\r\n\toxygen-free atmosphere. Biochar has been used for many years as a soil amendment and in general soil applications. Nonetheless, biochar is far more than a mere soil amendment. In this review, we report all the applications of biochar including environmental remediation, energy storage, composites, and catalyst production. In this book, we intend to collect contributions from worldwide experts in the field of biochar production and utilization providing a general overview of the recent uses of biochar in material science, thus presenting this cheap and waste-derived material as a high value-added carbonaceous source. Furthermore, we are aiming to give readers a handy and effective tool to easily understand how this field is interesting and diverse. It is a goal that this book could be easily used by any reader with a strong scientific background ranging from scientific company advisors to academic members. Nonetheless, students enrolled in scientific undergraduate and graduate programs could be consulted to this text for any further and deeper investigation. In the end, we intend to propose a very high scientific content book that could represent the reference text for any consideration and future study about biochar for the next years.
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Organic agriculture is a holistic production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems, and people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity, and cycles adapted to local conditions rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation, and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved [1]. Holistic means near-closed nutrient and energy cycle system considering the whole farm as one organism [2]. Organic agriculture relies on a number of farming practices based on ecological cycles and aims at minimizing the environmental impact of the food industry, preserving the long-term sustainability of soil and reducing to a minimum use of nonrenewable resources [3]. Organic agriculture is both a philosophy and a system of farming aiming to produce food that is nutritious and uncontaminated with substances that could harm human health [4]. Organic farming benefits to the ecosystem include conservation of soil fertility, carbon dioxide storage, fossil fuel reduction, preserving landscape, and preservation of biodiversity [3].
\n
Pest management in organic farming is achieved by using appropriate cropping techniques, biological control, and natural pesticides (mainly extracted from plant or animal origins). Weed control, the main problem for organic growers, can be managed through cultural practices including mechanic cultivation, mulching, and flaming. Organic farming is characterized by higher diversity of arthropod fauna and conservation of natural enemies than conventional agriculture [3, 5].
\n
According to the IFOAM [1], organic agriculture is guided by four principles: health (soil, plant, animal, and human), ecology (living ecological systems and cycles), fairness (environment and life opportunities), and care (protect the health and well-being of current and future generations as well as the environment). The US Congress passed the organic food product act in 1990, while the European Union (EU) set up the first regulations on organic farming in 1991, and in the same year, the Codex Alimentarius Commission officially recognized organic agriculture. Gomiero et al. [3] gave more details on history of organic farming, total global areas, organic standards, and impact on the environment. The chapter deals with pest management in organic farming system with an example of organic date production as case study.
\n
\n
\n
2. Principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming system
\n
Pest management in organic farming is a holistic (whole-farm) approach that largely depends on the ecological processes and biodiversity in the agroecosystem. Accordingly, most IPM tactics, principles, and components match with organic farming systems [6]. The goal of this strategy is to prevent pests from reaching economically damaging levels without causing risk to the environment. Successful IPM programs in organic farming may have the following components: (1) monitoring crops for pests, (2) accurately identifying pests, (3) developing economic thresholds, (4) implementing integrated pest control tactics, and (5) record keeping and evaluation.
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The factors that render crop habitat unsuitable for pests and diseases include limitation of resources, competition, parasitism, and predation [7]. These factors play an important role in maintaining equilibrium of the agroecosystem and suppression of harmful pests. Faunal and floral diversities play a substantial role in pest and disease management in organic farming system [8, 9]. The four principles of pest management in organic farming system, namely, prevention, avoidance, monitoring, and suppression, will be discussed in this chapter with special reference to date palm as case study.
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\n
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3. Differences between organic and conventional farming with respect to plant protection
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Few options of plant protection substances are available for certified organic growers compared to conventional ones. Thus, they should capitalize on the natural processes and management of the ecosystem to control harmful organisms. Organic farms had a more diverse arthropod fauna, on average, than conventional farms. The average for five 30-second vacuum samples per farm was approximately 40 arthropod species in conventional tomato compared to 66 species in organic tomato fields. Additionally, natural enemies (parasitoids plus predators) were more abundant on organic farms [10]. Arthropod biodiversity, as measured by species richness, was, on average, one-third greater on organic farms than on conventional farms [10].
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Under organic farming systems, the fundamental components and natural processes of ecosystems, such as soil organism activities, nutrient cycling, and species distribution and competition, are used directly and indirectly as farm management tools to prevent pest populations from reaching economically damaging levels. Soil fertility and crop nutrients are managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, and cover crops and supplemented with manure, composts, crop waste material, and other allowed substances.
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Soil-borne and root pathogens are usually found in low levels in organic farming as compared to conventional farming [11]. Pathogens such as Pythium spp., Sclerotium rolfsii, Phytophthora spp., and some Fusarium can survive on organic matter of the soil, in the absence of their hosts for long periods, and are thus difficult to be controlled with crop rotation. Additionally, airborne pathogens cannot be controlled with cultural practice such as crop rotation [12]. Powdery mildew and rust diseases (airborne) and insect pests such as aphids and whiteflies (sucking insects) are less serious in organic farming than in conventional farming due to lower nitrogen concentrations in foliar tissues or phloem of plants in the former compared with the latter [11]. Almost all pesticides available for organic farming have short residual effects and work through direct contact mode of action as compared to the persistent systemic pesticides used in conventional farming. Table 1 gives the main differences between organic and conventional farming with respect to soil fertility, biodiversity, and other criteria.
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\n
\n
\n\n
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Organic farming (OF)
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Conventional farming (CF)
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\n\n\n
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Synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are not permitted
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Synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are allowed
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\n
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Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are not allowed
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GMOs can be used
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\n
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Soils have higher water holding capacity than CF
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Soils have less water holding capacity than OF
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\n
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OF has larger floral and faunal biodiversity than CF (complex crop pattern)
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CF has smaller biodiversity than OF (simple crop pattern)
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\n
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The agricultural landscape is characterized by heterogeneity (multicultural system)
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The agricultural landscape is characterized by homogeneity (monocultural system)
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\n
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Minimizing the use of nonrenewable resources by recycling plant and animal waste into the soils (on-farm inputs)
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Depends largely on nonrenewable resources (off-farm inputs)
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\n
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OF is more sustainable than CF
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CF is less sustainable compared to OF
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Strictly regulated by international and national institutional bodies such as Codex Alimentarius and IFOAM
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Not strictly regulated
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\n
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Crop protection depends mainly on natural processes such as soil fertility, crop cycle, and biodiversity (more preventive)
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Crop protection relies mainly on human intervention with synthetic chemicals (more curative)
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\n\n
Table 1.
Fundamental differences between organic and conventional farming.
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4. Crop protection practices in organic farming
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Practices and tactics used in organic farming are based on the three management strategies, which include prevention, monitoring, and suppression. These practices will be intensively discussed in the following paragraphs:
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4.1 Identification and monitoring of crop pests
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Crop pests include insects, weed, plant pathogens, invertebrate, and vertebrate animals. Identification of insect pests and their natural enemies is an important step in any pest management program. Insect pests and natural enemies could be identified using keys and field guides or otherwise consulting an official identification bodies. Unlike insect pests, plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, virus, and nematodes are difficult to identify in the field and may need laboratory diagnosis. However, signs of insect damage and symptoms of plant diseases may be easily distinguished in the field. Weeds could be easily identified using key and field guides.
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Monitoring is the regular inspection or scouting of field crops for pests, including insects, pathogens, nematodes, and weeds, to determine their abundance and level of damage. It serves as an early warning system for the presence of pests and diseases providing information for decision-making regarding management action and evaluation of control methods. Insect pests can be monitored through visual observation, pheromone and light traps, sticky traps, water traps, yellow traps, sweep nets, beating trays, and pitfall traps. Scouting data are used to develop economic thresholds, a useful decision-making tool to start control action when a pest population reaches or exceeds the specified economic threshold.
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4.2 Tactics used for pest prevention and suppression in organic farming
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A successful integrated pest management (IPM) program in organic farming incorporates a variety of pest management tactics such as cultural, mechanical/physical, biological, and biopesticide (allowed for organic use) tactics individually or in combination. Each control tactic, discussed below, employs a different set of mechanisms for preventing and suppressing pest populations.
