Parameters extracted from fits to experimentally obtained growth curves of refractive index modulation in uncoverplated photopolymer layers.
\r\n\tMany tried to define it, and its definition is always related to those who are in power, that being explained by the fact that this power and the abuse of it precisely, gives the access to being corrupted and practicing the acts that fall under corruption.
\r\n\r\n\tWe can find various types of corruption such as bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, and embezzlement. Also giving or accepting bribes or inappropriate gifts, double-dealing, under-the-table transactions, manipulating elections, diverting funds, laundering money, and defrauding investors.
\r\n\tNo government is immune to corruption. According to the World Bank, “the causes of corruption are always contextual, rooted in a country's policies, bureaucratic traditions, political development, and social history”.
\r\n\tThis indeed has consequences for increasing inequality, impacts government expenditure and services, shadow economy, and crime.
\r\n\tThis book will be a collection of chapters on Corruption. It welcomes contributions related to the nature of corruption its types and how corruption is undertaken in a certain context and the ways to deal with corruption will be part of this book. We value including materials on Corruption in organizations and ways to solve it. The origins of corruption and the way to deal with corruption, how to provide solutions, and any new insights on corruption will be part of this book.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-696-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-695-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-697-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"9cda6d2feaa52a6d523da74f2e2d7ffb",bookSignature:"Dr. Josiane Fahed-Sreih",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11772.jpg",keywords:"Corruption, Origins, Types, Corporate Governance, Organizational Performance, Solutions, Corruption Index, Private Sector, Lebanon, Accountability, Anti-corruption, Public Policy",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 20th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 7th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 6th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Fahed-Sreih is the director of the Institute of Family and Entrepreneurial Business and a chairperson in the Department of Management. She obtained a Ph.D. from Sorbonne University, France, and received the 2007 FFI International Award for outstanding achievement in furthering the understanding of family business issues between two or more countries. She is on the editorial board of the Journal of Family Business Management and a keynote speaker for corporate governance conferences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"103784",title:"Dr.",name:"Josiane",middleName:null,surname:"Fahed-Sreih",slug:"josiane-fahed-sreih",fullName:"Josiane Fahed-Sreih",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/103784/images/system/103784.jfif",biography:"Dr. Josiane Fahed-Sreih is a full-time associate professor of Management in the School of Business, Lebanese American University. She is the founder and director of the Institute of Family and Entrepreneurial Business and a chairperson in the Department of Management at the same university. She was previously the assistant dean. She obtained a Ph.D. from Sorbonne University, Paris, France. Dr. Fahed-Sreih is the Middle East Coordinator for the Family Firm Institute (FFI), the USA, and a family wealth and family business consultant. She received the 2007 FFI International Award for outstanding achievement in furthering the understanding of family business issues that occur between two or more countries. She has participated in and organized international conferences, workshops, and seminars. She has presented at major conferences locally and internationally and consulted on management issues in many countries, including Saudi Arabia, Dubai, Jordan, Qatar, Kuwait, Syria, Bahrain, Oman, France, Cyprus, and Lebanon. She currently sits on five boards of directors as a shareholder, two as a chairman of the board, and one as an independent director in the private sector. She is also an advisor on boards of community service organizations. \n\nShe speaks regularly to trade and professional groups and presents her research at academic conferences worldwide. She is frequently invited as a keynote speaker to the recognized family business and corporate governance conferences. Her research interests are in management, family business, the functioning of boards of directors, and corporate governance. She has published three books, several book chapters, and academic articles in international journals. She is on the editorial board of the Journal of Family Business Management and is a reviewer for Family Business Review, Corporate Governance, and Journal of Management.",institutionString:"Lebanese American University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Lebanese American University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Photopolymers generally consist of a monomer, a photosensitive dye and an initiator. They can either be liquid or dry layer systems. The dry photopolymers usually contain a polymeric binder in addition to the other components. As mentioned above the first photopolymer material used for holographic recording, was reported by Close
In the eighties, Calixto [20] continued the work on acrylamide-based systems. The material contained acrylamide monomer, TEA as an electron donor, methylene blue photosensitizer and PVA as a binder. Blaya
While acrylamide based free-radical systems have received much attention in the literature other materials offer advantages when it comes to the development of practical storage media. Trentler
More recently, works have been carried out on the development of a commercial grade acrylate photopolymer with the same two step polymerisation [24], offering very fast response of the refractive index modulation with respect to the recording dosage, particularly at lower power densities, very high storage resolution, and very large refractive index modulation [25,26].
Extensive work has been carried out, in both industry and academia, on the development of these photopolymer materials and more recently on the understanding of the photochemical kinetics associated with them. In order to maximise the potential of these materials for various applications, the necessity for a physically comprehensive theoretical model of the effects which occur during photo-polymerization is becoming ever more important. Providing such a model will enable potential trends in a material’s performance to be recognized and optimised, [27]. Such models allow simulations of ratios of various key material components to be made, yielding indications of the most suitable material compositions in order to improve material performance.
In this chapter we examine some recently published results on the Non-local Photo-polymerization Driven Diffusion (NPDD) model, [26-32]. This model provides a comprehensive theoretical representation of the processes, which occur during free radical photo-polymerization. The physically realistic model enables predictions to be made about a number of very different photopolymer materials [26-32]. We present several extensions to the previous model in particular allowing for spatially and temporally varying primary radical generation, oxygen inhibition, dark reactions and chain transfer effects. We then apply this model to analyse a number of effects observed to take place during holographic grating formation in an acrylamide/polyvinylalcohol (AA/PVA) based photopolymer and compare experimental results and the predictions of the model with the aim of characterising these effects.
The chapter is structured as follows: In Section 2 we will briefly examine some of the methods used to measure and monitor the optical performance of holographic gratings in photopolymers. In Section 3 we briefly describe the fundamental photo-kinetic processes, which occur in photopolymers during holographic exposure. Then based on these photo-kinetic processes we construct a set of first order coupled differential equations which represent the temporal and spatial variation of the concentrations of constituents of the photopolymer, which form the basis of the Non-local Photo-polymerization Driven Diffusion (NPDD) model. We then analyse some of the simulated behaviour of this model under given physical conditions to examine its physicality and present some of the predictions made which offer potential methods to improve a photopolymers holographic performance. Following these predictions, in Section 4 we then attempt to improve an acrylamide/polyvinylalcohol (AA/PVA) based photopolymer’s spatial frequency response which will increase its high density storage resolution. In Section 5 a brief conclusion is presented offering potential direction for future advancements in the area of photopolymer development.
In the study of holographic recording materials it is common to record gratings in photosensitive materials, such as photopolymers, and to then optically examine the resulting gratings. The gratings produced are often electromagnetically modelled using Kogelnik’s two-wave coupled wave theory. Kogelnik’s two-wave coupled wave theory, [35], describes the efficiency with which thick holograms can diffract incident light. Analytic expressions for both the angular and wavelength dependence of the diffraction efficiency as the incident light deviates from the Bragg condition are derived. Thus the dependence of the diffraction efficiency,
where
Rearranging Eq (1) enables an expression for the temporally varying refractive index modulation,
By monitoring the amount of light diffracted from a weak probe beam during exposure,
During the grating recording process the evolution of the grating is monitored in real time. One of the main advantages of many photopolymer materials is that they are self-processing and thus, non-latent, [36], therefore the diffractive scattering properties are immediately available as the grating is being formed. This allows the evolution of the grating to be monitored by replaying the grating as it is being recorded using a probe laser with a wavelength, which lies outside the absorption spectrum of the photosensitizer used. This ensures that the probing does not affect the fabrication process. In the set-up presented in Figure 1 the probe laser is operating at
Typical experimental set-up used to record unlsanted volume transmission holographic gratings with a recording wavelength of λ = 633 nm.
