting effects have been frequently linked to their high antioxidant activities. However, there is increasing evidence reporting that some of their biological effects may be related to their ability to modulate mammalian cell signaling pathways [65, 66]. Anthocyanins also offer protection against certain age‐related degenerative diseases cancers, cardiovascular disease [9, 55, 67, 68]; anti‐inflammatory activity [69], promotion of visual acuity [70], and hindering obesity and diabetes [71, 72] have also been reported as beneficial effects of these compounds.
In addition to the many target‐specific effects of each compound detailed above, effects are more complex to evaluate when any of these phenolics are delivered through the diet in a complex food matrix. The variability of effects relays in two points: on the one hand, natural variability in composition and on the other hand, variability in absorption at the individual level. It has been estimated that only 5–10% of the total polyphenol intake is absorbed in the small intestine. Currently, it is estimated that 500–1000 different microbial species inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. However, they do not seem to be ubiquitous but reflect the interpersonal differences in the gut microbial community [73]. Consequently, apart from the interindividual variation in daily intake of polyphenols, interindividual differences in the composition of the gut microbiota may lead to differences in bioavailability and bioefficacy of polyphenols and their metabolites [74, 75].
The other factor that will condition effects on health is intimately associated with the sessile nature of plants. Plants have to overcome environmental changes by changing their chemical composition, synthetizing metabolites that will contribute to a better adaptation to changes in abiotic factors of to fight back biotic challenges. Since environmental conditions are variable along the year, and flavonols and antocyanins play a role in adaptation to UV stress, it may be anticipated that concentration in plant will be higher in spring and summer when light hours and intensity are higher. Hence, fruits produced in winter or in summer will presumably have different concentrations, as has been demonstrated in blackberries [76]. Moreover, given their role in plant defense, their levels may also fluctuate depending on disease prevalence along a given season, and therefore, health benefits will be different, since the dose is different. Consequently, any attempt to modulate the amplitude of these fluctuations will result in enhanced fruit quality, more reliable in terms of health benefits.
In order to achieve this goal, understanding the metabolic pathway and its regulation is a milestone on the way to develop varieties in which the main regulators are overexpressed to ensure a high and constant, or low variability, fruit bioactive contents. This goal may be achieved through crossbreeding or by the means of metabolic engineering in plants [77] or through elicitation of secondary metabolism with external agents such as beneficial bacteria or derived molecules [76, 78] or even other chemical molecules such as salicylic acid.
An alternative to new varieties is using beneficial bacteria or parts of the same as a tool to trigger plant metabolism in field production in order to cause a mild‐biotic stress in the plant that smoothly and constantly triggers secondary metabolism to achieve constant concentrations of bioactives in the edible fruits [77, 78]. The ability of many beneficial bacteria to trigger plant metabolism in different species has been reported and there is increasing evidence of bacterial derived elicitors with the same effect [79]. These bacterial derived molecules are termed as MAMPs (microbe‐associated molecular patterns) and can be either structural molecules from the bacterial cell wall, or derived metabolites that bacteria release to trigger the plant in their intimate relationship. Each MAMP or strain has to be evaluated for each plant species, since genome‐genome specificity has been occasionally reported.
To support the value of this strategy in the study of blackberry metabolism, a transcriptome analysis from field grown blackberry fruits was performed to study this plant species; contigs were obtained and blasted to the genome of
These results prove that elicitation is a very interesting tool to achieve better fruit quality in terms of higher amounts of bioactives, as flavonoid biosynthesis can be modulated without genetic manipulation. Using this method, we can achieve two different goals at the same time: first we increase plant defense by a natural way without using any chemicals, which are harmful for the environment and humans also, therefore contributing to environmentally friendly agricultural practices. The second one would be obtaining a food with reliable beneficial effects for human health, since delivering the bacteria through the roots will attenuate fluctuations in bioactive compounds. This second statement is nowadays one of the world’s great concerns, since achieving food security refers to both ends of society: those that are hungry should have enough amounts of healthy and nutritious foods, as well as those that have a lot of food, but unbalanced and low quality. Therefore, healthy eating is becoming really popular as population is trying to have a good diet to prevent development of disease rather than healing, so to decrease the intake of different drugs in a long time period. Both this two goals can be achieved by the application of these rhizobacterias that will increase these secondary metabolites by a natural method. Beyond health‐related issues in food production, these elicitors and elicitation technology [80] can be used to unravel metabolic pathways and their regulation for further application in metabolic engineering and cell cultures.
This Project was funded by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad: AGL‐2013‐45189‐R. Grant reference: BES‐2014‐069990.
Foil transducers are devices that convert the applied pressure into an electric signal. Under the applied pressure, the electrical resistivity changes as the material of the transducer are deformed. The pressure can be calculated by knowing the dependency curves of pressure and resistivity. The principle of the transducer is similar to a microphone: under the applied pressure, microscopic conductive particles approach is getting closer, which causes a decrease of the resistivity of the material. A basic comparison of the electrical and physical properties of individual materials of the transducer is presented within this contribution, focusing on thin foils of conductive ink and conductive rubber.
In the previous versions of the device PLANTOGRAF – that measure the pressure distribution on a surface – conductive elastomer Yokohama Rubber CS57-7RSC was initially used; this material was commonly used in the production of tactile sensors [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]; different polymers and their properties are nearly described in [7, 8, 9, 10]. However, this material with a thickness of 0,5 mm exhibits a relatively large hysteresis in the range of some percent, which prevents the measuring of the absolute pressure acting on the electrodes’ system. The main problem with conductive rubber is the mutual influence of nearby electrodes, i.e., the currents flow horizontally between individual electrodes so that they affect each other. This could be avoided by the creation of a corresponding matrix consisting of individually separated sensors. This technology is however quite expensive and technically very demanding, given the required density of sensors. Therefore, we further experimented with conductive inks that exhibit only a very small mutual influence of nearby electrodes. Ink could be applied to the electrodes directly by offset print which is a considerably simpler method of application than separation of sensors. During our preliminary experiments, we found out that ink may not adhere to the electrodes fully so that alternative methods have to be investigated. The properties of individual transducer materials and possible methods of their use are presented in further paragraphs.