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4.2.1 Cultural pest control
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The goal of cultural control is to alter the environment, the condition of the host, or the behavior of the pest to prevent or suppress an infestation. It disrupts the normal relationship between the pest and the host and makes the pest less likely to survive, grow, or reproduce [13]. In agricultural crops, crop rotation, selection of crop plant varieties, timing of planting and harvesting, irrigation management, crop rotation, and use of trap crops help reduce populations of weeds, microorganisms, insects, mites, and other pests. These cultural practices are more preventive than curative and thus may require planning in advance [13–15]. The diversified habitat provides these parasites and predators with alternative food sources, shelter, and breeding sites [16]. Tillage can cause destruction of the insect or its overwintering chamber, removal of the protective cover, elimination of food plants, and disruption of the insect life cycle generally killing many of the insects through direct contact, starvation or exposure to predators, and weather [13]. The use of trap strip crops can control insect damage at the field edges and at the same time avail refuge and food for beneficial insects. Insect resistance is an important component of pest and disease management. Quality-based resistance can be induced in plants through management of nutrients and irrigation. Intercropping and biodiversity play an important role in pest management in organic farming [13].
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4.2.2 Mechanical and physical pest control
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One of the simplest methods of physical or mechanical pest control is handpicking insects or hand-pulling weeds. This method works best in those situations where the pests are visible and easily accessible [17]. Physical or mechanical disruption of pests also includes such methods as mowing, hoeing, flaming, soil solarization, tilling or cultivation, and washing [17]. Animals such as kangaroos cause damage by eating yellow dates; hence, fruit bunches are covered to protect them from such damage [18].
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Devices that can be used to exclude insect pests from reaching crops in organic farming include, but not limited to, row covers, protective nets with varying mesh size according to the pest in question, and sticky paper collars that prevent crawling insects from climbing the trunks of trees. Water pressure sprays can be employed to dislodge insect pests such as aphids and mites from the plant surface. Insect vacuums, on the other hand, could be used to remove insects from plant surface and collect them into a collection box.
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4.2.3 Biological pest control
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Biological methods are the use of beneficial organisms that can be used in the field to reduce insect pest populations. Biological control is grouped into three categories: importation or classical biological control, which introduces pest’s natural enemies to the locations where they do not occur naturally, augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies, boosting the naturally occurring population, and conservation, which involves the conservation of existing natural enemies in the environment [19]. The role of beneficial species on pests is of relatively greater importance in organic agriculture than in conventional agriculture, because organic growers do not have recourse to highly potent insecticides (such as synthetic pyrethroids) with which to tackle major pest problems [13].
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4.2.4 Biopesticide control
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Biopesticides are characterized by having minimal or no risk to the environment, natural enemies, and nontarget organisms due to their mode of action, rapid degradation, and the small amounts applied to control pests. They are slow acting, have a relatively critical application times, and suppress rather than eliminate a pest population [20]. Biopesticides have limited field persistence and shorter shelf life and present no residue problems. Thus, they are approved for pest management in organic crops.
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5. Plant protection products (PPPs) authorized in organic farming
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The crop protection in organic farming is holistic, and, hence, it is extremely difficult to separate inputs as plant nutrients (fertilizers) and plant protectants (pesticides) [6]. Plant protection products authorized for use in organic farming differ among countries depending on the differences in crops, pests, and cropping systems, as well as regulations and standards adopted by these countries [21]. Organically approved pesticides fall into the following groups: biorational, inorganics, botanicals, microbial, oils, and soaps. The most widely used as insecticides are microorganisms, natural pyrethrins, rapeseed oil, and paraffin; the most widely used as fungicides are copper compounds, sulfur, and microorganisms. The rules of organic agriculture allow the use of unregistered products such as nettle slurry, which is used against aphids. It can be prepared on the farm or shared among farmers [21, 22].
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The basic substance concept was introduced by the EU regulation 1107 in 2009. It was defined as substance not intendedly used for plant protection purposes; however, it can still be used in protection of plants either directly or as a diluent. According to this definition, substances used as foodstuff such as vinegar and sunflower oil can be used as plant protection [23]. The basic substances of plant and animal origin, which are used as foodstuff, can be legally used in crop protection in organic farming with the exception of being used as herbicides. These basic substances include chitosan hydrochloride, fructose, sucrose, Salix spp. cortex, and Equisetum arvense L. (field horsetail) which are used as elicitors of the plant self-defense mechanism. Sunflower oil, whey, and lecithins are used as fungicides, while vinegar is used as fungicide and bactericide, and Urtica sp. is used as insecticide, fungicide, and acaricide [21]. In organic farming, only active substances listed in the Commission Regulation (EC) No. 889/2008 (Table 2) can be used. New update is frequently being made by the EC to add or remove PPPs from the list.
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Name of product
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Purpose and specifications of use
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Azadirachtin from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica)
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Beeswax
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Used as protectant for treatment of cuts and wounds after pruning or in grafting
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Plant oils
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Used for control of small-bodied insects such as thrips, aphids, and whiteflies
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Laminarin (from Laminaria digitata) or kelp or brown algae seaweed
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A polysaccharide from the group of the glucans, used to protect plants against fungi and bacteria. Kelp should be grown according to the organic standards
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Pheromones
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Used only in traps and dispensers
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Pyrethrins from the leaves of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium\n
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Used as insecticide
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Pyrethroids (only deltamethrin or lambdacyhalothrin)
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Used only in traps with attractants or pheromones
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Quassia from the plant Quassia amara\n
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Only insecticide and repellent
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\n
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Microorganisms, e.g., Bacillus thuringiensis, Beauveria bassiana, and Metarhizium anisopliae\n
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Origin should not be GMOs
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\n
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Spinosad from the soil bacterium Saccharopolyspora spinosa\n
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Used as insecticide
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Ethylene
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Insecticidal fumigant against fruit flies
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\n
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Paraffin oil
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Used as insecticide against small-bodied insects
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Fatty acids (soft soaps)
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Insecticide against mite, thrips, and aphids
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Lime sulfur (mixture of calcium hydroxide and sulfur)
\n
Used as fungicide
\n
\n
\n
Kieselgur (diatomaceous earth) from the hard-shelled diatom protist (chrysophytes)
\n
Used as mechanical insecticide
\n
\n
\n
Naturally occurring aluminum silicate (kaolin)
\n
As insect repellent against a wide range of insects at a rate of 50 kg/ha
\n
\n
\n
Calcium hydroxide
\n
Used as fungicide
\n
\n
\n
Sodium hypochlorite (bleach or as javel water). It is a disinfectant with numerous uses, and its effect is due to the chlorine
\n
Used in seed treatment as viricide and bactericide
\n
\n
\n
Sulfur
\n
Used as broad-spectrum inorganic contact fungicide and acaricide
\n
\n
\n
Copper compounds such as: copper hydroxide, copper oxychloride, copper oxide, tribasic copper sulfate, and Bordeaux mixture (copper sulfate and calcium hydroxide)
\n
Used as fungicide and bactericide maximum of 6 kg copper per ha annually
\n
\n
\n
Sheep fat (obtained from fatty sheep tissues by heat extraction and mixed with water to obtain an oily water emulsion)
\n
A triglyceride consisting predominantly of glycerine esters of palmitic acid, stearic acid, and oleic acid. A repellent by smell against vertebrate pests such as deer and other game animals. It should not be applied to the edible parts of the crop
\n
\n
\n
Quartz sand
\n
Used as repellent against vertebrate pests
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Plant protection products approved by the European Union (EU) for use in organic farming [24].
\n
\n
\n
6. A case study of organic date palms
\n
There are about 100 million date palms in the world mostly distributed in Asia and North Africa, producing 7.78 million ton of dates annually [25]. The international famous date palm cultivars include Medjool, Deglet Noor, Barhee, Halawy, Khalas, and Khadrawy. Organic dates are now produced in many countries around the world including Tunisia, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Sudan, Iran, Algeria, and the USA. Date palm, whether grown conventionally or organically, has numerous pests and diseases including 132 species of arthropod (insects and mites), 52 vertebrate pests (birds, rodents, bats), and 28 non-arthropod pests (slugs and snails, parasitic nematode) [26, 27]. Additionally, more than 16 important fungal, phytoplasma, and unidentified diseases attack the date palm. The major ones include Bayoud, black scorch, Diplodia, Khamedj inflorescence rot, Belaat, graphiola leaf spot, Al-Wijam disease, brittle leaf disease, and Faroun disease [28]. These pests and diseases may cause substantial losses in date palm groves if left unmanaged. Therefore, a well-planned and supervised pest management program is important to maintain a sustainable date palm production in organic farming system. Some examples of injuries inflicted by pests on date palm and dates are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
\n
Figure 1.
Symptoms of damage on the fruit bunch stalk (left) due to Oryctes elegans and on the trunk (right) due to Jebusaea hammerschmidti.