Examining Eq (1) it is clear that the on-Bragg replay angle of the probe beam,
In the above we have emphasised the recording of a single unslanted gratings and the capture of growth curves. However, the photosensitive sample can also be mounted on a rotation and translation stage (as shown in the inset of Figure 1), enabling the analysis of the angular response of the grating and the recording of grating arrays, [37]. In Holographic Data Storage (HDS) where the storage of multiple pages of information is required, these holograms (gratings) are angularly multiplexed on top of each other within the same volume of the holographic medium. It is the ability to achieve this which makes photopolymer materails an attractive media for optical storage.
It must also be noted that using this optical setup, the temporal variation in the absorbance of the photo-sensitiser can be examined. As the recording beams which are used to record the grating, transmit through the photopolymer sample, they can be collected in the photo-detectors shown in Figure 1. Thus enabling key material parameters related to the photo-absorption kinetics and sensitivity of the photopolymer, to be examined.
In the next section we will examine the photo-kinetic and photo-physical behaviour of these photopolymer materials. It is these reactions which are the basis of the theoretical models which are used as photopolymer material optimisation tools and are the fundamental building blocks of the Non-local Photo-polymerisation Driven Diffusion (NPDD) model [11,26-34].
Let us begin this section with a review of the kinetic models of photopolymerisation which have been presented in the literature.
The photochemical processes, which are present during photopolymerization, are complex [11,26-34,38-43], however an understanding of these processes is of utmost importance if a practical model is to be developed. In a recent review, [44] many of the assumptions made in developing photochemical models of free radical photo-polymerisation were discussed, [38-43]. A number of physical effects not included in the current models were listed, which indicated a lack of physicality under certain exposure conditions. Following the appearance of this review, a series of papers were published [30-32] which addressed many of these issues and provided a model containing a consistent set of chemical reaction equations to take into account many of these effects. These effects included;
Removal of the steady state approximation for macroradical concentration,
inclusion of spatially and temporally non-local polymer chain growth,
inclusion of time varying photon absorption,
simultaneously including the effects of both primary, i.e.
inclusion of the changes in the polymerization kinetic constants caused by increased viscosity, and finally
inclusion of polymerization inhibiting effects.
The resulting Non-local Photo-polymerisation Driven Diffusion (NPDD) model was then experimentally verified by applying it to study (a) normalised transmission curves, and (b) growth curves of refractive index modulation for both short and continuous holographic exposures, in two significantly different free radical photopolymer materials [23,30-32]. The quality of the fits obtained to both photopolymer materials, indicated the versatility and applicability of the NPDD model.
In the past number of years, extensive work has been presented in the literature to describe the time varying absorption effects, which occur in photopolymer materials during exposure, [21,28,29]. In all cases the aim has been to improve the understanding of the photo-kinetics occurring in these materials, and critically to enable accurate predictions of the generation of primary radicals. A model of photosensitiser behaviour proposed by Carretero
where
We will now examine the methods used to extend the NPDD model in by more accurately representing the temporal and spatial variation of the photosensitiser concentration and the associated temporal and spatial generation and removal of primary radicals. As a result the number of approximations made in modelling the photo-initiation kinetics are significantly reduced. Thus a more physically accurate representation of the photo-polymerization kinetics is produced. Crucially, the increased physicality of the proposed model enables a more accurate analysis of the process of inhibition.
The kinetic model presented in this analysis is based upon the following four reaction processes.
Initiation,
Propagation,
Termination,
Inhibition,
In the above set of chemical equations,
As can be seen in Eq (4), the initiation process involves two steps: The
In order to do this, we assume that the following photochemical reactions, take place upon illumination of a photopolymer layer sensitised with a xanthene or thiazine type photosensitiser [39], with an appropriate wavelength. These are as follows,
In these equations
In order to use the proposed rate equations, it is first necessary to convert the exposure intensity
The rate of production of the excited state photosensitiser, appearing in Eq (8a) can then be represented by
In the case of holographic illumination, i.e. to record a holographic grating, there is a spatial distribution of irradiance, which in our case is typically cosinusoidal. In this case the incident intensity is represented as
As in the previous analysis, [30-32] it is assumed that the effect of inhibition during exposure is due solely to the initially dissolved oxygen present within the photopolymer layer. The non-uniform recording irradiance causes concentration gradients of oxygen as it is consumed in inhibitory reactions. This then results in the diffusion of oxygen from the dark non-illuminated regions to the bright illuminated regions. As oxygen molecules are small compared to the other material components which constitute the photopolymer layer, it can be assumed that the oxygen is relatively free to diffuse rapidly, resulting in a one-dimensional standard diffusion equation for the concentration of inhibitor,
where
where in this equation
The equation governing the concentration of primary radicals, including the new term for primary radical generation, is given by
where
Including both types of termination mechanism (primary and bimolecular) and the effects of inhibition, the equation governing macroradical concentration is then
where the squared term represents the effects of bimolecular termination. The generation term in this equation previously appears as the removal term due to macroradical initiation in Eq (15).
The non-uniform irradiance creates monomer concentration gradients, and as a result monomer diffuses from the dark regions to the monomer depleted exposed regions. This results in a spatial polymer concentration distribution, which provides the modulation of refractive index in the material, i.e., the holographic grating. We represent the monomer concentration using the following 1D diffusion equation,
where
where
The equation governing the polymer concentration is
where
Since all the above equations presented in Eqs (9–13), (15-17) and (19), depend upon the spatial distribution of the exposing intensity, they will all be periodic even functions of
As in previous analysis the Fourier series expansion of the monomer and polymer harmonics involves use of the non-local response parameter
In order to examine the general behaviour of this model, we now generate a number of theoretical simulations and analyse their predictions. In all theoretical simulations presented here, it is assumed that time varying viscosity effects are negligible and therefore,
12 spatial concentration harmonics are retained in the simulations, solved using the initial conditions presented in Eq (20) with
Simulation of the spatial variation of the ground state photosensitiser concentration for an exposure intensity
As can be observed from Figure 2, the spatial sinusoidal variation in the exposing interference pattern causes a rapid consumption of the ground state dye in the bright illuminated regions. As the exposure time increases the sinusoidal variation of the dye concentration is distorted and the width of the non-illuminated dark bands narrows. This loss in sinusoidal fidelity results in a spatial production of primary radicals, as shown in Figure 3, which deviates significantly from the sinusoidal primary radical generation which would be generated using the term presented in Eq (3). Subsequently, this yields a non-linear material response, as the number of polymer chains initiated are not simply generated in direct proportion to the exposing interference pattern. This is an important prediction of the model, which agrees well with experimental observation.
Simulation of the spatial variation of the generation of primary radicals for an exposure intensity
Using the same parameter values used to generate Figures 2 and 3, Figure 4 shows a simulation of the amplitudes of the first two concentration harmonics of the monomer,
Simulations of the variation of the first two concentration harmonics of monomer and polymer using the theoretical model.
Figure 5, shows a simulation of growth curves of refractive index modulation with varying values of the concentration of initially dissolved oxygen,
Simulations of the refractive index modulation with time, for various values of dissolved oxygen concentration.
When comparing the experimental results obtained using the optical setup described above with the theoretical predictions generated by the extended model, it became clear that when using the model as presented, the trend of increased inhibition times,
In a previous paper published by the authors [49], it was found that by cover-plating or sealing the photopolymer layer with glass slides, the inhibition times observed during exposure compared with the uncoverplated or unsealed layers, were significantly reduced. These effects were attributed to the removal or reduction of oxygen diffusing in from the surrounding environment, which was replacing or replenishing the oxygen consumed during exposure. It must be noted at this point, that the experimental data examined here were uncoverplated photopolymer layers, which were subject to this potential external oxygen diffusion.