We subsequently focused on the use of conductive ink. Four types of conductive inks were obtained for the tests: NGAP FI Ag-4101 from the Spanish firm NANOGAP, Luxor from the Taiwanese firm Luxor, KH WS SWCNT from the Korean firm KH Chemicals, and DZT-3 K. The last type of ink was the only used in the measurements since owing to its composition; it could form a relatively high-quality conductive layer compared to the others. This ink uses carbon particles as filler. The other inks did not meet the requirements, either they were too thin and they did not form a continuous layer, or they did not adhere to the substrate (first two, both water-based inks) or they were excessively conductive – as the third ink with silver particles as a filler – the resistance of the ink was only in units of Ohm. Later we tested as conductive ink Graphit 33 spray and last attention was intended on Loctite - Henkel conductive ink Loctite-NCI 7002EC and Loctite-7004HR [4].
Now is under development a new measuring system Plantograf V20F. It is a flexible transducer, which can measure the skew surfaces.
The basic principle, cross-section and top view of the transducer Plantograf V16 are shown in Figures 1 and 2; the principle is the same both for the conductive ink and conductive rubber layer.
Cross-section and top view of the transducer.
Top view on the transducer.
The current, represented by red arrows, flows from the inner electrode through the conductive rubber to the outer electrode. The voltage Ux = 5 V is displayed in the first figure. The common electrode, supplied by a voltage of 1.8 V and marked as “screening” is a common method used in printed circuits. It provides - by hardware - the separation of individual sensors and it prevents the mutual interaction of nearby sensors. The electrodes are etched onto a Cuflex film placed on the bottom of the sensor matrix. Cuflex is a thin Teflon foil with an applied copper layer, copper layer thickness 0.07 mm, foil thickness 0.09 mm, but several individual thicknesses of the Cuflex film are available. The surface of each electrode is completely covered. The electrodes and the conductive elastomer are protected from mechanical wear by a protective coating, a non-conductive flexible material [5]. The resistance between the electrodes is measured, which is dependent on the deformation of the material under the pressure.
The foils are made of conductive ink or conductive rubber and are used in practice in the Plantograf measuring system. This is a tactile transducer which is picked up tactile information from a particular object and converts it into an electrical signal. The device is under steady development and improvement process of both the control electronic circuits and the transducer foil. Earlier versions of the device used conductive rubber, now we are still evaluating several conductive inks to meet all the required mechanical and electrical properties; thus, the use of the conductive ink is still rather experimental. First rubber-based sensors were used in 1978 wits USA made rubber Dynacon C for robot’s hand. After 1982, the material was replaced with Yokohama Rubber with better mechanical and electrical. Plantograf, our transducer, was first designed in 1998. Since then, there were developed several versions of the transducer up to the current version Plantograf V16.
The system can process in real-time variable time pressure signals. It consists of 16,384 sensors (with a diameter of 2,5 mm each, in a 128 x 128 matrix arrangement) concentrated in the active area 0,5 x 0,5 m; it can sample and process up to 1000 fps. A full-frame is created by all 16,384 sensors. Plantograf measures the pressure distribution between the transducer and sole. Measured values are relative, where the analog output is converted on the digital signal by 8-bit A/D converter in 256 levels of gray. Every gray level was also assigned to pseudo colors. For exploitation full A/D convertor range is change get setting in range 0,5;1; 1,5; 2; 2,5; 3; 4; and 5. This way, the pressure distribution frame is represented in 256 color levels in a 2D or 3D model view. It is further possible to post-process the measured data via a dedicated program on a PC.
The system is used for dynamic and static measurements in various industrial or medical applications, described in more detail in [5, 11, 12]. Sample pictures of a graphic representation in the 2D and 3D view mode of the measured pressure distribution in a medical and industrial application of the device on a PC screen is shown in Figures 3–5.
Graphic representation of the distribution of pressure on a PC screen. Human foot in 3D.
Graphic representation of the distribution of pressure on a PC screen. Human foot in 2D.
Graphic representation of the distribution of pressure on a PC screen. Car Tyre.
This transducer, made by Yokohama Rubber Co., labeled CS57-7RSC, represents a thin foil of conductive rubber (elastomer). This material is silicon-based and it is filled with small conductive pieces of pulverized graphite and as well as other additive particles (Iron (III) oxide and Silicon dioxide). The material is inert to water, methanol and ethanol and it is chemically stable. It exhibits relatively stable mechanical properties (thickness, elasticity) and values of electrical conductivity. The material has a tensile strength of 1.86 MPa, thickness of 0.5 mm, and a usable temperature range from −30–100°C [13].
These properties are fully appropriate for its use in the tactile sensor under normal operating conditions. A potential disadvantage of this material may be its low long-term stability of sensitivity and its known relatively high hysteresis. Hysteresis means the different values of the resistivity of the material in the process of loading and unloading under the same acting force, see also chart in Figure 12. These negative properties cannot be fully eliminated and they are given by the construction of the sensor and by the material itself [1, 2, 3]. A further issue is that rubber cannot be placed on individual electrodes separately or it would be technically extremely difficult by almost 16,500 electrodes.
Therefore, we started to experiment with various conductive inks, which do not exhibit these negative proprieties. Conductive ink can be applied to individual electrodes directly without major difficulties; this way, the mutual interaction of electrodes can be eliminated substantially as we obtain separated conductive places.
Conductive ink is ink-filled with small pieces of conductive particles; we tested inks containing graphite and silver particles. For testing, we obtained four types of conductive inks: Luxor (Luxor, Taiwan), KH WS SWCNT (KH Chemicals, Korea), DZT-3 K (DZP Technologies, United Kingdom) and NGAP FI Ag-4101 (NANOGAP, Spain). The ink DZT-3 K was selected after preliminary evaluations and it was used in the measurements. This ink – using carbon particles as filler – could form a relatively high-quality conductive layer owing to its composition. The other inks did not meet the requirements: they were excessively conductive – as the third ink with silver particles as a filler – the resistance of the ink was only in units of Ohm. Other inks were too thin and they did not form a continuous layer or they did not adhere to the substrate (the first two - both water-based inks).