\n
Figure 2.
Fatal damage caused by the larvae of the longhorn beetle Jebusaea hammerschmidti on the apical meristem (Goumara) of a date palm.
\n
Date palm pests of economic important in organic farming could be prevented through an IPM program comprising the following components: selection of planning materials, pest monitoring, cultural management, and conservation of natural enemies of pests.
\n
\n
6.1 Selection of planning materials
\n
To a healthy vigorous palm that yield good quality date fruits, one should start with good planting materials whether tissue culture seedlings, offshoots, or mature palms. Planting materials should be adapted to the area where to be grown, in addition of being healthy and free from pests and diseases. Such planting materials should be obtained from nurseries certified for organic date palm production, where strict quarantine measures and protocols are applied. Many serious pests and diseases of date palm including the invasive red palm weevil spread rapidly through movement of infested planting materials [29]. Dubas bug, scale insects, longhorn beetle, and rhinoceros beetle also invade new areas through transportation of infested offshoots and mature palms (Figure 3). Thus, application of preventive and protective controls through strict implementation of agricultural quarantine controls, as well as non-trading of any offshoots or infected palms, are essential for the establishment of new date palm plantation.
\n
Figure 3.
Many important pests and diseases of date palm can be introduced into new areas through transporting unhealthy planting materials.
\n
\n
6.1.1 Characteristics of a good date palm offshoot
\n
\n
Make sure that the offshoot belongs to the cultivar that is intended to be grown. Selection should be made during harvesting time of the mother palm, because it is easy to identify the date palm cultivar from the characteristics of its fruit.
The offshoot should be 3–4 years old, with length of approximately 1–1.5 m and diameter of 25–35 cm with an average weight of 20–30 kg.
The offshoot should contain numerous undamaged roots.
The offshoot should be free of insect pests and diseases.
The offshoot should be mature and hence will have a better chance of survival after transplanting. Bearing fruits and having daughter offshoots indicate the maturity of the offshoot.
Care must be taken not to wound the offshoot during detachment from the mother palm, as the wounds would predispose the offshoot for bacterial and fungal diseases, as well as for opportunistic insect pests such as the dynastic beetles, termites, and red palm weevil.
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
6.2 Pest monitoring and mass trapping
\n
Monitoring of major date palm pests is essential for decision-making such as determination of economic threshold that largely help in starting control actions and avoidance of routine preventive treatments. Pheromone trapping could be used to determine population cycles and prediction of pest outbreaks. Pheromones can also be employed in mating disruption, attack and kill, and male inhalation techniques to reduce pest populations [30]. The same devices of pheromone and light traps can also be used for mass trapping of adult insect pests, particularly gravid females that lead to drastic reduction in pest population (Figure 4) [31].
\n
Figure 4.
Solar light trap (top left), pheromone-baited trap (top right), adult borers collected by the light trap (bottom right), and adult of red palm weevils mass trapped through pheromone trap (bottom right).
\n
\n
\n
6.3 Cultural management
\n
Services of date palm that are important in the management of pests and diseases include irrigation management, field sanitation, removal of weeds, organic fertilization, old frond pruning, frond base cutting, offshoots removal, pollination, fruit thinning, spines removal, fruit bagging, and harvesting. Each one of the abovementioned operations is carried out at specific time of the year with specific purpose; however, each operation can control palm pests and diseases in one way or another. Thus, adoption of date palm calendar for each locality will provide control of date palm pests and diseases.
\n
\n
6.3.1 Organic fertilization and irrigation (soil condition)
\n
Management of irrigation to avoid conditions that are congenial to the development of pests and diseases (e.g., red palm weevil) is an important soil conditioning practice in organic farming. Another important practice is maintaining soil health and nutrients to increase palm immunity against pests’ attack, such as the longhorn beetle, which is known to inflict serious damage on weak unattended undernourished date palms. Healthy palms with balanced nutrients and irrigation withstand attack by this opportunistic insect pest. High humidity, which is conducive to the buildup of Dubas, is expected to prevail in densely planted orchards. High soil moisture (flood irrigation and basin irrigation) increases the infestation by the red palm weevil in date palm groves [32]. Care has to be taken when applying organic manure to newly transplanted date palm offshoots, because it may contain eggs and different stages of the rhinoceros beetles, which are considered serious pests of date palm. However, the organic manure can be disinfested from these grubs and other insect pests using physical methods or chemicals permitted in organic farming system. In this respect, the farm wastes including eradicated palms can be pulverized and used for production of compost (Figure 5). Organic fertilizers are added to date palm during the end of October–December. This is to promote date palm growth and increase its immunity against pests and diseases. About 5–50 kg of organic fertilizer is required per palm, depending on age.
\n
Figure 5.
Shredding machine for pulverizing date palms severely infested by the red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus.
\n
\n
\n
6.3.2 Palm spacing
\n
Well-spaced date palms (8 × 8 m) have no problem of dub bug insect which represents a real problem in narrowly spaced plantations [33]. Densely spaced palms facilitate the spread of crawling mites and scale insects from one palm to another. Sallam et al. [32] reported high incidence of red palm weevil infestation in closely spaced date palms. He attributed the high infestation to the high in-grove humidity caused by densely planted farms.
\n
\n
\n
6.3.3 Pruning of date palm
\n
Pruning is the most important practice that contributes significantly in management of pests and diseases, and it includes the removal of old dry fronds (leaves), offshoots, aerial offshoots, fibers, and spines (Figure 6). Frond removal has two parts: cutting of fronds from the lower whorls of the canopy (Tagleem) and cutting the rachis base (petioles) 1–2 years after frond cutting (Takreeb) [34, 35]. The advantages of frond pruning are listed below:
Facilitates climbing of the date palm by the farmers.
Reduces fire hazards in date palm plantations, particularly during dry seasons.
Improves aeration around the palm trunk and thus reduces humidity and discourage hiding and oviposition by trunk borers.
Reduces transpiration rate of newly transplanted palms and hence increases the chance of palm survival.
Reduces hiding places for unwanted arthropods such as cockroaches, scorpions and non-arthropods such as snail, slugs, as well as vertebrate pests (birds and rats)
Facilitates handpicking of large-sized grubs and adults of trunk borers.
\n\n
Figure 6.
Pruned palm trunk showing cut frond (A), fibers (B), and cut frond base or petiole pruning (C).
\n
The following precautions are recommended to be taken during pruning process:
Prune only fronds after 3–7 years (old dry fronds) on only palms that are 7 years old or above.
Curry out pruning during December–January, when temperatures are low to avoid infestation by the red palm weevil where activity of the weevils is at the lowest level.
Treatment of wounds and pruned surfaces immediately with bee wax or any other substance allowed in organic farming to obscure the kairomones (odor emitted by the palm) which attract the red palm weevil and other palm pests.
Avoidance of palm overpruning as fronds protects the palm’s heart from excessive heat as well as from cold during winter.
Cutting frond base should be inclined outward with downsloping 45° to avoid accumulation of rainwater in the area between the base of the frond and trunk.
Disinfection of pruning equipment such as saws, sheers, and sickles to avoid the spread of fungal diseases such as black scorch and Fusarium wilts.
\n\n
It has been stated that tillage practices and leaf pruning had the greatest effect in reducing termite, long antennae, and horned beetles, respectively. On the other hand, sucker removal operations had the greatest effect in reducing the severity of injuries of horned and long antennae beetles in date palm trees [15]. In addition, larvae of long antennae beetles can complete overwintering in the petioles of damaged leaves. Therefore, pruning the dry, damaged, and old leaves can reduce the severity of injuries of borer pests. Termites attack the dry and damaged parts of date palm tree, so pruning the petiole is very effective in reducing nutrient availability, population growth, and severity of injury [15].
\n
\n
\n
6.3.4 Pollination, fruit, and bunch thinning
\n
For good quality date fruits, pollen grain should be obtained from certified bodies to be sure that they are free of pests and diseases such as the inflorescence beetle Macrocoma sp. and the fungal pathogen Mauginiella scaettae and Thielaviopsis paradoxa, which cause Khamedj inflorescence rot and black scorch diseases, respectively [36]. In this respect, the author stated that extracting pollen and mixing with talc/flour or with water for mechanical pollination proved to be cost-effective and more efficient in prevention of inflorescence pests and disease than traditional pollination methods.