In order to represent this process in the model, an additive term representing the replenishing of inhibiting oxygen from the outside surrounding air, into the material layer, was included. Therefore, Eq (13) was revised and became,
where
In order to illustrate these effects Figure 6 shows a simulation of the behavior of the oxygen concentration with varying values of the replenishing constant,
Implementing the appropriate Fourier series expansion to Eq (21) under the same initial conditions, the model is then applied to the experimental growth curves recorded in uncoverplated layers, yielding much more accurate fits to the data. Figure 7 shows a subset of this data with the corresponding fits obtained using the model. Some of the parameter values which were obtained from the fits to various intensities are,
Simulation of the behaviour of the oxygen concentration with varying values of
Experimentally obtained growth curves of refractive index modulation recorded in uncoverplated AA/PVA photopolymer material layers at a spatial frequency of 1428 lines/mm for 3 different exposing intensities,
The most significant values extracted from the fits are presented in Table 1 along with the parameter search ranges, which were used to obtain a best fit between experimental and theoretical prediction. These search ranges are typical of the valued presented in the literature for similar photopolymer materials, [42,48,51]. The Mean Squared Error (MSE) between the fit and the data are also included to indicate the quality of the fits.
(mW/cm2) | (s) | (cm3/mols) (×107) | (cm3/mols) (×109) | (cm2/s) (×10-11) | (s-1) | MSE (×10-11) |
2.50 | 2.42 | 5.0 | 8.0 | 0.075 | 1.05 | |
4.50 | 2.52 | 7.0 | 9.0 | 0.080 | 2.86 | |
16.00 | 3.00 | 7.0 | 10.0 | 0.115 | 1.88 | |
- | 0.1 - 5.0 | 0.1 - 9.0 | 1.0 – 12.0 | - | - |
Parameters extracted from fits to experimentally obtained growth curves of refractive index modulation in uncoverplated photopolymer layers.
As can be observed from Figure 7, the fit quality is very good and the model predicts the observed trend, that a reduction in the exposure intensity causes an increase in the inhibition period due to (i) initially dissolved oxygen and (ii) oxygen diffusion into the material from the surrounding air. It can also be seen that there is a reduction in the propagation and termination rates with increasing exposure intensities. This is most likely due to the increased viscosity effects, which occur due to increased conversion of monomer to polymer [48]. This is consistent with the results obtained from the previous model, [30-32]. It must also be noted at this point that the estimates obtained for the rates of propagation and termination are slightly higher than those reported in the previous published work by the authors, [30-32]. This is as a result of a more physically accurate description of the primary radical generation introduced by the model development. However, the estimated values extracted from the fits still remain well within the accepted ranges presented in the literature for similar photopolymer materials.
In order to verify the necessity for the inclusion of the additive oxygen replenishing term in Eq (21), several growth curves of refractive index modulation were recorded in coverplated layers. These growth curves were recorded under the same conditions as the uncoverplated layers presented in Figure 7. Figure 8 shows experimental growth curves recorded at an exposure intensity of
Experimentally obtained growth curves of refractive index modulation recorded in both coverplated (short dash) and uncoverplated (long dash) AA/PVA photopolymer material layers at a spatial frequency of 1428 lines/mm for a recording intensity
As can be observed from the figure there is a significant reduction in the inhibition period, from
(s) | (cm3/mols) (×107) | (cm3/mols) (×109) | (cm2/s) (×10-11) | (s-1) | MSE (×10-11) | |
9.0 | 2.9 | 7.0 | 10.0 | 0.000 | 2.26 | |
16.0 | 3.0 | 7.0 | 10.0 | 0.115 | 1.88 | |
- | 0.1 - 5.0 | 0.1 - 9.0 | 1.0 - 12.0 | - | - |
Parameters extracted from fits to experimentally obtained growth curves recorded at
In this section, further developments of the Non-local Photo-polymerization Driven Diffusion (NPDD) model, were presented. For the first time, the spatial and temporal variations in primary radical generation were included. These extensions provided a more physically comprehensive theoretical representation of the processes, which occur during free radical photo-polymerization. A clearer more physical representation of the reactions, which take place during the photo-initiation stages, was also provided, including the spatial and temporal consumption and regeneration of the photosensitiser and the reactions between the excited dye molecules and the co-initiator. Simulations were presented, which highlight the loss of sinusoidal fidelity of the primary radical generation. This behaviour deviates from that which was previously predicted in the literature. Subsequently, this change in the spatial generation of primary radicals has a substantial effect on the distribution of the polymer chains formed and hence, on the resulting refractive index modulation recorded.
The model was then further extended to incorporate the effect of oxygen diffusion from outside the material layer by including a rate of oxygen replenishing. This allowed accurate modelling of the inhibition effects, which dominate the start of grating growth. The results obtained were consistent with previous studies where cover-plating techniques were used.
In the following section, we will examine the effects of adding chain transfer agents to an AA/PVA photopolymer material in order to reduce the average polymer chain length grown during grating fabrication. This will then cause a reduction in the extent of the non-local chain growth of these polymer chains and thus reduce the fall off in refractive index modulation at higher spatial frequencies.
The non-local spatial response function presented in Eq (18) (in Section 3.4) represents the effect of a chain initiation at location
The introduction of a chain transfer agent acts to reduce the average molecular weight of polymer chains grown during free radical polymerization. Therefore a chain transfer agent (CTA) can provide a practical method to reduce the non-local response length. In this section an extended NPDD model is presented, which includes the chain transfer reactions and all major photochemical processes.
In many polymerization systems, the average polymer weight is observed to be lower than predicted by the chain transfer reaction [29,52-55]. Generally, the chain transfer process causes the premature termination of a growing macro-radical chain and arises because of the presence of CTA [48]. Due to this reaction, a new radical is produced which is referred to in this work as a re-initiator. This re-initiator reacts with a monomer molecule to initiate a new growing macro-radical chain. Therefore we can write the chain transfer reactions as,
where
In the radical chain polymerization system [29,48], the polymerization rate can be expressed as:
The polymerization rate,
This quantifies the effect of the various chain transfer reactions on the number-average degree of polymerization. [
where
which will be discussed in detail in next section.
In order to begin to examine the effects of the presence of CTA on the material non-local response length,
It should be noted that, in the following analysis, we only consider chain transfer to chain-transfer agent, i.e., the chain transfer constants for monomer and initiator are assumed negligible. To further simplify the analysis in this work, we assume that
The equation governing the re-initiator concentration can be given by,
where
Furthermore the chain transfer and re-initiation reactions effect the variation of macro-radical, [
As before the concentrations of the components of the photopolymer and the amended equations appearing here in Eqs (27–30) will be periodic even functions of
For brevity we will assume here that harmonics of order greater than
where
These coupled equations along with those presented in Section 3 are then solved under the initial conditions,
We will now examine some of the predictions of the extended model presented in this section. Unless otherwise stated all kinetic parameter values are assigned appropriate values, which are typical for the AA/PVA photopolymer material examined. The simulations are performed retaining four spatial concentration harmonics and the coupled differential equations are solved using the initial conditions given in Eq. (35). In all cases,
As different types of chain transfer agents will exhibit different kinetic behaviours, which result in variations in the polymerization rate and therefore changes to the number-average degree of polymerization,
Effects of initial CTA concentration on number-average degree of polymerization,
In order to demonstrate the relationship between the non-local response length,
Simulations of the growth curves of refractive index modulation,
Simulations of the spatial frequency response of the refractive index modulation at saturation,
Figure 11 shows the saturation refractive index modulation,
In this subsection, we aim to demonstrate and compare the effects of a number of CTAs on the spatial frequency response of the various photopolymer material compositions under examination. Following the analysis presented in Section 4.3, we aim to show that a reduction in average polymer chain length results in the predicted reduction in the non-local chain length
The three material compositions examined are; (i) a standard acrylamide/polyvinylalcohol photopolymer [30-34], (ii) the standard acrylamide/polyvinylalcohol photopolymer with the addition of 0.96 g of sodium formate (CTA-1) [29,32,32] and (iii) the standard acrylamide/polyvinylalcohol photopolymer with 0.53 ml of 1-mercapto-2-propanol (CTA-2)..For each sample of these material composition examined, several growth curves were measured using a recording intensity of 1 mW/cm2, at a recording wavelength of
Applying the extended NPDD model presented in the previous subseciton, the experimental growth curve data was fit using a least squares algorithm, in which the Mean Square Error (MSE) between the prediction of the model and the experimental data was minimized to extract key material parameters. In order to carry out the fitting process, search ranges of typical parameter values based on data presented in the literature were used [30-34,48]. The model was then applied to analyse the temporal variation of the refractive index modulation
The parameters estimated for the compositions studied are presented in Table 3 (standard AA/PVA), Table 4 (CTA-1) and Table 5 (CTA-2). For each spatial frequency the saturation refractive index modulation value,
Examining the estimated values for
SF (lines/mm) [ | (×107) | (×108) | (×10-10) | (nm) | MSE (×10-10) |
500 [2.07] | 2.7 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 60 | 1.96 |
1000 [2.20] | 2.3 | 3.6 | 1.0 | 68 | 1.64 |
1428 [2.36] | 2.8 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 55 | 0.89 |
2000 [1.97] | 2.2 | 3.8 | 2.0 | 60 | 1.09 |
2500 [1.56] | 2.7 | 3.1 | 3.0 | 65 | 1.21 |
3000 [1.38] | 2.6 | 3.2 | 3.0 | 60 | 2.72 |
Spatial frequency parameter estimations for standard AA/PVA material.