The electrical resistance of an unloaded ink layer should be optimally above 500 kΩ (at least 100 kΩ), and the resistance of the fully-loaded layer should be, optimally below 1 kΩ (usable range of hundreds of Ω). A possible disadvantage of the conductive ink compared with conductive rubber might be the difficulty of creating a compact and stable layer [5].
However, the selected ink DZT-3 K was unable to create a coherent conductive layer, i.e., to sustain its integrity when it was applied on the electrodes directly. Any negligible mechanical load caused the separation of the ink from the electrodes’ surface. Additionally, we observed a certain deformation of the ink layer between the outer and inner electrodes. The measuring method – pushing with a force sensor tip on the ink layer – would not be applicable in this case.
We proceeded to an alternative procedure, as this setup proved not to be utilizable: the selected DZT-3 K ink was applied to the electrodes similarly as the conductive elastomer, by applying the ink on the surface of a 0,3 mm thick PET foil. TG 130 spray gun which can spray very low amounts of ink and enables fine control of spraying was used to deposit the ink on the foil. The ink DZT-3 K was diluted with water in the ratio of 1:1 to prevent the blocking of the jet. Three thicknesses of the deposited ink layer were selected: 7 μm, 15 μm and 23 μm. The spray applications were performed through a template made of the same foil with 3 mm holes given the 2.5 mm outer diameter of the circular electrodes for ink DZT-3 K. The thickness of the deposited ink layer was measured with a Mitutoyo SR44x1 digital micrometer with a measuring range of 0–25 mm and an accuracy of 1 μm. In a similar way was placed ink Graffiti 33 and Henkel ink, here was diameter to 3,5 mm.
Graphit 33 is ink consisting of graphite particles, with organic solvent as a filler. The main properties of the ink are stated in the following Table 1.
GRAPHIT 33 | |
---|---|
Minimal full coverage layer thickness | 10–20μm |
Surface coverage | up to 4 m2 / l |
Packing | 200 ml can |
Drying time | <20 min |
Color | black |
Temperature limit of the graphite film | 250–300°C |
Temperature limit of the paint | ±90°C |
Surface resistivity | 1000–2000 Ω |
Properties of ink Graphit 33 [14].
This ink exhibited the same mechanical deficiencies as the previous specimen - poor adherence and incoherent conductive layer while applied to the electrodes directly, Therefore, we repeated the previous procedure and we deposited the ink on the surface of a 0,4 mm thick PET foil and it was applied to the electrodes similarly as rubber.
The ink was deposited on the foil in 20 μm, 50 μm and 80 μm layers (corresponding with 3x, 6x and 9x multiple spraying). There were used four types of electrodes for the measurement: LD, PD, LH, PH, the electrodes and their dimensions according to the following Table 2. The general design of the electrodes is depicted in Figure 7.
Technology | Thermoplastic |
---|---|
Appearance | Black |
Filler type | Carbon |
Cure | Heat cure |
Operating temperature maximum | 100 °C |
Product benefits | Screen printable Excellent screen residence time Flexible low-temperature drying cycles |
Application | Conductive ink |
Typical assembly applications | Force-sensitive modules, Printed resistors and Sensing devices |
Key Substrates | Treated polyester and Polyimide |
Emulsion thickness | 20 to 40 μm |
Viscosity, Brookfield, Speed 20 rpm, @ 20 °C | 25,000 mPa·s (cP) |
Density | 1100 kg cm−2 |
Shelf Life @ 5 to 30 °C (from date of manufacture) | 365 days |
Flash Point DIN 53213 | 78 °C |
Properties of ink Loctite-7004HR [15].
We cooperate with the Faculty of Chemical Technology, University of Pardubice by creating test boards (see Figure 6) and developing of the new flexible transducer. These samples were made using printing technology. Each one of nine samples of electrode boards include 18 individual circular electrodes with different dimensions stated in Table 3; corresponding dimensions are graphically explained in Figure 7. Each test plate is created for the different mix of inks and thickness of ink.
Sample with circular electrodes.
Electrode number | R1 | R2 | R3 | R4 | E | M | S1 | S2 | Final S |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0,2 | 0,45 | 0,55 | 1 | 2 | 0,1 | 0,5105 | 21,909 | 27,014 | |
0,05 | 0,45 | 0,55 | 1 | 2 | 0,1 | 0,6282 | 21,909 | 28,191 | |
0,2 | 0,5 | 0,75 | 1,25 | 2,5 | 0,25 | 0,6597 | 3141 | 38,007 | |
0,05 | 0,5 | 0,75 | 1,25 | 2,5 | 0,25 | 0,7774 | 3141 | 39,184 | |
0,05 | 0,825 | 0,925 | 1,75 | 3,5 | 0,1 | 2,13 | 69,318 | 90,618 | |
0,05 | 0,8 | 0,95 | 1,75 | 3,5 | 0,15 | 20,024 | 67,846 | 8787 | |
0,05 | 0,775 | 0,975 | 1,75 | 3,5 | 0,2 | 18,788 | 66,334 | 85,122 | |
0,05 | 0,75 | 1 | 1,75 | 3,5 | 0,25 | 1759 | 64,784 | 82,374 | |
0,05 | 0,725 | 1025 | 1,75 | 3,5 | 0,3 | 16,432 | 63,193 | 79,625 | |
0,05 | 0,7 | 1,05 | 1,75 | 3,5 | 0,35 | 15,313 | 61,564 | 76,877 | |
0,05 | 0,675 | 1075 | 1,75 | 3,5 | 0,4 | 14,233 | 59,895 | 74,128 | |
0,05 | 0,75 | 0,85 | 1,6 | 3,2 | 0,1 | 1759 | 57,716 | 75,306 | |
0,05 | 0,725 | 0,875 | 1,6 | 3,2 | 0,15 | 16,432 | 56,362 | 72,794 | |
0,05 | 0,7 | 0,9 | 1,6 | 3,2 | 0,2 | 15,313 | 54,968 | 70,281 | |
0,05 | 0,675 | 0,925 | 1,6 | 3,2 | 0,25 | 14,233 | 53,535 | 67,768 | |
0,05 | 0,65 | 0,95 | 1,6 | 3,2 | 0,3 | 13,193 | 52,063 | 65,256 | |
0,05 | 0,625 | 0,975 | 1,6 | 3,2 | 0,35 | 12,192 | 50,551 | 62,743 | |
0,05 | 0,6 | 1 | 1,6 | 3,2 | 0,4 | 1123 | 4,9 | 6023 |
Parameters of electrodes.