\n
Fruit thinning has two types: strand thinning either made by cutting the end of the strands or removal 30% of the strands from the center of the spathes [35]. It is carried out in February–March 2–3 days after female spathes opening and before pollination. Bunch thinning, on the other hand, involves the removal of the whole bunch and is usually done after pollination. It is carried out in a way that 6–8 bunches are left in each mature date palm. The number of bunches per palm should corresponds to the number of green functioning fronds, i.e., 9–12 green fronds per bunch to ensure high yield of date fruits with high quality [35]. The bunch thinning should be made even on all sides of the palm taking into account the distribution of bunch loads. This is essential to avoid curving of palm head as the case with the cultivar Barhi. Weak infested or infected bunches with undersized fruits and incomplete pollination should be removed first during thinning process. Latifian [37] reported that bunch pruning helped in decreasing the lesser moth, Batrachedra amydraula infestation.
\n
\n
\n
6.3.5 Fruit bunch bagging, harvesting, and sorting
\n
The use of insect-proof fruit bunch covers, made of woven monofilament polyethylene yarn (40 mesh), excludes all insect pests including beetles, ants, flies, rats, and birds (Figure 7). These bags are more expensive than the loose net bags. Bunch covering and bunch-remained pruning had suitable effects in decreasing the date spider mite, Oligonychus afrasiaticus, raisin moth Cadra figulilella, and the lesser date moth, Batrachedra amydraula infestation [38, 39]. Early harvesting of cultivars such as Barhee, Deglet Noor, and Medjool provides satisfactory control against ripening dates including date moth, raisin moth, carob moth, greater date moth, and sap beetles [40, 41]. Fruit bagging and early harvesting provide effective control against fruit depredation by frugivorous birds [42]. Culling of infected/infested date fruit during harvesting and field drying is considered as an important step in the management of pests and diseases during transit and storage [36].
\n
Figure 7.
The white-eared bulbul Pycnonotus leucotis (top), damage on dates due to bulbul (bottom left), and bunch covering to control birds (bottom right).
\n
\n
\n
6.3.6 Phytosanitation in date palm groves
\n
Both field and palm sanitation can have a profound effect in reducing the population of pests and diseases of date palm. The removal of fallen date fruits on the basin of the palm and in the leaf axil of unpruned palms helps provide control for the nitidulid beetles, lesser date moth, and other insect pests [40]. The fallen fruits provide suitable breeding site for these insect pests as well as for rats and birds. Thus, all dried litter around palms should be carefully removed. In organic farms, grazing animals such as goats, horses, and donkeys may be used to clean weeds, fallen fruits, and other farm wastes [40]. Neglected date palm farms represent suitable breeding sites for serious date palm pests including the red palm weevils, longhorn beetle, and rhinoceros beetle [29, 35]; thus, infested old neglected palms should be eradicated.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6.4 Conservation and enhancement of natural enemies of pests
\n
The date palm agroecosystem comprises diverse groups of natural enemies including insect predators, parasitoids, spiders, predatory mites, birds, entomopathogenic nematodes, and microorganisms. In this respect, El-Shafie et al. [26] listed 90 species of predators and parasitoids from 9 orders and 23 families. Out of the listed species, the most important are the general predator Chrysoperla carnea and the braconid wasp Bracon spp. that is highly associated with the date moth Cadra cautella. Predatory mites from the family Phytoseiidae such as Phytoseiulus persimilis and Neoseiulus sp. and Trichogramma parasitoids are common. Al-Khatri [43] reported more than 70% parasitism of Dubas bug in Oman by the specialist egg parasitoid, Pseudoligosita babylonica. He also mentioned other species of Dubas natural enemies including the hymenopterous Bocchus hyalinus, Aprostocetus sp., and Aphanogmus sp. as well as the coccinellid Cheliomenes sexmaculata.
\n
Several measures taken in date palm plantation can enhance survival and biodiversity of natural enemies. For example, the exclusion of synthetic pesticides by rules of organic farming is the cornerstone in conservation of natural enemies of pests. Intercropping of date palm with annual plants may avail new habitats for predators of pest such as the lacewing. Soils with high population of diversified beneficial organisms such as ground beetles (carabids) and earwigs, which are commonly to be encountered in the date palm agroecosystem (El-Shafie, unpublished data), are expected to maintain low levels of harmful pests. On the other hand, cultural control techniques create a balance between pests and their natural enemies, and they are more effective in the prevention of outbreaks of date palm borer pests [15]. The growing of hedgerows, strip crops, and windbreaks provides suitable habitats and source of pollen and nectar for beneficial organisms [3, 16]. Provision of nesting boxes for owls in date palm groves has a noticeable reduction in the population of field rats [27]. In addition to the abovementioned measures to conserve natural enemies, repeated release of purchased predators and parasitoids can maintain their numbers, which cause substantial reduction in pest populations. In this context, Ali and Hama [33] reported that the release of Trichogramma sp. twice a year at a rate of 300–500 individuals/palm contributed significantly in the integrated management of the lesser date moth, C. cautella.
\n
\n
\n
6.5 Synopsis
\n
The major date palm pests and diseases prevailing in organic date palm plantation, which cause economic damage, are listed in Table 3, with possible measures to control them.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Pest
\n
Time of appearance
\n
Possible control measures
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus\n
\n
All the year round with adult peaks in March–May and October–November
\n
Pheromone trapping of adults, removal and destruction of infested palm, strict quarantine measures to prevent entry of the weevil in date grooves, application of azadirachtin, the Beauveria bassiana, and other biological control agents
Keeping palm healthy palms, removal of dry fronds and litters from around palm basin, application of azadirachtin as curative measures
\n
\n
\n
Green pit scale insect (Palmaspis phoenicis) and white scale (Parlatoria blanchardi)
\n
All the year round
\n
Pruning and removal of infested fronds, adequate fertilization and irrigation, application of mineral oils (96%) at a rate of 10/1000 liters of water, application of azadirachtin
\n
\n
\n
Weeds
\n
All the year round
\n
Mechanical weeding, grazing by farm animals, use of covers to smother weeds
\n
\n
\n
Rodents
\n
All the year round
\n
Use of mechanical traps, provision of nesting sites for predatory birds, such as owls, that can effectively control rodents in date palm grooves
Use of uninfested pollen, dusting with microfine sulfur at a rate of 50 g/ palm
\n
\n
\n
Bayoud disease, Fusarium wilt caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. albedinis\n
\n
All the year round
\n
Cultivation of resistant date palms, removal and incineration of infested palms, avoidance of the spread of the disease pathogen through irrigation, use of organic fertilizer rich in chitin to enhance the development of actinomycetes which antagonize the pathogen
\n
\n
\n
Inflorescence rot (Khamedj disease) caused by Mauginiella scaettae\n
\n
February–March
\n
Avoid the use of infected pollen, treatment of the palm with Bordeaux mixture (0.3–0.5%) after harvest and before inflorescence of the next year as preventive measures Treatment (dusting) with microfine sulfur at a rate of 50 g/palm
\n
\n
\n
Black scorch disease caused by Thielaviopsis paradoxa\n
\n
All the year round
\n
Avoid making wound on the palm, sanitation measures such as removal and destruction of badly infected palms, application of Bordeaux mixture, and use of microfine sulfur (80%) at a rate of 2.5 g/1000 liters of water after harvest
\n
\n
\n
\nDiplodia disease (basal leaf rot) caused by the fungus Diplodia phoenicum\n
\n
All the year round
\n
Use of healthy uninfected offshoots, avoidance of making wounds in palms, disinfection of pruning equipment, application of copper sulfate or copper carbonate
\n
\n
\n
Lesser date moth (Humeira) (Batrachedra amydraula Meyer)
\n
February–March
\n
Field sanitation including removal of fallen fruits, use of pheromone or light traps, use of Bacillus thuringiensis, biological control using egg parasitoid Trichogramma and the larval parasitoid Bracon sp.
\n
\n
\n
The old world dust mite (Oligonychus afrasiaticus)
\n
April–July
\n
Removal of weeds around palms, which may act as alternative host for the mite, use of windbreak to reduce dust storms, spraying, bunches with a strong stream of water to dislodge mites and destroy webbing; use of predatory mites and coccinellids, dusting bunches with sulfur
\n
\n
\n
The longhorn beetle (Jebusaea hammerschmidti), the bunch borers (Oryctes agamemnon arabicus, Oryctes elegans), and the frond borer (Phonopate frontalis)
\n
April–July Larvae of the longhorn beetle are found inside the palm all year round
\n
Pruning of old dry fronds, avoid using uncured farm manure as organic fertilizer, handpicking of larvae during frond base cutting, light trapping of adult beetles, maintaining healthy palms, application of the fungi Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, and the entomopathogenic nematode Rhabditis blumi\n
\n
\n
\n
Date palm Dubas bug (Ommatissus lybicus)
\n
March–April September–October
\n
Pruning of infested lower fronds to remove Dubas eggs, spraying with azadirachtin (2–3 ml/per liter of water), application of agricultural soaps, biological control with fungi such as Beauveria and the egg parasitoid Oligosita sp.