SF (lines/mm) [ | (×107) | (×108) | (×10-10) | (×106) | (×107) | (nm) | MSE (×10-10) |
500 [1.90] | 3.7 | 3.3 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 2.6 | 50 | 1.64 |
1000 [2.18] | 3.5 | 3.4 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 51 | 2.72 |
1428 [2.39] | 3.8 | 3.0 | 6.0 | 3.0 | 1.3 | 45 | 2.65 |
2000 [2.12] | 3.2 | 4.0 | 6.0 | 2.0 | 1.7 | 45 | 2.36 |
2500 [1.87] | 3.7 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 1.0 | 49 | 3.92 |
3000 [1.60] | 3.8 | 3.6 | 1.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 47 | 1.17 |
Parameter estimations for spatial frequencies in AA/PVA with sodium formate (CTA-1) material.
SF (lines/mm) [ | (×107) | (×108) | (×10-10) | (×107) | (×106) | (nm) | MSE (×10-10) |
500 [1.97] | 2.0 | 3.5 | 5.0 | 1.0 | 8.0 | 40 | 1.98 |
1000 [2.09] | 1.7 | 3.8 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 6.0 | 40 | 1.71 |
1428 [2.38] | 1.6 | 3.9 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 3.0 | 42 | 1.53 |
2000 [2.23] | 1.7 | 3.7 | 6.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 40 | 1.22 |
2500 [2.03] | 2.1 | 3.0 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 3.0 | 38 | 5.53 |
3000 [1.68] | 1.7 | 3.8 | 2.0 | 1.0 | 8.0 | 39 | 1.12 |
Parameter estimations for spatial frequencies in AA/PVA with 1-mercapto-2-propanol (CTA-2) material.
In Table 3 the mean non-local response length in the standard AA/PVA material is estimated to be approximately
In order to more clearly illustrate the results presented in Tables 3 - 5 the spatial frequency response of each material are shown in Figure 12.
The improvements in the high spatial frequency response can clearly be observed. In order to demonstrate the improvements in AA/PVA material performance, numerical fits were carried out to the growth curves of all the three testing samples, for the 3000 lines/mm spatial frequency case. The results are presented in Figure 13 with the associated error bars, indicating the reproducibility of the experimental results.
In this section the NPDD model was extended to examine the effects of the addition of CTAs to an AA/PVA photopolymer. As the NPDD model predicts, a reduction in average polymer chain length grown during polymerisation will reduce the negative smearing effects which are caused by non-local polymer chain growth. As CTAs are known to reduce the average polymer chain length grown during polymerisation, a number of various types and concentrations of CTA were added to reduce these detrimental effects. Then using the NPDD model and fitting growth curves of refractive index modulation at various spatial frequencies for each of the compositions under examination, estimates of key material parameters were obtained. All results verified that the use of CTAs caused a substantial increase in the response of the AA/PVA photopolymer’s spatial frequency response, particularly at higher spatial frequencies, which is in line with the NPDD model predictions.
Experimental results of spatial frequency response of saturation refractive index modulation,
Experimental growth curve data with error bars and fits at 3000 lines/mm, standard material (large dashed line); with sodium formate, CTA-1, (medium dashed line and empty circle points) and with 1-mercapto-2-propanol, CTA-2, (small dashed line).
In this chapter we briefly reviewed some of the developments made in the area of photopolymer material development. We also examined some of the extensions which have been made to the Non-local Photo-polymerisation Driven Diffusion (NPDD) model in order to increase its physicality, with the aim of producing a tool for photopolymer material optimization. A detailed understanding of the photochemical and photo-physical effects which take place during and after holographic exposure is of extreme importance in order to achieve such a tool. Some of the recent developments which have been made in order to achieve this were illustrated and their implications examined. Among these were the temporal and spatial primary radical, the effects of oxygen inhibition, non-local polymer chain growth and the addition of chain transfer agents to improve the spatial frequency response. As various photopolymer compositions have diverse chemical and structural characteristics, knowledge of the characteristics required when choosing these components will offer an informed choice to yield specific improvements in material performance. The implications of the predictions presented here suggest that there are many ways in which improvements can be made.
There still remain a number of effects which have not been included into the NPDD model which would increase its physicality and therefore make it a more powerful tool. One of these which has not been included here, is the addition of time varying viscosity effects. When polymerisation occurs, densification and crosslinking occurs, resulting in a reduction in the material’s fractional free volume. This reduction causes an increase in the viscosity of the material which restricts the rate at which polymerisation proceeds. Accurate modelling of these effects would allow for more precise recording schedules for subsequent holographic exposures to be determined and would enable optimum concentration ratios of the main constituents of the material to be found.
The authors acknowledge the support of the Irish Research Council for Science, Engineering and Technology through the Empower Postdoctoral research scholarship. The authors also acknowledge the support of Enterprise Ireland and Science Foundation Ireland through the national development plan.
The African oil palm (
The Asian continent concentrates most of the CPO production, led by Indonesia and Malaysia, which together accounts for 85% of the world’s CPO production [4]. However, the limited availability of areas for cultivation in Southeast Asia has opened new frontiers for expansion, culminating in the growth of Latin America’s share in the global production of oil palm [5]. Latin America has the largest suitable area for oil palm cultivation, notably led by Brazil (2,283,000 km2), Peru (458,000 km2), and Colombia (417,000 km2) [5]. Among Latin countries, Colombia is the world’s fourth-largest producer of CPO and the first in the Americas, with an estimated production of 1.67 million tonnes in 2020, followed by Guatemala with 852 thousand tonnes and Honduras with 580 thousand tonnes [4].
Unfortunately, oil palm plantations in this geographical area are affected by a wide variety of pests and diseases that negatively affects productivity and discourage investment in this sector [1]. Notably, “bud-rot type” diseases pose the greatest threat to oil palm plantations in Latin America [6]. Among them,
Fatal Yellowing was first identified by Reiking in 1928 in oil palm plantations in Panama, with cases reported in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Suriname, Nicaragua, and, reportedly, in Central Africa, after that [6]. In Brazil, it was only in 1974 that the first symptomatic individuals were identified and, from the epidemiological explosion that occurred in the 1980s, FY started to represent the greatest threat to oil palm in the country [9]. As a result, several studies began to search for the possible biotic causal agent behind it and its putative vectors [8]. However, the research efforts made for more than 30 years have not exactly pointed out organisms directly linked to FY\'s cause [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]. Some studies also looked for possible abiotic causes, with inconclusive results so far [17, 18, 19]. Recently, techniques such as metabolomics, proteomics, and metagenomics started to be applied to provide insights into the possible FY etiology, initiating a new phase in the process to solve this problem [20, 21, 22].