Dimensions of the measured electrodes.
Any of the nine samples test boards will have a different combination of the factors that may influence the sensitivity of the sensor, namely:
thickness of the ink layer
proportion of two conductive inks in the mixture
dimension of the electrode
Before we have received the complete set of all nine test boards, we obtained a “pre-sample plate” to evaluate the design and the suitability for further measurements of the full set of samples. This “pre-sample” has ink thickness 25 (±1) μm and the proportion of the inks 60:40% in the mixture. The proportion of both conductive ink effects resultant resistance of the sensor. The ink Loctite-7004HR has by ink thickness 0,25 μm for loading state resistivity of about 3500 Ω/sq./mil. Properties of this ink are shown in Table 2.
The second used ink is Loctite-NCI 7002EC. This is ink with very high resistance. The ink Loctite-NCI 7002EC is non-conductive in the unloading state. Properties of this ink show Table 4.
Technology | Thermoplastic |
---|---|
Appearance | Black |
Cure | Heat cure |
Operating temperature maximum | 100 °C |
Product benefits | Non-conductive Screen printable Flexible resistive Excellent screen residence time Flexible low-temperature drying cycles Good adhesion |
Application | Non-Conductive ink |
Typical assembly applications | Printed resistors Sensing devices Heating elements Protection against electrostatic discharge (ESD) |
Key Substrates | Treated polyester and Polyimide |
Solid’s content | 37.5 to 40.0% |
Viscosity, Brookfield, Speed 20 rpm, @ 20°C | 10,000 to 25,000 mPa·s (cP) |
Density | 1270 kg cm−3 |
Theoretical coverage, @ 10 μm dry coating thickness | 14 m2 kg−1 |
Shelf Life @ 5 to 30°C (from date of qualification in original seal) | 365 days |
Flash Point DIN 53213 | 78 °C |
Properties of ink Loctite-NCI 7002EC [16].
The measurements of individual electrodes were performed on a scanning matrix comprising circular electrodes with a 2–3,5 mm diameter; the electrodes were placed on an elastic printed circuit board. The same sizes and design of the electrodes as described were used to enable the comparison of the properties of tactile sensors with a conductive elastomer with those with a conductive ink [5]. Conductors were soldered to the outlets of lines and columns which enabled the easy choice of a particular electrode. The dimensions of the measured electrodes are presented in Figure 7.
The electrodes are denoted accordingly to their marking: S1 – inside electrodes area, S2 – outside electrodes area, S – both electrodes area. The parameters of the electrodes are listed in Table 3, dimensions are stated in mm.
The measurement circuit diagram is depicted in Figure 8. It represents a stabilized circuit, that supplies a voltage divider. One resistor of the divider is constant and the other one is variable, represented by the resistance of the conductive ink. The supply circuit, is LM317 voltage stabilizer, enables the setting of the supply voltage to 2 V and its fine adjustment. The low value of the supply voltage ensures that only a small current flow through the circuit, and thus it avoids the heat of the conductive ink. The electrical resistance of the constant resistor in the divider is 10 kΩ, to ensure a constant current in the divider circuit. The electrical resistance of the ink was calculated using the formula (1):
Circuit diagram for measuring the conductive ink resistance.
where
Rink resistance value of sensor
Rkonst resistor with constant resistance value 10 kΩ
Uink voltage on sensor
Unap power voltage
The measurement of the voltage on the conductive ink – needed to calculate the resistance values in the divider – was determined by the measuring card NI 6008. The voltage UINK was connected to an analog input of the card and it was measured by the RSE method (Reference Single Ended) against ground potential. On the other analog input of the card was connected to the output voltage UNAP from the stabilizer in the same way. The output of the measuring card was connected to a PC via USB. The entire measuring station was controlled by the NI LabView program. A LabView application was also created, which enables the recording and the calculation of the electrical resistance of the conductive ink [5].
Measurements of the properties of conductive ink were performed at a robotized workplace equipped with a Turbo Scara SR60 robot. The basic step of the vertical motion of the robot’s arm is 0.01 mm. The pressure was applied by the measuring tip 3 mm in diameter using the vertical motion of the robot’s arm. The arm was moved in 0.02 mm increments for a general overview of the behavior of an electrode and further in 0.01 mm step for a more detailed analysis. The pressure was applied using the vertical motion of the robot’s arm, at which the Hottinger DF2S-3 tensometer force sensor was fixed. The measuring tip is a circular surface with ɸ3 mm or ɸ4 mm diameter. The output voltage of the type DF2S-3 tensometer force sensor was measured by an Almemo 2890–9 Data Logger.
This force sensor was chosen because of its appropriate range and high sensitivity. Its accuracy is 0,03%, nonlinearity is 0,03%, max. Loading is 200 N, and sensitivity 2 mV/V, power supply 5 V, see [17]. For connecting to data logger was used connector Ahlborn Almemo ZA9105650FS1V with input range ± 2,6 V, resolution 1 μV, precision class AA. Detailed technical parameters see in [18]. This way the electrical resistance of the conductive ink was measured.