\n
\n
\n
Fruit rots
\n
June–July
\n
Bunch covering and avoidance of fruit injuries by insects and birds
\n
\n
\n
Birds
\n
July–October
\n
Covering of bunches during Khalal stage with bird-proof nets
\n
\n
\n
Pests of stored dates
\n
September–November
\n
Bunch bagging to exclude pests that start infestation in the field, sanitation and disinfestation storehouses before use, freezing dates at −18°C
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Calendar of major pests and diseases in organically grown date palms and their management in the Gulf region.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Impact of pest management in organic farming on the environment
\n
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, pest management in organic farming depends mainly on crop husbandry and biological control. The prohibition of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides leads to conservation of natural enemies including predators and parasitoids. The absence of harmful pesticides also increases diversity of pollinators of crops and minimizes pesticide residues in food products [13, 16, 19]. The community of microorganisms flourishes well in organically managed farms leading to increased organic matter decomposition, soil fertility, and sustainability of the ecosystem. Organic farming enhances the biodiversity of the ecosystem through multicropping and growing of hedges and refuges for beneficial insects as well as wildlife [3]. Preserving biodiversity contributes much in reducing the initial invasion and subsequent establishment of organic farms by pests and diseases [3, 8, 9, 44].
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusions
\n
Crop protection in organic farming is more preventive than curative. Thus, husbandry practices such as crop rotation, fertilization, cultivation, use of resistant varieties, and preservation of natural enemies play an essential role in pest management. Plant protection products (PPPs) permitted in organic farming should only be used when cultural and biological controls fail to suppress pest populations below economic damage levels. Floral and faunal diversities represent the cornerstone in the strategy of managing pests and diseases under organic production system. Crop protection program in organic farming needs to be documented to allow inspectors to file their reports, which are essential for the certification process. The documents needed are a well-written plan, copies of scouting records and protocols used in monitoring of different pests, and provision of pest management guidelines, according to the organic standards, if available. For optimizing pest management tactics in organic farming, future research priorities and recommendations would include:
Long-term ecological studies on ecosystem biodiversity to elucidate its potential role in pest management
Testing more plant protection products including plant extracts and microbial preparations for use in pest population suppression
Exploitation of inherited resistance in different crops against plant herbivores
Strengthening participatory research approach with organic farmers and encouraging citizen science to optimize existing practices and develop new techniques
\n\n
\n\n',keywords:"organic farming, holistic approach, biopesticides, pest management",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65591.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65591.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65591",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65591",totalDownloads:2549,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,totalAltmetricsMentions:2,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:56,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"September 20th 2018",dateReviewed:"January 17th 2019",datePrePublished:"March 15th 2019",datePublished:"July 22nd 2020",dateFinished:"February 11th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Due to the regulations of organic farming, few options remain for organic farmers to manage pests and diseases in their crops compared to conventional farming. However, major pests could still be managed through manipulation of the agroecosystem processes in advantage of the crops and disadvantage of pests. The limited number of active plant protection substances authorized for use in organic farming can provide support to natural and biological control agents in suppression of pests and diseases. This chapter highlights the principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming, the cultural practices adopted, the active substances allowed for use to suppress pests, and the impacts on faunal and floral biodiversity. A case study of organic date palm cultivation is discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65591",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65591",book:{id:"6988",slug:"multifunctionality-and-impacts-of-organic-and-conventional-agriculture"},signatures:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",authors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-el-shafie",email:"elshafie62@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192142/images/system/192142.jpg",institution:{name:"King Faisal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Principles and strategies of crop protection in organic farming system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Differences between organic and conventional farming with respect to plant protection",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Crop protection practices in organic farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Identification and monitoring of crop pests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Tactics used for pest prevention and suppression in organic farming",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.2.1 Cultural pest control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.2.2 Mechanical and physical pest control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.2.3 Biological pest control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"4.2.4 Biopesticide control",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Plant protection products (PPPs) authorized in organic farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. A case study of organic date palms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.1 Selection of planning materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"6.1.1 Characteristics of a good date palm offshoot",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"6.2 Pest monitoring and mass trapping",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"6.3 Cultural management",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"6.3.1 Organic fertilization and irrigation (soil condition)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"6.3.2 Palm spacing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"6.3.3 Pruning of date palm",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"6.3.4 Pollination, fruit, and bunch thinning",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"6.3.5 Fruit bunch bagging, harvesting, and sorting",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"6.3.6 Phytosanitation in date palm groves",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"6.4 Conservation and enhancement of natural enemies of pests",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"6.5 Synopsis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25",title:"7. Impact of pest management in organic farming on the environment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nIFOAM (International Movement of Organic Agriculture Movements), 2018. Definition of Organic Agriculture. Available from: https://www.ifoam.bio/en/organic-landmarks/definition-organic-agriculture [Accessed: 20 October 2018]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nHole DG, Perkins AJ, Wilson JD, Alexander IH, Grice PV, Evan AD. Does organic farming benefit biodiversity? Biological Conservation. 2005;122:113-130\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nGomiero T, Pimentel D, Paoletti MG. Environmental impact of different agricultural management practices: Conventional vs. organic agriculture. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. 2011;30:95-124\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nHenning J, Baker L, Thomassin PJ. Economics issues in organic agriculture. Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics. 1991;39:877-889\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nHonek A. The effect of plant cover and weather on the activity density of ground surface arthropods in fallow field. Entomological Research in Organic Agriculture. 1997;15:203-210\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nEdwards-Jones G, Howells O. The origin and hazard of inputs to crop protection in organic farming systems: Are they sustainable? Agricultural Systems. 2001;67:31-47\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nDrinkwater LE, Letourneau DK, Workneh F, van Bruggen AHC, Shennan C. Fundamental differences between conventional and organic tomato agroecosystem in California. Ecological Applications. 1995;5:1098-1112\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nWesterman PS, Wes JS, Kropff MJ, van der Werf W. Annual losses of weed seeds due to predation in organic cereal fields. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2003;40:824-836\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nHajjar R, Jarvis DI, Gemmill-Herren B. The utility of crop genetic diversity in maintaining ecosystem services. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 2008;123:261-270\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nLetourneau DK, Goldstein B. Pest damage and arthropod community structure in organic vs. conventional tomato production in California. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2001;38:557-570\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nVan Bruggen AHC. Plant disease severity in high-input compared to reduced input and organic farming systems. Plant Disease. 1995;79:976-984\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nTheunissen J. Application of intercropping in organic agriculture. Entomological Research in Organic Agriculture. 1997;12:251-259\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nMatyjaszczyk E. Prevention methods for pest control and their use in Poland. Pest Management Science. 2015;71:485-491\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nNicholas JM. Biological and cultural controls. Non-pesticide alternatives can suppress crop pests. California Agriculture. 2005;59:23-28\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nLatifian M, Rad B. Efficacy of cultural control for date palm borer management. Indian Journal of Plant Protection. 2017;45(1):7-11\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nJervis MA, Kidd NAC. Host-feeding strategies in hymenopteran parasitoids. Biological Reviews. 1986;61:395-434\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nHill DS. Pests of Crops in Warmer Climates and their Control. The Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media, B. V; 2008. p. 704\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nReilly D, Reilly A. Cultivation, chronicle of a new date palm grower. Development of a date industry in Australia. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture. 2014;26(11):1000-1013\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nStern VM, Smith RF, van den Bosch R, Hagen KS. The integrated control concept. Hilgardia. 1959;29:81-101\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nOlson S. An analysis of the biopesticides market now and where it is going. Outlooks on Pest Management. 