Although Brazil has more than 30 million hectares with an aptitude for oil palm production, it currently has less than 1% of this area destined for this purpose [23]. Fatal Yellowing is the main contributor to hinder the expansion of the oil palm industry in Brazil, and the attempts to control the emergence of sick plants have not been successful, and its nature remains a mystery [10]. This review intends to analyze descriptively the studies carried out to investigate the FY problem in Brazil, besides pointing out new strategies employed for understanding the development of the disease, confirm the real cause behind it, and develop tools for early diagnostics.
Oil palm is originally from West Africa and adapted to the intertropical areas of Africa, Asia, South and Central America [1]. It is the most profitable oil crop, as it presents a higher yield with a lower production cost [24]. Its oil yield is of the order of 4-6 tonnes per hectare per year of CPO, much higher than that presented by other crops, such as rapeseed (0.69 t), sunflower (0.69 t), and soybeans (0.44 t) [3]. Another positive point is that this crop uses only 6% of the area to produce 36% of the global oil supply, while soy, for example, occupies 40% of the land to generate 26% [4, 24]. Because of that, oil palm stands out as a player fundamental to help the world meet the growing global demand for vegetable oil in 2050 that will be around 240 million tonnes [25, 26].
The expansion of the oil palm industry has been strongly encouraged by governments and private sectors in Southeast Asia [27]. It is by far the most productive region in the world, supplying 85% of the CPO produced, reflecting the rapid expansion of the cultivated area that started in the middle of the last century [25]. The commercial oil palm plantations in Indonesia, for instance, went from 70 thousand hectares in 1961 to 6.78 million hectares in 2018, with a considerable increase of 9.582% during this period [2]. As a result, Southeast Asia production rose to 63.26 million tonnes in 2018, or a 22,378% increase in the period [2, 3].
Africa has not seen an expansion of the oil palm industry as significant as Southeast Asia in the last 60 years [3, 28]. The area occupied by oil palm increased from 3.55 million hectares in 1961 to 4.55 million hectares in 2018 in the African continent, representing an increase of only 33% (Figure 2) [2]. Meanwhile, the Americas now occupy 6% of the international market, producing around 4.89 million tonnes of palm oil in 2018, a 273% increase in the last two decades [2].
The considerable increase in oil palm production was supported mainly by the advances in genetic breeding programs that increased oil productivity more than 2 folds since 1960 [1].
Most of the CPO and its derivatives produced stays in the Asian markets that absorb 51% of the total, led by India, which imports 19.4%, and China 13.0% [29]. The European markets, which import 26%, have the Netherlands (6.1%) and Italy (4.3%) as the leading importers [23]. Africa (12%), the Middle East (4%), and Latin and North America (7%) also have a consumer market for vegetable oils, and palm oil from Southeast Asia helps to supply the demand [29]. The global vegetable oil market allocates 70% of total production to food and 30% to non-food industrial purposes, such as, for example, the production of cosmetics and personal hygiene products (24%) and as a raw material for the production of biofuels (5%) [26].
The increase in global palm oil production in the 21st century is due mainly to new plantations in producing countries, especially in Malaysia and Indonesia [27]. However, due to a reduction in the areas available for expanding cultivation in Southeast Asia, an opportunity opened up to expand to new frontiers to meet the growing global demand for palm oil [5]. As a result, Latin America became one of the most promising regions for oil palm cultivation, as it has one of the largest areas suitable for cultivation, notably represented by Brazil, Peru, and Colombia [5].
Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela produce together 4.65 million tonnes of palm oil, representing 6% of world production in 2020 [2]. Colombia is the largest oil palm producer in this region and ranks 4th in the World, with 1.61 million tonnes produced in 2018, or 33% from the annual palm oil of Latin America (Figure 1) [2, 30]. Guatemala produced a total of 875 thousand tonnes in 2018 what places the country in the 2nd position in Latin America [2, 31]. Honduras is in the 3rd, followed by Ecuador, Brazil, Costa Rica, and Venezuela [2].
Land use for oil palm cultivation in central and South America since 1980, in hectares. Source: adapted from our wold in data [
The first oil palm plants arrived in Brazil in the 16th century, adapting very well to the Northeast region of the country [32]. The oil palm industry in Brazil stayed as a small industry until 1960, when, due to increasing demand for oil for cooling steel sheets in the national steel park, it started to experience significant growth [33]. In 1967, the oil palm cultivation expanded to the Pará State, in the North region of Brazil, with the first commercial-scale plantations comprising about 3.000 hectares [32].
Driven by technical advances and growth in demand for vegetable oils, there was a significant increase in the cultivated area of oil palm in Brazil, which went from 11 thousand hectares in 1980 to more than 236 thousand hectares in 2008 [3]. Brazil has large areas with the aptitude for oil palm production, favored by climatic conditions similar to the most productive regions in the world [1]. However, until 2014, less than 1% of this area was occupied by commercial plantations [34, 35]. Brazil’s position as the 13th, and 23rd, in palm oil production and on the productivity scale, respectively, in the world, is due mainly to this under-utilization of available areas [3, 32].
Oil palm production is concentrated in Pará state, which accounts for 97.19% of the cultivated area and 97.99% of the national palm oil production, followed by Bahia (1.98%), Roraima, and Amazonas [36]. The expansion of cultivation to already deforested areas in the Amazon and other regions in Brazil is an opportunity to reduce pressure on forests and supply the palm oil demand from the food and energy sectors [35]. To make the plantations more environmentally sustainable, the Brazilian Government launched the agro-ecological zoning (ZAE) program in 2010, a legal mechanism to delimit the oil palm cultivation area [37]. This area include Acre, Amapá, Amazonas, Mato Grosso, Pará, Rondônia, Roraima and Tocantins, part of Maranhão and five municipalities in Goiás state, comprising about 59% of the Brazilian territory [35].
Several fatal syndromes of bud-rot severely affect plantations of oil palm in South and Central America [6, 38]. Bud-rot type disease was reported for the first time on oil palm plantations in Suriname in the 1920s, followed by another incidence in Panama reported by Reinking in 1927 [6]. In general, symptoms of bud-rot type diseases initiate with chlorosis of the youngest leaves and later necrosis that rapidly reach immature tissues of the meristem, causing a collapse of the spear leaf and plant death [9]. Bud rot diseases can take two forms: a lethal form found in Ecuador, Brazil, and in certain zones of Colombia and Suriname, and a non-lethal one, with a high recovery rate, found mainly in the Colombian Llanos [6]. The disease is synonym to a few other names such as “pudrición del cogollo” (PC) in most Spanish speaking countries, “PC típica” (PCt) or “PC diversa” (PCd) in the plantation Palmeras del Ecuador (PDE) in Eastern Ecuador, “amarelecimento fatal” (AF) in Brazil, “spear rot “in Suriname [1, 6, 7].
The first large-scale bud rot damage on oil palm plantations in Latin America was due to the PC disease in northern Colombia, where a field of 2,800 hectares located in the Turbo region was virtually devastated by PC in 1965 [9]. In Suriname, the spear rot was first registered in the Victoria region in 1976 on four-year-old oil palms in a plantation of 1,700 hectares. Despite the phytosanitary practices applied to control the disease, an exponential progression reduced the original area by 85% [39]. In Ecuador, the first PC cases happened in 1976 on four-year-old oil palms on the Pacific slopes of the Ecuadorian cordillera [1], and, like other regions, the plantation was decimated by the disease in a few years [6]. Recently Martinez et al. [7] carried out a study in Colombia to isolate microorganisms and reproduce PC in healthy oil palm plants and, in conclusion, they postulate that the oomycete
Fatal yellowing exhibits, by far, the most dramatic scenario among the bud-rot type diseases of oil palm in the Americas. The factors linked to the emergence of this disease in some countries remain unknown after experiencing more than 50 years of outbreaks in Brazil, Ecuador, Panama, Suriname, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Peru, and Venezuela [6, 9, 10].