The control unit is set up to display the values in grams; the conversion into the pressure values was made subsequently. The foil with the deposited ink was placed on the electrode field. The measuring tip touched down on the surface of one tactile point and pressed on the conductive ink deposited on the foil against the circular electrodes. The pressure imposed on the electrodes was calculated from actually exerted force and the known area of the surface of the measuring tip. Figure 10 presents the overall layout of the measuring post. Figure 9 shows the detailed view on the measuring head: (1) is for the conductive ink deposited on a foil, (2) indicates the measuring tip, (3) is the force sensor DF2S-3 and (4) indicates the robot’s head.
Detailed view on the measuring head.
The layout of the robotized measuring post.
The movement of the robot’s arm was controlled by a dedicated remote control. The foil with deposited ink layer and the tactile field with circular electrodes was put into the workspace of the robot’s arm and it was placed on a hard, plastic pad. The positioning of the measuring tip was performed by manual control of the robot. After checking that the measuring tip covers the entire surface of the electrodes, the Almemo 2890–9 data logger was reset to zero in an unloaded condition. For a correct measuring, the stable “unloaded” resistance value of the ink layer, depending on the thickness of the layer and the electrodes’ design, was determined before further loading of the electrodes. This value and the matching vertical coordinate were recorded as a start value. Subsequently, the robot’s arm was gradually lowered using the + and – buttons on the remote control.
After a couple of test measurements, the maximum vertical shift of 180 μm was determined, representing 18 down steps of the robot’s arm. That was sufficient to measure the boundaries when loading force does not more decrease the resistance of the ink. From this value, the backward (up) movement by the same number of steps was carried out (unloading). Loading and unloading procedures were performed to measure the hysteresis of the conductive ink. Corresponding resistance and pressure values were logged by the Lab-View application after each shift. For measurement, we used LabView measure card NI USB 6009 with the common GND and with inside A/D convertor 13 bits and input range 5 V [4, 19]. One measurement cycle thus contained 37 values. Between the individual measurement cycles, there was a five-minute break, so that the material could relax unloaded. The measurements were repeated 10 times for all types of electrodes and each ink layer thickness.
Loctite inks were measured via LabView card full automatically using a robot control program. The full set consists of 172 samples of combination electrode dimension, a mix of inks and thickness of ink layers. The voltage on sensors was measured by LabView card. Were calculated average value, standard deviation and then standard uncertainties – type A, B and combination standard uncertainties type C. These uncertainties are marked for lucidity only in separate graphs of dependencies. This same process was used for conductive ink DZT-3 K, too. For Yokohama, conductive rubber uncertainties were not measured. In lucid graph with more curves was used only average values.
The measurements were carried out ten times on the same sensor point for conductive elastomer and each type of electrode, i.e., both LD and PD. The diagrams below this paragraph show the dependence of the measured electrical resistance on the applied pressure, as an average from each of the ten sets of measurements. The electrical resistance should decrease due to the applied pressure, based on the principle explained at the beginning of the chapter. Now the course of the electrical resistance for selected combinations of materials and electrodes must be studied and their appropriateness for the described device assessed.
The first diagram in Figure 11 presents the dependence of electrical resistance on the applied pressure for conductive Yokohama CS57-7RSC. In the diagram, the behavior of the dependence for a PD electrode by the red curve and for an LD electrode is given by the green curve.
Dependence of electrical resistance on the applied pressure – Conductive rubber, LD and PD electrodes.
Yokohama elastomer was tested on electrodes 1–4, see Table 3. The resistivity changes between 200 and 1300 Ω by pressure between 100 and 1400 kPa.
Further, the hysteresis curve of elastic material Yokohama was measured. Hysteresis curves measured by loading (red curve) and unloading (green curve) cycle shows Figure 12.
Hysteresis of the conductive elastomer.
The measured data for LD-type and PD-type electrodes for all 3 thicknesses of the ink layers - 7 μm, 15 μm and 23 μm – are represented graphically in the following graphs. All measurements were repeated 10x and the total (combined) measurement uncertainty was calculated and graphically represented by respective intervals for each measured value.
Figures 13 and 14 present the graphical result for the conductive ink of thickness 7 μm in the loading and unloading cycle for LD electrode types. Initial insensitivity is apparent, it may be caused by the force necessary for the touch-down of the foil with the deposited ink on the electrodes. Hysteresis is apparent in all electrodes, similarly as in the case when a conductive elastic material was used, however, it is much lower.
Dependency of the resistance of a 7 μm ink layer in the loading and unloading cycle of LD electrode.
Comparison of LD-type electrodes.
Figures 15 and 16 give the comparison of the courses of electrical resistance during loading of LD-type and PD-type electrodes for various thicknesses of the deposited ink layer. From the diagrams, it is apparent that maximum sensitivity is achieved for a 7 μm thickness of the deposited ink layer for both types of electrodes.
Dependency of the resistance of a 7 μm ink layer in the loading and unloading cycle of PD electrode.
Comparison of PD-type electrodes.
The last graph in Figure 17 presents the overall results of the measurements; the graph shows a comparison of changes in resistance depending on the pressure for the LD and PD-type electrodes for different thicknesses of the applied conductive ink. The greatest sensitivity is achieved for a 7 μm ink layer. The comparison of LD and PD electrode types shows a somewhat smoother curve course of the PD electrode for the ink layers of 15 μm and 23 μm. Contrarily, the curve is smoother for the LD electrode and the ink layer of 7 μm.
Overall comparison of LD and PD electrode types.
The loading force was exerted from 0,37 N up to cca. 17,6 N. This resulted in the measured range of pressure values approx. From 30 kPa up to 1400 kPa for the particular measuring tip.
For measuring these inks, we prepared nine test desks (Figure 6), each with the 18 electrodes types, see Table 3 and Figure 7. Each test desk was prepared with a different mix of inks (40:60, 50:50 and 60:40) and three different ink layer thicknesses (10 μm, 20 μm, 30 μm).
The presented results were measured on the test desk Nr. 10, where mix of inks ECI7004HR:NCI7002 is 60:40% and the thickness of the ink is 20 μm. The initial loading pressure varies significantly, as every electrode has own threshold, when it starts to react to the applied pressure (i.e., when the resistance starts to drop). The scale on the graphs has been maintained the same to enable visual comparison of the courses. The graph on Figure 18 shows the electrode 3 - LD and Figure 19 show the electrode 4 - PD.