2015;26(5):203-206\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nMatyjaszczyk E. Plant protection means used in organic farming throughout the European Union. Pest Management Science. 2018;74:505-510\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nBozsik A. Studies on aphicidal efficiency of different stinging nettle extracts. Anzeiger für Schädlingskunde Pflanzenschutz Umweltschutz. 1996;69:21-22\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nMarchand PA. Basic substances: An opportunity for approval of low-concern substances under EU pesticide regulation. Pest Management Science. 2015;71:1197-1200\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nCommission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008 of 5 September 2008 laying down detailed rules for the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 on organic production and labelling of organic products with regard to organic production, labelling and control Official Journal of European Union L 250; 2008. 51. 1-84\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nFAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). Crop production and trade data, food and agriculture organization of the United Nations; 2015. Available from: http://faostat3.fao.org [Accessed: 21 November 2018]\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Abdel-Banat BMA, Al-Hajhoj MR. Arthropod pests of date palm and their management. CAB Reviews. 2017;12:049. DOI: 10.10.1079/PAVSNNR201712049\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Abdel-Banat BMA. Non-arthropod pests of date palm and their management. CAB Reviews. 2018:13, 020\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nSedra MYH. Management of diseases of date palm. In: El-Bouhssini M, Faleiro JR, editors. Date Palm Pests and Diseases Integrated Management Guide. Beirut, Lebanon: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA); 2018. pp. 105-159\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nFaleiro JR. A review of the issues and management of the red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Rhynchophoridae) in coconut and date palm during the last one hundred years. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 2006;26:135-150\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Faleiro JR. Semiochemicals and their potential use in pest management. In: VDC S, editor. Biological Control of Pest and Vector Insects. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech Publisher; 2017. pp. 3-22\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Faleiro JR. Optimizing components of Pheromone-baited trap for the management of Red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in date palm agro-ecosystem. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection. 2017;124(3):279-287\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nSallam AA, Elshafie HAF, Al-Abdan S. Influence of farming practices on infestation by red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Olivier) in date palm: A case study. International Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Soil Science. 2012;2(8):370-376\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nAli AAS, Hama NN. Integrated management for major date palm pests in Iraq. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture. 2016;28(1):24-33\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nNixon RW, Wedding RT. Age of date leaves in relation to efficiency of photosynthesis. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science. 1956;67:265-269\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nAl Mashhadani ASS. The calendar of the date palm care in Abu Dhabi Emirate. In: Fifth International Date Palm Conference. Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; 2014, 2014. pp. 1-14\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nBen SM. Field observations in date palm and their importance for reducing pest infestation. In: El-Bouhssini M, Faleiro JR, editors. Date Palm Pests and Diseases Integrated Management Guide. Beirut, Lebanon: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA); 2018. pp. 161-171\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nLatifian M. The effects of cultural management on the lesser date moth (Batrachedra amydraula Myer) infestation. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture. 2012;24:224-229\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nKehat M, Blumberg D, Greenberg S. Experiments on the control of the raisin moth, Cadra figulilella Gregs. (Phycitidae, Pyralidae), on dates in Israel. Israel Journal of Agricultural Research. 1969;19:121-128\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nLatifian M, Rahnama AA, Amani M. The effects of cultural management on the Date spider mite (Oligonychus afrasiaticus McG) infestation. International Journal of Farming and Allied Sciences. 2014;3:1009-1014\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nBlumberg D. Review: Date palm arthropod pests and their management in Israel. Phytoparasitica. 2008;36:411-448\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF. Alternatives to methyl bromide for disinfesting date moth, Cadra cautella, in stored dates. Outlooks on Pest Management. 2017;28(1):17-20\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nEl-Shafie HAF, Abdel-Banat BMA. The frugivorous white-eared bulbul bird, Pycnonotus leucotis depredating date fruits: Biology, feeding ecology and management. Outlooks on Pest Management. 2018;29(4):153-157\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nAl-Khatri SAH. IPM of dubas bug. In: El-Bouhssini M, Faleiro JR, editors. Date Palm Pests and Diseases Integrated Management Guide. Beirut, Lebanon: International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA); 2018. pp. 68-75\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nPeterson G, Allen CR, Holling CS. Ecological resilience, biodiversity, and scale. Ecosystems. 1998;1:6-18\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",address:"elshafie62@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
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1. Introduction
Biomass has been widely recognized as an important source of renewable energy due to its inherent properties such as availability, abundant supply, carbon stability, organic nature, etc. Unlike non-renewable resources such as oil and coal, biomass is a renewable natural resource and organic material mostly derived from animals and plants for the production of fuels at local and commercial scales, which is the dream of many biofuel producers and energy experts over the years. Interest in biomass as a renewable resource is increasing with time thanks to its ability to be burned directly for heat or converted to renewable fuels via several thermal decomposition methods including torrefaction, gasification, hydrotreating, carbonization, and pyrolysis [1, 2, 3, 4].
It is important to know that biomass which can be crops, wood, landfill gas, alcohol fuels, and garbage contribute the largest percentage of energy used in many sectors including the electric power, commercial, residential, commercial, transportation, and industrial. For instance, wastes derived from biomass and woods are used to produce electricity in electric power sector, renewable natural gas derived from municipal solid waste (MSW) are consumed and sold in commercial sector whereas the wood pellets and firewood are mostly consumed in residential sector. In addition, the plant and animal-based biomass are used to generate liquid biofuels including biomass-based diesel and ethanol which finds major application in most transportation and industrial sectors.
Biomass can be converted to energy via several methods such as biological conversion for the production of fuels (gaseous and liquid), chemical conversion for producing liquid fuels, thermochemical conversion for the production of liquid, gaseous, and solid fuels; and direct combustion to generate heat. In biological conversion process, biomass can be converted into renewable natural gas or biogas [5] through anaerobic digestion method or ethanol through fermentation process. Meanwhile, in chemical conversion process, greases, animal fats, and plant-based biomass such as vegetable oils can be converted into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) which are mostly utilized for the production of biodiesel through transesterification method. On the other hand, through thermal decomposition methods including torrefaction, gasification and pyrolysis, biomass can be thermochemically converted to produce bio-oil (hydrotreating), hydrogen, methane, renewable diesel (pyrolysis), or synthesis gas and carbon monoxide (CO) (gasification) [1, 2, 4]. Furthermore, biomass can be converted to energy in direct combustion method such as the generation of electricity in steam turbines, industrial process heat, and heating buildings.
Generally, biomass sources for energy include but not limited to human sewage and animal manure, biogenic materials in MSW (wood wastes, yard, food, wool products, cotton, paper), waste materials and agricultural crops (woody plants, switchgrass, sugar cane, soybeans, corn, etc.), and wood processing wastes (paper mills, sawdust, wood chips, wood pellets, firewood) [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. For easy storage and transportation, biomass can be interestingly made or densified into briquettes for producing fuels and biogas [5]. Briquettes are the solid biofuels with compact shape and size for producing renewable energy which can be made with binders [6, 8, 9, 10, 11] or without the use of binders [7]. Biomass has been densified into solid briquettes in the past using the same or different materials including corncob, rice bran [8, 9, 10], mesocarp fiber (MF), fruit fresh bunches (FFB), palm kernel shell (PKS) [8, 9, 10, 11], bagasse, tea waste, cotton stalk, sugarcane bagasse (SCB), empty fruit bunches (EFB), etc. Most of the performance related problems such as low yield and energy content are linked to the effectiveness of the binder materials, type and compositions [6].
As a form of thermal decomposition processes of converting biomass to energy, torrefaction is presently receiving wide attentions for producing high grade solid biofuels with greater energy density/high heating value (HHV). Torrefaction process is capable of significantly improving the quality and properties of solid biofuels. It improves the physicochemical properties of biomass for a long-term storage. In addition, torrefied biomass can serve as a good replacement for coal in the generation of heat and electricity. The three common types of torrefaction types are the dry torrefaction (DT), wet torrefaction (WT), and ionic-liquid assisted torrefaction (ILA) [6]. The DT is usually carried out in a gas-phase environment, while the WT is often performed under pressure of a liquid-phase environment. Meanwhile, the ILA is a combination of a typical torrefaction and a pretreatment process, which is aimed at improving the reaction rate. The ionic-liquid assisted torrefaction (ILA) usually involves the use of ionic liquids which is often referred to as green solvents due to their ability to dissolve lignocellulosic biomass under normal conditions due to their special properties such as recyclability and high thermal stability [4].
However, an in-depth understanding on the economics and sustainability of the torrefaction process is lacking. With the aim of giving new insight into further study, a comprehensive overview on the reactor design for commercialization purposes, reaction kinetics and mechanism, economics, as well as the sustainability of biomass torrefaction is presented in the next section of this chapter.