The FY disease first appeared in Brazil in 1974, with sporadic occurrences in a field established in 1967 near Benevides, a city in the Pará State [8, 12]. The disease progressed slowly in the following years, from 25 symptomatic plants in 1978 to 125 in 1981. In 1984, ten years after the first report, the number of plants diagnosed with FY was 465 [11]. In the first ten years after its first appearance, the disease progressed in a linear model, and the numbers of affected plants remained more or less the same per unit of time. This mode of progress indicated that the contamination did not occur from plant to plant. However, the numbers of affected plants rose to 9,968 in 1986 and 32,673 in 1987, starting a period of exponential increase [11]. In the first two decades after its first occurrence in Brazil, approximately 100 thousand oil palm trees died from this disease, resulting in the loss of entire plantations [11, 40].
Roguing was then put in place to maintain the source of the inoculum of a possible pathogen to a minimum, eliminating all plants showing symptoms up to one month after the discovery [40, 41]. The oil palm industry promoted training on the fast and precise recognition of FY symptoms to guarantee the effectiveness of this phytosanitary measure [42]. Despite it, the disease kept on occurring in plants between the 15th and the 16th year after planting, making FY one of the main problems of this crop in Brazil. Not surprisingly, this discouraged the expansion of oil palm cultivation in the affected regions [11]. As the inability to identify the causal agent and promote effective control of FY persists, the oil palm industry remains in a state of insecurity to expand in the regions affected by FY [42].
Proper and early disease diagnosis is vital for applying control practices at the right moment. Without an efficient and effective early diagnosis of the disease and the disease-causing agent, any control measures will be inefficient [43]. Until the FY etiology is known and diagnostic systems developed, the only way to find out that a plant has this disease is by checking for characteristic symptoms and signs. Once a plant is diagnosed with FY, it must undergo roguing. In Brazil, symptoms identification in the field is still the only diagnostic system used for FY [8, 12].
An oil palm plant affected by FY shows necrosis or dryness of the spear leaf that evolves towards the base, then the region of the meristem rots, and a foul odor is felt in some cases (Figure 2) [12, 44]. The process of rotting of the meristem region, frequently observed in rainy seasons, motivated the initial designation of the disease as spear leaf rot [8, 40]. After losing the spear leaf, there is a general decline leading to plant death; however, some individuals during this process may temporarily re-issue a new one [12, 18]. In plants affected by FY, chlorosis appears in leaflets at the base of the intermediate leaves, which advances towards the extremity, followed by necroses frequently observed in younger leaves [6]. There is no synchronism between the spear leaf necrosis and the chlorosis of the leaflets. The FY symptoms always begin with leaflets chlorosis, which led to the Fatal Yellowing disease name [1]. In Brazil, the oil palm tree usually dies 7 to 10 months after the onset of the first symptoms, but it can vary depending on the region [41].
Fatal yellowing (FY) disease in oil palm. (a) Oil palm plantation affected by FY; (b) individual showing signs of yellowing and necrosis of the intermediate leaves; (c, d, e) evolution of yellowing and dryness of the spear leaf with the presence of necrotic tissue, and (f) root section of an individual with signs of rot. Source: by authors.
Once the oil palm plant gets affected by FY, the developed bunches can reach the maturation stage and are not affected. However, the immature ones rot, and the inflorescence abort [40, 41]. The root system is visibly affected, and emission of new primary roots reduced, leading to a total cease of roots growth. FY kills the tips of the roots generating new false primary ones. In addition, the root tissue is usually necrotic at the beginning of the appearance of symptoms in the aerial part [45, 46]. On the other hand, no apparent internal symptoms are observed, such as rot or necrosis of the stipe and vascular system, a characteristic that is also seen in PC [41].
The causal agent of FY is still unknown, but a possible genetic solution for this problem exists. This genetic solution resides upon the fact that the American oil palm (
The genus
The American oil palm is endemic to Equatorial America, with natural populations distributed from Central America to northern South America, including the countries of Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela [1]. In Surinam, there are dense stands on poor, sandy soil, while in Colombia, it can grow in damp or even swampy situations near or on the banks of rivers [1].
The American oil palm also has a history of use as a source of vegetable oils and other products, but its most important value to the oil palm industry is its capacity to hybridize with the African oil palm [1]. The interest in the germplasm of this species is due to valuable characteristics for breeding programs of the African oil palm, such as slow growth, oil quality (mainly unsaturated oil) [54], and disease resistance, including FY [47].
These two species can sexually cross and generate fertile interspecific hybrids with intermediate characteristics to the two parental species [55]. Some interspecific hybrids between these species are already commercially available, and the Brazilian genetic group of
Independent whether the origin of FY is biotic or abiotic, or a combination of both, once it is finally known, new studies will be necessary to confirm this genetic resistance and gain insights on possible strategies to transfer this resistance to the African oil palm more efficiently and effectively, besides the use of interspecific crosses followed by backcrosses.
After the epidemiological explosion of FY in 1986, Embrapa (the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation) started conducting studies on insects as a possible vector of the FY causal agent [8]. As the spread of the disease followed the direction of the prevailing winds, while natural barriers - such as roads, rivers, and glades - were not sufficient to prevent it supported this hypothesis [8, 56]. This hypothesis on a possible entomological role in the spread of FY also resided in the fact that this disease has similarities with the lethal yellowing-type disease that affects other palms. This disease that affects several other palms is due to insect-transmitted phytoplasmas [57]. Initially, from inventory obtained in plantations affected by FY in the municipalities of Alvaraes, in the Amazonas State, and Benevides, in the Pará State, the main insects suspected of being responsible for the transmission corresponded to
Initially, an inventory of insects captured directly on the oil palm plantations located inside and outside areas with FY occurrence was generated. Healthy oil palm plants, isolated in cages made of wood and nylon canvas, received populations of the inventoried insects, and the plants monitored for symptoms appearance. After using almost one million insects in the FY transmission test, no symptomatic plant appeared, and there was no relationship between the affected areas with the collected insect fauna [15, 58]. Additional studies have attempted to establish a link between the insects
Another study attempted to investigate the relationship between the presence of homopterans in the vegetation cover in oil palm plantations and the occurrence of FY [12]. No relation between the vegetation cover and FY occurrence appeared as the disease manifested itself either in an area covered with
Phytoplasmas are prokaryotes of the Class Mollicutes that cause diseases in several plant species, including several economically important ones [59]. As biotrophic parasites, they colonize the elements riddled with the phloem and can also be found inside the vectors [60]. These organisms are responsible for Lethal Yellowing (LF), a fatal disease that affects the coconut (
Insects from the Homoptera order, popularly known as leafhoppers, are the vectors for most phytoplasmas causing disease in plants [63]. Biological characteristics, symptoms, and specificity of the insect vector were the focus of the first studies aiming to associate phytoplasmas with plant diseases [64, 65]. Later, new and more accurate DNA-based techniques started to dominate these studies, leading to the production of specific oligonucleotides for diagnosis [65].
Transmission electron microscopy was, for many years, the tool used for the detection and study of the cytological interaction between phytoplasmas and the hosts [66]. Studies using this tool were not successful in associating phytoplasma with FY, been replaced by new molecular techniques for the same purpose [8]. Studies carried out by Brioso et al. [67, 68] using nested-PCR in oil palm plants symptomatic for FY found just a very few samples positives for the presence of phytoplasmas from the SrI and 16SrI groups, which do not allow to associate these phytoplasmas to FY. An attempt to reproduce the disease was carried out by grafting intermediate leaf tips with FY into healthy seedling petioles and, during the period of two years, healthy individuals did not show symptoms characteristic of FY and, thus, the hypothesis proposing phytoplasma as the causal agent was discarded [12].
In the attempt to establish a causal relationship between plant pathogenic fungi, bacteria, and nematodes with FY, some studies tried to reproduce the symptoms in healthy young and adult oil palm plants inoculated with some of these microorganisms previously isolated from symptomatic plants [69, 70].