Electrode 3 – LD.
Electrode 4 – PD.
The course of the electrode LD is very particular compared to other electrodes. It has a very steep beginning part and later the resistance is almost linear.
The course of electrode 4 has a similar course as electrode 3, but the run part is more sheer. Figure 20 show resistance dependence on pressure for both electrodes with uncertainties.
Resistance dependence on pressure for both electrodes LD and PD with uncertainties.
The next graphs show resistance dependence on pressure for all electrodes 1 to 18. It represents the most extensive measurements, which we ever made. Fully we made about 172 measurements of different full courses for different 18 electrodes, mix conductive inks and different thicknesses of these inks. Every course was measured 10 times, it presents more than 1700 number measurements full graphs. The way of measurement is described in Chapters 2.8 and 2.9. The comparison of all individual electrodes is shown in following Figures 21 and 22.
Dependence of resistance on pressure for electrodes 1–9.
Dependence of resistance on pressure for electrodes 10–18.
From graphs appear that some electrodes are suitable for low loading, e.g., electrodes 5, 7, 8, 9, 11 and 13, see Figures 21 and 22. Electrode 5, see Figure 15, exhibits a typical course as demonstrated by most of the electrodes – initial steep descent in the resistance, turn and following little loss in resistance with stagnation towards the end. Electrode 10 has a gradual decrease in resistance up to cca. 400 kPa, followed by stagnation. Electrode 12 exhibits a typical course; notable is that its construction enabled the measurement starting at cca. 50 kPa. Electrode 15 exhibits similar behavior as electrode 10, the measurement is loaded with significantly less uncertainty and starts at lower pressures. Electrode 14 has a typical course; its dimensions do not differ significantly to others. The courses are convenient for measuring the lower pressure range. Also, note the similar dimensions of both electrodes 16 and 17.
In this chapter, we will discuss the comparison of the conductive ink and elastomer material, various electrode types and respective ink layer thicknesses. Generally, it may be stated that the measured electrical resistance of the material depends on the applied force and the contact area of the object with the transducer. The main issue is the mutual interaction between nearby sensors which is significant mainly in the rubber material.
Yokohama conductive rubber CS57-7RSC was loaded with a lower maximum pressure than ink according to the manufacturer’s technical specification. Higher pressures may decrease the accuracy of the measurement and may destroy the rubber. The usability of this material in the Plantograf planar transducer was confirmed with good results within a relevant data output for both types of electrodes in the pressure ranges from 200 kPa up to 1400 kPa. From loads of approx. 1000 kPa the slope of the curve decreases which causes a lower sensitivity of the transducer for higher pressures. Due to mutual interaction of the nearby electrodes, it cannot be used to measure the absolute value of the pressure on the surface directly but only the pressure in a relative scale, e.g., 0–255 kPa on an 8-bit converter like the Plantograf can be determined. The absolute value of the pressure over every electrode may be determined using transcendental equations.
After preliminary measurements with different types of electrodes we found out that the electrical resistance is influenced mainly by the space between the inner and outer electrode and by the size of the electrode itself – see Figure 7. However, PD and LD electrodes differ only in the diameter of the inner opening – i.e., 0.1 mm (PD) and 0.4 mm (LD). Due to their similar parameters, the difference in the electrical resistance of these two electrodes is therefore not significant; only the behavior of the dependence slightly varies, as can be seen in Figures 14 and 16. A thicker ink layer contains so many carbon particles that after applying pressure on the ink layer, its behavior is approaching that of a conductor with an insignificant resistivity change.
Mutual interaction with conductive ink DZT-3 K is very low (max. up to 3%), demonstrated by measuring on the 5x5 and 3x3 sensor matrix. At loads above 600 kPa with thicker ink layers (here 15 μm and 23 μm) there is only a slight change of the electrical resistivity. Therefore, these configurations are not appropriate for higher loads. The best sensitivity was achieved with the 7 μm ink layer. The curve of the PD-type electrode is less smooth than that of the electrode LD, with a nearly linear dependence in the range from 200 kPa to 2000 kPa. The setup with an LD electrode and a 7 μm ink layer was assessed as the best transducer in the experiment [20].
DZT-3 K ink showed significantly higher sensitivity than Graphit 33 ink, when it reacted to a change in resistance at a lower pressure around 22 kPa. Graphit 33 reacted at a pressure of 267 kPa. For this comparison, it is necessary to add that the measured thinnest layer of DZT-3 K ink had half the thickness of the thinnest layer measured in this work. Even with a larger layer thickness, Graphit 33 showed a higher resolution. The resistance for the thinnest layer varied from 3.4 kΩ to 380 Ω and the other two thicknesses had a lower but still acceptable resolution. This fact was stated by the author in his work, i.e., that the DZT-3 K ink has high conductivity and thus a low resolution. When measured on the thinnest layer, its resistance ranged between 1.2 kΩ and 390 Ω. For wider layers, the resistance varied minimally.
In general, every electrode exhibits an initial steep decrease in the electrical resistance followed by a turn, when the resistance decreases significantly more slowly with the rising pressure. This turn is situated in the pressure range 200–400 kPa, depending on the electrode, also the turn is differently sharp. This phenomenon is caused due to the exponential dependency of the resistance on the pressure, which bases on the composition of the material; as the pressure is high enough, there are created significantly fewer conductive paths, thus the resistance drops only a little.
Further, the uncertainties are generally much greater in the range of lower pressures, particularly in pressure ranges under the described turn. These are given first by the light contact of the measuring tip with the surface and secondly by the light contact of the conductive layers itself with the electrode.
Most electrodes exhibit also stagnation in the loss of electrical resistance towards high-pressure levels. This is caused due to the saturation of the material as the particles are compressed to their maximum so the electrical resistance cannot drop anymore. The usable range of the electrodes is therefore limited to pressure ranges below the saturation level.