2. Biomass torrefaction: A general overview
Biomass torrefaction is the process of producing high-quality and attractive solid biofuels from several sources of ordinary agro residues or woody biomass, with the sole aim of improving biomass properties and performance for gasification [1, 2, 3] and combustion applications via thermal decomposition at temperature ranging from 200–300°C [12] under atmospheric pressure. Through torrefaction, a coal-like material can be generated from biomass with superior fuel properties and quality when compared with the parent materials. Torrefaction is a mild pyrolysis process where biomass is thermally treated in a controlled environment (in a non-fluidized bed reactor or fluidized bed) with low or no traces of air or oxygen [13] resulting in the production of torrefied biomass which is water resistant, brittle and stable with less energy intensive and easy grindability. During torrefaction, drying of biomass and partial devolatilization occurs leading to mass reduction without losing or decreasing the energy content. Heating biomass at typical temperatures between 200°C and 300°C often lead to the evaporation of moisture or unbound water (H2O) through thermo-condensation process (at temperature above 160°C) and the removal of volatiles (low-calorific parts), resulting in the decomposition of hemicellulose in the biomass hence the transformation of biomass from a low-quality fuel into an excellent high-quality fuel. In a bid to improve the biochemical, chemical, and physical properties of biomass, the basic principle behind the biomass torrefaction process can thus be summarized as the removal of volatiles via several decomposition reactions. With torrefaction, there is no biological activity, hydrophobicity and higher durability can be obtained, excellent grindability and higher bulk density can be achieved. In addition, more homogenous product and a fuel comparable to coal can be produced with higher calorific value as compared with original feedstock.
It should be noted that the torrefaction processing parameters such as the residence time and torrefaction temperature have significant effects on the overall properties and performance of torrefied biomass. In other words, there is a direct relationship between the torrefaction processing parameters and the physicochemical properties of torrefied biomass. For instance, high torrefaction temperature and short residence time tend to optimize the material flow via the torrefaction reactors thereby producing a cost-efficient torrefied biomass on a large scale. By increasing the torrefaction temperature, the fixed carbon and ash contents in biomass can be markedly increased with a decrease in volatile contents. This can lead to a decrease in atomic ratios of oxygen-carbon (O/C) and hydrogen-Carbon (H/C), as well as decreasing the oxygen content resulting in improved calorific value, which ultimately enhance the overall fuel features and performance of the biomass products. Moreover, the acid content in biomass materials can be significantly reduced with increasing the torrefaction temperature. The decrease in the acidity of the biomass say bio-oil for example [14] can be attributed to the fact that the acetic acid solely originates from the deacetylation reaction and decomposition of hemicellulose component of the biomass. In addition, increasing the torrefaction temperature can reduce the moisture content of the biomass, hence improving the quality of the biomass. By this, it can be said that torrefaction can increase the carbon yield of aromatic hydrocarbon and decrease the number of compounds containing oxygen in the biomass such as furans, sugars, and acids [15]. Furthermore, an increase in the residence time and torrefaction temperature can improve the hydrophobicity and the calorific value and lignin contents can be increased by decreasing the contents of hemicellulose and cellulose [16]. While studying the influence of torrefaction temperature on the production composition, physicochemical properties, structure, and yield of bio-oil [14], an increase in torrefaction temperature reportedly reduce the crystallinity index as a result of recrystallization and degradation, increase the pore volume and the residual carbon contents, decrease the pyrolysis peak temperature and increases the carbon-carbon contents.
The residence time during torrefaction process can also directly influences the biomass properties including the energy density, surface area, and grindability. For instance, increasing the residence time tends to increase the energy density and grindability, leading to the production of biomass with fine and small particle sizes thereby resulting in larger surface area. In addition, due to the disintegration of the fiber structure of biomass, increasing the residence time can increase the fixed carbon and volatile matter compositions. In other words, the higher the residence time, the better the properties and compositions of biomass materials. Heating value can also be increased with an increase in residence time and the disintegration of fiber structure continues with increasing the residence time, thereby enhancing the grindability and improving the energy density of the biomass products. Meanwhile, grindability is an important property in biomass torrefaction which is the resistance of biomass materials to be ground.
In terms of composition, biomass can be broadly categorized as non-lignocellulosic (mostly rich in fatty acids and protein) with animal manure and fat, and sewage sludge as the main components; or lignocellulosic with hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin as the major components, together with small amounts of minerals, proteins, and pectins [17, 18, 19, 20, 21]. As indicated in Figure 1, torrefaction process involve several stages ranging from the initial to the solids cooling [22, 23, 24, 25].
Figure 1.
The main stages in the total torrefaction process.
Figure 2 presents the mechanism of the thermal treatment during dry torrefaction, from decarboxylation to aromatization chemical reactions. During the thermal conversion in dry torrefaction, an improvement in the fungal resistance [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34], dimensional stability, absorption, water vapor, and durability can be achieved. As illustrated in Figure 3, the binderless briquetting technology can be summarized into several theorems including capillary, adhesion molecule, bituminous, humic acid, colloid, and denser water.
Figure 2.
Mechanism of the thermal treatment during dry torrefaction.
Figure 3.
Binderless briquetting technology.
As compared with the original biomass, torrefied biomass offers many advantages including homogeneity, increased density in briquettes, reduced grinding energy, hydrophobicity, increased energy density, and lower moisture content. As a source of a power source, with torrefied biomass, low net carbon energy source and renewable fuel for baseload power can be achieved.
3. Economics of biomass torrefaction
While ensuring the conversion of biomass into renewable energy for the benefits of mankind, it is necessary to consider the economics aspect of biomass torrefaction. That is, the costs of generating high-grade fuel should be affordable. The economic features of the torrefaction process covers the total production cost, total capital investment, production capacity, feedstock input, feedstock type, procurement costs, transportation costs, pre-treatment, etc. [4].
For effective economy analysis, economic optimization of the system, including the extended fuel supply to application system, and integrated process between torrefaction and gasification as well as torrefaction and gasification should be properly looked into. The cost of the torrefaction process which is higher than that of coal at times can be greatly reduced by improving the empirical cumulation and torrefaction plant equipment size and as well as the utilization of carbon credits market. The total costs during the torrefaction process is often influenced by the important sensitivity parameters including the torrefaction plant CAPEX and torrefaction mass yield, drying technology, biomass moisture content, logistics equipment, biomass premium, and the quantity of the available biomass [2, 3]. Meanwhile, the depreciation, biomass delivery costs, energy consumption, labor, capital expenditure, biomass delivered costs are the common influencing factors for production with CAPEX.
Biomass torrefaction is widely regarded as a breakthrough technology accounting for the world largest renewable energy which reduces the investment for co-firing application as well as decreasing the storage and handling costs thereby making the process economically viable and serving as a potential way of replacing coal in power plants.
4. Sustainability of biomass torrefaction
Biomass torrefaction involves the conversion of biomass into a coal-like material with improved fuel properties as compared with the original biomass. It is presently a vital tool for the sustainable development in many developed and developing countries with the aim of supporting large scale utilization of bioenergy through the reduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) at source and other emissions which may be harmful to the community. That is, the production of solid sustainable energy can be obtained through biomass torrefaction. It is important to note that biomass torrefaction can pose threats to humanity since some harmful toxins and greenhouse gases are usually generated and released into the atmosphere during biomass combustion resulting into environmental problem. Carbon dioxide (CO2) remain the greenhouse gas with the largest volume and percentage released into the atmosphere when compared to other greenhouse gases. Biomass as a renewable energy which has some similar features with fossil fuels still have some environmental challenges. It can cause deforestation and it is not entirely clean.
Sustainability concept of biomass torrefaction can be properly broadly categorized into three factors; (1) economic factor, (2) environmental factor, and (3) social factor [4]. Generally speaking, the economic factor is majorly related to the fossil fuels dependence and renewable energy consumption whereas the environmental factor is associated with the sustainable forest management. On the other hand, the social factor is linked with the regeneration of rural areas and more jobs.
5. Reaction kinetics of biomass torrefaction
To a large extent, torrefaction process can influence the overall kinetics and mechanism [35] as well as the reactivity, reaction behavior, and thermal conversion performance of biomass which is often estimated through thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Through TGA, the reaction kinetics parameters including the mechanism function, pre-exponential factor, and activation energy [36, 37], as well as the thermal features including temperature at peak value, reaction period, peak value, and thermogravimetric (TG) data can be determined. In addition, biomass torrefaction is often regarded as a complex mechanism due to the several reactions involved including the decomposition of the common biomass components including lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose as well as moisture evaporation.