A pathogenicity test focused on studying the growth, reproductive and developmental habits of microorganisms, included one-year-old nursery plants with individual inoculations and a mixture of three fungi (
Interestingly, some authors have observed similarities between the disease PC in Colombia and FY in Brazil. Furthermore, the oomycete
Nematodes are typically wormlike invertebrates able to live in the soil or inside plant structures such as roots, stems, leaves, and flowers and can cause morphological and developmental changes in their hosts [71]. The hypothesis of a nematode as a causative agent of FY came from observations of FY and the red ring disease - caused by the nematode
Other plant pathogens studied as potential causal agents of FY in oil palm were viruses and viroids. Several methods, including mechanical transmission, grafting, pollen-mediated dispersion, transmission electron microscopy, nested RT-PCR, RCA - rolling circle amplification, and electrophoresis, were used to test the hypothesis of a virus or a viroid as the causal agent of FY, without success [8, 10].
Lin et al. [73] evaluated extracts from plants with and without FY using the polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis technique, and the band patterns generated in both samples did not reveal any apparent difference. The same author also carried out a study to purify virus particles via separation with a fractional density gradient with no success [74]. Kitajima [75] evaluated ultrafine tissues from roots, leaves, and spear leaf of symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals by transmission electron microscopy, but no pathogen could be associated with FY.
Other studies have directed their efforts towards viroids, which are the smallest known phytopathogens, consisting basically of a single-stranded, circular RNA molecule not encapsulated [76, 77]. Beuther et al. [13] searched for viroids and viroid-like RNAs in oil palm plants using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and return gel electrophoresis of nucleic acid extracts, with no success in showing a link between this type of pathogen and FY.
The initial pieces of evidence of a possible abiotic cause for FY came from observations made about the indefinite dissemination pattern in affected areas, with an exponential growth form not observed in the case of biotic stresses [78, 79]. Among the possible abiotic causes linked to the appearance of FY, there are lower and higher amounts of water, high or low temperature, high content of soluble salts in the soil, soil pH unsuitable for oil palm, nutritional deficiencies or excesses, presence of toxic organic compounds and intensity and balance of nutrients [78].
The regions with oil palm plantations and FY occurrence located in the North region of Brazil have soils with patches of quartz sand interspersed with patches of lateritic concretions and are subject to prolonged floodings, 5 to 6 months per year [41]. Thus, studies started aiming to understand the composition of the soil and its influence on FY emergence.
The concentrations of Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn in the leaves of healthy and symptomatic oil palm plants and resistant interspecific hybrids were determined and found out that their concentrations were below the ideal range, suggesting their involvement in the appearance of FY [80]. Compact soils that stay temporarily saturated by rainfall suffer oxidation by anoxia, making it impossible for plants to absorb Fe [80]. Based on these observations, applications of ferrous sulfate were carried out on plants under different stages of FY, but after 120 days of the experiment, there was no regression of the disease in the evaluated oil palms [80].
The physical properties of the soil from areas with the occurrence of FY revealed that they were naturally well-drained and deep but had a thickening or compacting between the depths of 30 cm and 60 cm, as well as the occurrence of speckles in this depth, which results in soil saturation in the superficial layer during the rainfall season [81]. Bernardes [82] carried out chemical analysis on roots of symptomatic plants, and the results did not allow to pinpoint any element imbalance that could be responsible for FY. Another fact that needs consideration as possibly linked to a potential cause for the disease is the fact that at the moment when the first symptoms appear in the aerial part, the root system is severely impaired, which explains the plants’ lack of response to fertilization and other interventions [82].
A series of field observations made in the heart of the oil palm production area in Brazil led to new hypotheses for a possible abiotic cause for FY [83]. The main field observations taken into consideration were: a higher occurrence of flooding in oil palm plantations, in comparison to the previous level, observed under native vegetation cover; the layers close to the soil surface without vegetation cover or with oil palm tend to stay close to water saturation for periods much longer than in the native forest; the presence of mottled-iron reduction in the profile of the oil palm plantations, and the redox-potential values (Eh) below −200 mV; and the presence of reduced iron ions on the soil surface in oil palm plantations during periods of intense rain [83].
The new hypotheses were brought together and summarized as: Deficient aeration reduces the potential for oxy-reduction in the soil, causing changes in the ionic composition of the soil solution (reduction of Fe3+ ions; NO3+; Mn3+). The soil solution with a high concentration of reduced ions initially causes damage to the root system (Figure 3) predisposing the oil palm plant to physiological disturbances (passive poisoning and attacks of secondary pathogens) whose symptoms are known as FY [84].
Oil palm plant showing reduction of the root system in hypoxia conditions (A), and soil clouds showing the typical reductimorphic or oximorphic color mottles caused by stagnating soil environment (B). Source: Wenceslau Teixeira.
To gain insights into the idea of oxygen deficiency (hypoxia) in the origin of FY, a study by Encinas [85] evaluate the influence of land use and temporal variations on the dynamics of nutrients in the solution of soil and water at an oil palm plantation and a nearby area still with primary forest. Another by Muniz [83] compared the changes in water flow at an oil palm plantation and a nearby area still with native vegetation cover and evaluated its effects on iron dynamics and the structure of the soil. These two studies gathered additional shreds of evidence to further support this hypothesis, such as the electrical conductivity increased during a long flooding period (95 days), indicating that ions from the aggregates migrate to the solution; the soil pH increases after the initial flooding period, reaching values close to neutrality, with a subsequent reduction, but above the values found in aerated soil; the soil redox potential decreases during the flooding period, forming a highly reducing environment; the total carbon contained in the macroaggregates reduced after flooding for a period of 11 days; the iron contained in the aggregates of Yellow Latosols with medium texture migrates to the soil solution under flooding conditions; there is a high negative correlation between the iron in the flooding solution and the DMG of the aggregates in the Yellow Latosols, and flooding for a period of 11 days promotes the destabilization of aggregates of Yellow Latosols with medium goethite texture.
The so-called ‘omics’ techniques (Figure 4) provide new opportunities to study oil palm FY. To get insights on FY possible causal agent, different research groups in Brazil have used metagenomics, metabolomics, and proteomics analysis [20, 21, 22]. To our knowledge, no work focusing on transcriptomics and FY has been published yet. The most commonly used approach in these studies is to compare healthy plants (without symptoms of FY) to those showing disease symptoms at different stages of progression. In contrast to more traditional non-molecular studies of FY, these techniques provide a global glimpse of the organism by looking at the associated microbiota (metagenomics), the complete protein content (proteomics), or metabolite content (metabolomics) of cells.
Schematic showing a healthy oil palm tree (green leaves) and another one (yellow leaves) showing fatal yellowing (FY) symptoms. Different molecular techniques such as metagenomics, metabolomics and proteomics can be used to compare these contrasting biological situations. Metagenomics is a culture-independent technique that can be used to identify the microorganisms present. Metabolomics can used to identify and quantify cellular metabolites. Proteomics allows the identification of differentially expressed proteins. These ‘omics’ techniques are important high throughput tools that have been used to understand the biology of oil palm when challenged by FY disease. (credit: Clarissa Kruger).
Koch’s postulate was fundamental to the identification of disease-causing microorganisms [86]. In short, the strategy of isolating and cultivating the potential pathogen, and inoculating it into a healthy organism to confirm the symptoms of the disease, brought many advances to the study of infectious diseases [87]. More recently, due mainly to the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, the frontiers of microbiology expanded to those microorganisms that we cannot cultivate by classical microbiology techniques. That has opened the possibility to test the hypothesis that a microorganism not grown in vitro easily is the cause of FY [88]. If this is the case, metagenomics would be the technique to study FY.
Metagenomics is a culture-independent approach to study microbial communities. A metagenomics strategy allows one to skip the step of isolation and cultivation of microbial species. Metagenomics studies can contribute to elucidate the identity and/or the genetic and metabolic capabilities of the microorganisms present in a sample, including any that are potentially pathogenic [89].