The particularity of electrode 1 was probably caused due to its different dimensions compared to other electrodes. After verifying the course with a more detailed measurement, it may be a suitable electrode for measuring higher pressure ranges due to its almost linear characteristics and better sensitivity in the higher-pressure ranges.
From the courses of the resistance, it can be seen, that the electrodes are not “universal”, i.e., usable in the whole pressure range (with the exception of the electrode 1). Also, the upper value of pressure is limited to cca 500 kPa, then the drop in resistance is negligible. However, this poses no problem, as such high pressures are not expected to be measured in common industrial or agricultural applications.
Based on our experiments, we conclude that both materials – conductive ink and conductive rubber – are suitable as transducers of pressure and electrical quantities, however, with some limitations. Conductive rubber does not meet the requirements of the Plantograf, as it has a limited pressure range for higher loads. Furthermore, there is significant hysteresis of this material, which appeared during the loading and unloading of the rubber. It is a limiting factor for its use in newer versions of the Plantograf measuring system, which are capable of the real-time measurement of applied pressure up to 1000 frames per second. This phenomenon also prevents the measuring of the absolute pressure acting on the electrode system.
Conductive ink exhibited better results than conductive rubber, namely in the setup with the LD electrode and the 7 μm ink layer. However, there is another problem: the used ink can be wiped off the electrodes very easily. This water-based ink sinks into the gaps between electrodes and it and exhibits small adherence to the electrodes. Thus, we had to select an alternative procedure by spraying the ink on the foil. To allow direct application of the ink to the electrodes, different, polymer-based types of ink may get better mechanical properties. Inks with polymer-based binders adhere to the electrodes much better and the layer is not excessively destructed by the applied pressure [5, 13, 21, 22].
From a comparison of the properties of two types of conductive inks DZT-3 K and Graphit 33, it can be concluded that neither of them is the most suitable choice for tactile sensors. Each would be suitable in a different application where either greater or lesser sensitivity would be required. It is possible to take into account the fact that if the ink with graphite particles were measured on the same thin layer as the second type of ink, it could show greater sensitivity. In addition, the life of the ink layer that will be required when used in a tactile sensor needs to be taken into account. When measuring ink with carbon particles, there is no mention of damage to the surface of the layer. In the measurement of ink with graphite particles, there were cases of a deformed layer. It is, therefore, necessary to consider the cause of the deformation; whether the layer is poorly applied or, for example, the load pressure is too high.
Based on the performed preliminary measurement of the sample plate, we can conclude that the measuring methodology and computer processing of the data is adequate, however, to measure the full set of the samples, there have to be done some minor adjustments. First, more focus is to be given to lower pressure ranges up to cca. 500 kPa, hence the electrical resistance does not change significantly with higher pressures, given the saturation of the material. For more detailed measurement, a smaller step (0,01 mm) may be considered for some electrodes to determine the course more accurately, this applies particularly for low-pressure loads (below 200 kPa). The control program of the robot will have to be adjusted accordingly. The dimensions of the electrodes have a partial impact on the course of the resistance-pressure curve, which is mainly demonstrated with electrode 1, which has significantly different dimensions than others. This electrode is also the most suitable for measuring higher pressures up to 1000 kPa. Other electrodes have their working range up to cca 500 kPa, which is sufficient for their proposed applications.
Generally, the range of the pressures that can be measured using both conductive rubber (earlier research) and various setups with conductive ink (our current research) is from tenths of kPa up to cca 2000 kPa. There are visible some significant dependencies (electrode size, thickness of ink layer, mixture composition) on the sensitivity and applicable pressure range. We preliminary found out, that for instance thinner ink layer causes significantly higher sensitivity of the transducer; the size of the gap between the inner and outer ring of the electrode extends the measurable pressure range; the drop of electrical resistance is less steep with a growing gap. However, these factors are still subject to ongoing research and statistical evaluation, final results will be available probably within 2 years.
In any case, the new design of the electrodes proved to be capable for the proposed use in foil transducers between pressure and electrical resistance, the main concern is now the usable pressure range. In further measurements, other significant dependencies may be discovered, namely the impact of the thickness of the ink layer and the ratio of the ink mixture on the sensitivity and usable range of the electrodes.
Supported by the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic, Czech Republic, Project No. FW01010217.
Authors are listed below with their open access chapters linked via author name:
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Turner, Rose Baker and Mark Morris",authors:[{id:"211379",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:"R.",surname:"Turner",slug:"john-turner",fullName:"John Turner"},{id:"211381",title:"Dr.",name:"Rose",middleName:null,surname:"Baker",slug:"rose-baker",fullName:"Rose Baker"},{id:"211383",title:"MSc.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Morris",slug:"mark-morris",fullName:"Mark Morris"}]},{id:"54434",doi:"10.5772/67741",title:"Investing in Human Capital as a Key Factor for the Development of Enterprises",slug:"investing-in-human-capital-as-a-key-factor-for-the-development-of-enterprises",totalDownloads:2784,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are considered to be a driving force of the economy in the world. Among the most valuable features of SMEs is their flexibility, decision-making accessibility, implementation, innovation and high adaptability to the market environment. 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The future will certainly belong to those companies which pay most attention to effective management of human resources, which, in terms of time factor is an important prerequisite for growth and competitiveness of a company.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Josef Drábek, Silvia Lorincová and Jana Javorčíková",authors:[{id:"199928",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Lorincová",slug:"silvia-lorincova",fullName:"Silvia Lorincová"},{id:"199933",title:"Mr.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Drábek",slug:"josef-drabek",fullName:"Josef Drábek"},{id:"199934",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jana",middleName:null,surname:"Javorčíková",slug:"jana-javorcikova",fullName:"Jana Javorčíková"}]},{id:"54634",doi:"10.5772/67868",title:"Use of Psychological Examinations of Employees and Job Applicants in Personnel Management",slug:"use-of-psychological-examinations-of-employees-and-job-applicants-in-personnel-management",totalDownloads:1629,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This paper deals with psychological and diagnostic examination of the personality of employees and candidates for work, an unexplored subject in the field of labour law and human resource (HR) management in Slovakia. Based on legal analysis of national and international laws and regulations as well as medical knowledge in clinical and occupational psychology, the authors surveyed employers in various industry sectors to test several hypotheses. 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Innovative work behavior today is important for organizations to stay in a competitive position. Also for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), like the case study in this chapter, innovation is essential to keep the SME’s competitive advantage. As people are the most important resource in service companies, and they can contribute to innovation via their motivation and skills, the role of human resource management is important. In this book chapter, we analyze the positive influence of various HR practices on IWB. One of these HR practices is the HBDI tool, a specifically designed questionnaire which gives people insight into their problem-solving styles. The outcomes of the study in this chapter show that both HR practices and also the HBDI tool have a positive influence on developing innovative work behavior and on innovation performance.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Joost Bücker and Eveline van der Horst",authors:[{id:"199058",title:"Dr.",name:"Joost",middleName:null,surname:"Bücker",slug:"joost-bucker",fullName:"Joost Bücker"},{id:"202237",title:"MSc.",name:"Eveline",middleName:null,surname:"Van Der Horst",slug:"eveline-van-der-horst",fullName:"Eveline Van Der Horst"}]},{id:"58609",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73092",title:"Organizational Trust as a Conflict Management Tool in Contemporary Work Organizations",slug:"organizational-trust-as-a-conflict-management-tool-in-contemporary-work-organizations",totalDownloads:1463,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Conflict between management and employees or among employees is an irresistible phenomenon in contemporary work organizations. Evidences gathered from past and present studies revealed that a lot of conflict situations have occurred in work organizations which have significantly impacted organizational performance and its survival in recent times. Consequently, several conventional strategies and techniques have been deployed to constructively manage conflict situation in work organization however, realities show that managing conflict in work organizations remain a challenge to managers in today’s world of work. This is partly due to the fact that conflict arises from different sources; hence it is inimical to subscribes to the idea of one-size-fit-all approach to management of conflict. Based on this momentum, this chapter examines organizational trust as a conflict management tool in contemporary work organizations using an explanatory design and a basic review of literature. The chapter therefore explains the concept of organizational conflict vis-a vis organizational trust within the context of work organization. It also discusses factors causing conflict situation. It examines the importance of trust and factors responsible for the development of trust in organizations. The chapter further examines some theories of trust and also develops a framework for dealing with conflict in work organization.",book:{id:"6305",slug:"organizational-conflict",title:"Organizational Conflict",fullTitle:"Organizational Conflict"},signatures:"Oludele Mayowa Solaja",authors:[{id:"211557",title:"Mr.",name:"Oludele",middleName:"Mayowa",surname:"Solaja",slug:"oludele-solaja",fullName:"Oludele Solaja"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2198,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"55186",title:"Labor Relations: Contemporary Issues in Human Resource Management",slug:"labor-relations-contemporary-issues-in-human-resource-management",totalDownloads:2986,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this chapter, we examine the labor relations through the role of trade unions, collective bargaining, wages and benefits across the European Union. We conclude that labor relations have a direct influence on the labor market, designing the lines for taking decisions in organizations, but also, by governments. Our argumentation explains the relationship between employers and employees through legal rights (established by the law), negotiation process, collective bargaining, ‘actors’ in this process, wage and benefits, social and security protection.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Ana‐Maria Bercu and Ana Iolanda Vodă",authors:[{id:"198390",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana-Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Bercu",slug:"ana-maria-bercu",fullName:"Ana-Maria Bercu"},{id:"206016",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Iolanda",middleName:null,surname:"Voda",slug:"ana-iolanda-voda",fullName:"Ana Iolanda Voda"}]},{id:"54634",title:"Use of Psychological Examinations of Employees and Job Applicants in Personnel Management",slug:"use-of-psychological-examinations-of-employees-and-job-applicants-in-personnel-management",totalDownloads:1628,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This paper deals with psychological and diagnostic examination of the personality of employees and candidates for work, an unexplored subject in the field of labour law and human resource (HR) management in Slovakia. Based on legal analysis of national and international laws and regulations as well as medical knowledge in clinical and occupational psychology, the authors surveyed employers in various industry sectors to test several hypotheses. 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The object of this chapter is the corporate culture in Slovak enterprises and the possibilities of its change towards the raising level of human resources development. Based on the analysis of corporate culture in selected enterprises, the aim of the chapter is to propose methodology for management of change of corporate culture supporting the development of human resources in enterprises. The sociological interview identifies the predominant type of corporate culture in Slovak medium and large enterprises in years 2014 – 2016. The examination is based on the assumption that there are significant differences between preferred values of corporate culture in local and global enterprises. It also identifies the need to change the corporate culture in enterprises and their awareness of corporate culture change management towards human resources development. The results of the survey verify Slovak managers’ interest on human resources development and the formation of strong corporate culture. The results are the basis for the formulation of proposals and recommendations resulting in the methodology for management of change of corporate culture supporting the development of human resources in enterprises.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Lukáš Smerek",authors:[{id:"197295",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Lukáš",middleName:null,surname:"Smerek",slug:"lukas-smerek",fullName:"Lukáš Smerek"}]},{id:"54434",title:"Investing in Human Capital as a Key Factor for the Development of Enterprises",slug:"investing-in-human-capital-as-a-key-factor-for-the-development-of-enterprises",totalDownloads:2781,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are considered to be a driving force of the economy in the world. Among the most valuable features of SMEs is their flexibility, decision-making accessibility, implementation, innovation and high adaptability to the market environment. SMEs provide for acceleration and economic growth of the country and its regions. Investment in human capital in SMEs, (meaning investment into intangible assets of the company), it is one of the ways to support this sector. In the same manner as SMEs are considered to be a driving force of the economy, human resources can be seen as its driving force, the source of success, competitiveness and added value of businesses. Human capital is one of the most valuable components of any business and that is why investment in human resources becomes a necessary step ensuring that a business prospers in a changing market environment. Current trends also point to the growing importance of investment in human capital. 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His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. 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Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. 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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/442081",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"442081"},fullPath:"/profiles/442081",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()