In this sense, metagenomics complements the classic techniques of isolation and cultivation of microorganisms, and one can apply it to study different classes of microorganisms (e.g., viruses, bacteria, fungi, archaea) [22, 90, 91, 92]. Metagenomics protocols begin with the extraction of total DNA from the sample of interest, which contains microorganisms. Samples can be many different ones, such as soil or plant parts with FY disease symptoms. There are distinct ways to study the microbial community from this DNA. Many studies in different plants use the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene or ITS amplification approach (i.e., PCR amplification with specific primers) to identify the microorganisms present, including a potential pathogen [93, 94, 95].
16S rRNA gene-specific primers amplify bacterial and archaeal sequences (16S rDNA). Similarly, the 18S rRNA gene and the ITS-specific primers amplify fungal sequences. The ITS refers to the internal transcribed spacer, the DNA situated between the small-subunit ribosomal RNA and large-subunit rRNA genes. The 16S rDNA, 18S rDNA, and the ITS regions are highly polymorphic, thus allowing taxonomical identification of the microorganisms present in a sample. The PCR-amplified DNA is then sequenced and submitted to bioinformatics analysis to compare the obtained sequences with sequence databanks, leading to a putative microorganism. In summary, this metagenomics approach that combines PCR amplification with NGS allows identifying microorganisms present in the community [96].
The first metagenomics work to use ITS amplification and high throughput NGS to study FY in Brazil was performed by Costa et al. [22], who evaluated fungal communities associated with leaves of oil palm plants, with and without symptoms of FY. Leaves from health plants and from plants showing FY symptoms in three different disease stages (stages 2, 5, and 8) were obtained. Because of the similarities between PC and FY, using primers specific to the genus
The Costa et al. [22] study reported the analyses of fungal diversity using the ITS region. Results showed that the fungal community in different healthy asymptomatic oil palm leaves are more similar to each other than those presenting FY disease symptoms. The fungal communities were not the same among all the symptomatic samples, and were not consistent even between samples at the same stage of FY disease. Importantly, no fungal taxon had its relative proportion increased in leaves across all the FY diseased oil palm plants. It was hypothesized that the changes observed in the fungal community composition could be a secondary effect of FY disease. Similar metagenomic studies to analyze the viral, bacterial and archaeal communities associated with FY are needed.
A less common metagenomic approach that can also be used to study plant disease is to assemble genomes from the metagenome obtained from plants showing symptoms of disease. In this case, instead of using PCR to amplify a specific gene, one can completely sequence the DNA extracted from the samples of interest, and use bioinformatics tools to assemble genomes (metagenome-assembled genomes) of the microorganisms present. This type of methodology allows, in addition to identifying microorganisms present, access to their genomes. This creates the possibility of studying the genetic relationship among the species present, and predicting metabolic capabilities as well as the interactions between the organisms of the community [97]. One limitation to this method, however, is that the plant host genome sequence needs to be available and subtracted
Proteome designates the set of proteins expressed by a cell, tissue, or organism at any given time [99]. Proteomic tools make it possible to obtain a protein profile with precision and sensitivity with the aid of electrophoresis, chromatography, mass spectrometry, and bioinformatics [99]. Proteomics is more and more used nowadays to understand plant responses to different biotic and abiotic stress conditions [100, 101].
In this context, and based on the hypothesis that the primary stress behind FY was abiotic and present in the soil, proteomics was applied to study this disease [21]. This hypothesis is based on observations regarding symptoms seen in the root system before they appeared in the aerial part [83]. Soil compaction, which hinders drainage and subject the roots to long periods of flooding in a hypoxia condition, would be in the origin of the stress [83].
Nascimento et al. [21] carried out a proteomic analysis to compare the protein profiles from symptomatic and asymptomatic oil palm plants, employing the mass spectrometry technique. The study looked for proteins linked to tolerance induction to relate the different areas collected and the distinct stages of the disease, analyzing the roots of symptomatic plants in early, intermediate, and final stages.
Proteins involved in the metabolism of phenylpropanoids and lignins, with a recognized role in reducing the effects of biotic and abiotic stress, were negatively regulated in symptomatic individuals, aggravating FY symptoms. In asymptomatic plants, enzymes such as S-adenosylmethionine - with a crucial role in methionine’s biosynthetic metabolism - showed a recognized action in response to the stress. Plants with FY symptoms showed some pathogen-related proteins positively regulated, implying a progression of infection by biotic agents [21].
The hypothesis of a possible physiological dysfunction caused by factors present in the soil was reinforced by the large accumulation of antioxidant proteins in asymptomatic individuals [21]. The participation of the antioxidant system may indicate some level of resistance, considering that this system is vital for plants in conditions of soil flooding [102]. In addition, the accumulation of aldehyde dehydrogenase may indicate that the root system is under an anaerobic condition as it converts the acetaldehyde, promoting plant survival in this condition [21, 103]. Thus, these results indicate that plants affected by FY are in abiotic stress conditions and, with the damages done to the roots, it becomes a gateway for several opportunistic organisms [21].
In contrast to proteomics, metabolomics refers to a comprehensive analysis to identify the set of metabolites present in a sample with the aid of analytical techniques, such as liquid chromatographies or liquid–gas, associated or not with mass spectrometry, among others [104].
Rodrigues-Neto et al. [20] performed the first metabolomics work to study FY in Brazil using an untargeted metabolomics strategy to prospect metabolites differentially expressed in the leaves of FY symptomatic and asymptomatic plants. A high throughput method based on metabolic fingerprinting MS, using UHPLC coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), was employed, and chemometric analysis, PCA and PLS-DA, were used to evaluate metabolic differences. This study aimed at prospecting a biomarker for FY early diagnosis, besides gaining insights on pathways responsive to this disease valuable for future improvement studies.
Nine secondary metabolites were detected in a higher concentration in the healthy plants in comparison to the FY affected ones: Glycerophosphorylcholine, arginine, asparagine, paniculatin or apigenin 6,8-di-C-hexose, tyramine, Chlorophyllide, 1,2-dihexanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine, proline, malvidin 3-glucoside-5-(6″-malonylglucoside) or kaempferol 7-methyl ether 3-[3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-(1–> 6)]-[apiosyl-(1–> 2)-galactoside]. These metabolites made possible to identify different metabolic pathways that have been affected by the FY, such as the glycerophospholipid metabolism, the isoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis, the flavonoid biosynthesis, the tetrapyrrole biosynthesis and citrate cycle derivatives pathways.
Unfortunately, due to the fact that these metabolites are already described in the literature as linked to other types of stress, they are not good candidate for biomarkers; except for two of them, glycerophosphorylcholine and 1,2-dihexanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine [20].
Fatal yellowing disease represents a threat of great magnitude to the Brazilian oil palm industry. For decades, several studies attempted to identify its causal agent without success. As a result, no measures used today can effectively reduce the economic loss for the oil palm industry due to this disease. The only glimpse of hope in solving this problem still resides in the genetic resistance found in the American oil palm. However, the road to transfer this resistance through interspecific crosses and backcrosses is very long and has many uncertainties.
The search for the primary stress leading to FY must go on, whether it is of biotic or abiotic origin - or the combination of both. Only then might be able to block its occurrence, or, if not possible to do that, develop early diagnostic tools to reduce its spread to a minimum.
Recent studies using single omics analysis have shown that these new technics can take the etiological studies regarding FY in oil palm to another level. We postulate that transcriptomics should be the next step in using omics to gain further insights regarding this disease. Even more, we believe that it should be done under the scope of a multi-omics integration (MOI) strategy, together with metabolomics, proteomics, and ionomics, at least.
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The grant (01.13.0315.00 - DendêPalm Project) for this study was awarded by the Brazilian Innovation Agency - FINEP.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/439776",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"439776"},fullPath:"/profiles/439776",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var m;(m=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(m)}()