The decomposition of the biomass components depends to some extent on the temperature at which the torrefaction process is carried out. For instance, at the temperature range of 160–900°C, lignin slowly decomposes, cellulose decomposes at 315–400°C, while the hemicellulose decomposes at the lowest temperature ranging from 220–315°C [38]. For instance, while the torrefaction of hemicellulose leads to more devolatilization and carbonization, the depolymerization of cellulose plays a vital role in the decomposition mechanism. The study on the kinetics of biomass torrefaction is very important because it represents the torrefaction reaction thereby predicting the optimum thermal degradation conditions which can ultimately enhance the process control for continuous torrefaction reactor [39, 40]. Meanwhile, at the temperature range of 230–300°C [41], the kinetics of torrefaction reactions can be best described by a two-step mechanism; cellulose and hemicellulose decomposition.
6. Conclusions
Biomass upgrading for the production of high-grade solid fuels with greater energy density, excellent grindability, and enhanced durability can be achieved by subjecting the original raw biomass to thermal mild pretreatment process under inert atmosphere without the presence of air or oxygen. This process is commonly referred to as torrefaction. The major aim is to improve the chemical, thermal, and physical properties of biomass for a long-term storage through the elimination of oxygen, reduction of moisture content and change of chemical compositions. After torrefaction, some challenges pertaining to technological applications of biomass such as difficulty to obtain a small particle size and high oxygen–carbon ratio, can be properly addressed.
Upon the mild thermal pyrolysis of raw biomass in oxygen-free or N2 atmosphere at moderate temperatures over a period of time, the biomass fiber structure tends to break down which makes the biomass easy to grind, hence an enhanced energy density. By this process, the properties of raw biomass including low calorific value, grindability, hydrogen-carbon and, hygroscopicity, can be greatly improved. At first, torrefaction process can reduce the weight of the biomass to about 30%, but the final solid biofuel produced can retain about 90% of the original biomass energy content.
As compared to the original raw biomass, torrefied biomass can serve as a good replacement for coal in the generation of heat and electricity, as well as input for gasification, densification, and iron making processes, with many positive attributes, like grinding and burning like coal, lower ash and sulfur content, lower transport and shipping costs, lower feedstock costs, and the ability to produce non-intermittent renewable energy. Hence, further studies to understand the mechanism behind the torrefaction process in producing more uniform biomass products and the influence of torrefaction process parameters on the biomass feedstock upgrading is necessary to open the market for the mass production of high-grade solid biofuels with enhanced energy density and hydrophobicity for a long-term storage.
Attributed to the several reactions involved, biomass torrefaction is sometimes referred to as the complex reactions including the decomposition of the common biomass components including lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose as well as moisture evaporation. The economic, environmental, and social factors are the three major concepts of sustainability as regards the biomass torrefaction. While the economic factor is majorly related to the renewable energy consumption, the environmental factor focused more on the sustainable forest management while the regeneration of rural areas and more jobs is related to social factor. The economics of biomass torrefaction including the total production cost, total capital investment, production capacity, feedstock input, feedstock type, pre-treatment, and procurement costs, transportation costs are necessary to evaluate the efficiency of the torrefaction process as well as the reactor performance.
Nomenclature
MSW
municipal solid waste
FAME
fatty acid methyl esters
CO
carbon monoxide
CO2
carbon dioxide
O2
oxygen
H2O
water
HHV
high heating value
PKS
palm kernel shell
MF
mesocarp fiber
FFB
fruit fresh bunches
EFB
empty fruit bunches
DT
dry torrefaction
WT
wet torrefaction
ILA
ionic-liquid assisted torrefaction
TGA
thermogravimetric analysis
SCB
sugarcane bagasse
CAPEX
capital expenditures
O/C
oxygen–carbon
H/C
hydrogen-carbon
TG
thermogravimetric
\n',keywords:"biomass, fuels, torrefaction, renewable energy, lignocellulosic, lignin, briquettes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73760.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73760.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73760",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73760",totalDownloads:415,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"June 4th 2020",dateReviewed:"October 9th 2020",datePrePublished:"October 28th 2020",datePublished:"August 18th 2021",dateFinished:"October 28th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Biomass torrefaction is capable of significantly improving the quality and properties of solid biofuels. It is often referred to as complex reactions involving the decomposition of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose as well as moisture evaporation due to several reactions involved. To evaluate the efficiency of the torrefaction process as well as the reactor performance, considering the economics of biomass torrefaction including the total production cost and capital investment, production capacity, feedstock input, feedstock type, pre-treatment, procurement and transportation costs is of high importance. In this Chapter, the economics of torrefaction process will be discussed. In addition, ways to ensure competitiveness of torrefaction technology will be explained provided factors including the use of plant with larger capacity, integrated system features such as pelletization, and moisture content of the feedstock, are properly considered. Thereafter, the concept of sustainability of biomass torrefaction in relation with the environmental factor (sustainable forest management), social factor (revitalization of rural areas), and economic factor (fossil fuels dependence and renewable energy consumption) will be presented.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73760",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73760",signatures:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade",book:{id:"10127",type:"book",title:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",slug:"biotechnological-applications-of-biomass",publishedDate:"August 18th 2021",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso, Thiago Olitta Basso and Luiz Carlos Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10127.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-182-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-180-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-183-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"323103",title:"Dr.",name:"Temitope Olumide",middleName:"Olumide",surname:"Olugbade",fullName:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade",slug:"temitope-olumide-olugbade",email:"tkolugbade@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biomass torrefaction: A general overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Economics of biomass torrefaction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Sustainability of biomass torrefaction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Reaction kinetics of biomass torrefaction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Nomenclature",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Xin S, Mi T, Liu X, Huang F. Effect of torrefaction on the pyrolysis characteristics of high moisture herbaceous residues. Energy. 2018;152:586-593'},{id:"B2",body:'Bergman PCA, Kiel JHA. Torrefaction for Biomass Upgrading. In Proceedings of the 14th European Biomass Conference, Paris, France. 2005;17-21'},{id:"B3",body:'Chen Q, Zhou JS, Liu BJ, Mei QF, Luo ZY. Influence of torrefaction pretreatment on biomass gasification technology. Chin. Sci. Bull. 2011;56:1449-1456'},{id:"B4",body:'Olugbade TO, Ojo OT. Biomass torrefaction for the production of high-grade solid biofuels: a review. Bioenerg. Res. DOI: 10.1007/s12155-020-10138-3'},{id:"B5",body:'Akinnuli BO, Olugbade TO. (2014) Development and performance evaluation of piggery and water hyacinth waste digester for biogas production. Int J Engineering and Innovative Tech. 2014;3:271-276'},{id:"B6",body:'Olugbade T, Ojo O, Mohammed T. Influence of binders on combustion properties of biomass briquettes: A recent review. Bioenergy Research. 2019;12:241-259'},{id:"B7",body:'Olugbade TO, Ojo OT. Binderless briquetting technology for lignite briquettes: a review. Energy, Ecology and Environment. DOI: 10.1007/s40974-020-00165-3'},{id:"B8",body:'Olugbade TO, Mohammed TI. Fuel developed from rice bran briquettes and palm kernel shells. Int. Journal of Energy Engineering. 2015;5:9-15'},{id:"B9",body:'Mohammed TI, Olugbade TO. Characterization of briquettes from rice bran and palm kernel shell. Int. Journal of Material Science Innovations.2015;3:60-67'},{id:"B10",body:'Mohammed TI, Olugbade TO. Burning rate of briquettes produced from rice bran and palm kernel shells. Int. Journal of Material Science Innovations.2015;3:68-73'},{id:"B11",body:'Oke PK, Olugbade TO, Olaiya NG. Analysis of the effect of varying palm kernel particle sizes on the calorific value of palm kernel briquette. British Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2016;14:1-5'},{id:"B12",body:'Pestaño LDB, José WI. Production of solid fuel by torrefaction using coconut leaves as renewable biomass. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development. 2016;5(3):187-197'},{id:"B13",body:'Nunes LJR, Matias JCO, Catalão JPS. A review on torrefied biomass pellets as a sustainable alternative to coal in power generation. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014;40:153-160'},{id:"B14",body:'Zheng Y, Tao L, Yang X, Huang Y, Liu C, Gu J, Zheng Z. Effect of the torrefaction temperature on the structural properties and pyrolysis behavior of biomass. BioRes. 2017;12(2):3425-3447'},{id:"B15",body:'Chen D, Li Y, Deng M, Wang J, Chen M, Yan B, Yuan Q. Effect of torrefaction pretreatment and catalytic pyrolysis on the pyrolysis poly-generation of pine wood. Bioresource Technol. 2016;214:615-622. DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.04.058'},{id:"B16",body:'Li MF, Chen LX, Li X, Chen C Z, Lai YC, Xiao X, Wu YY. Evaluation of the structure and fuel properties of lignocelluloses through carbon dioxide torrefaction. Energ. Convers. Manage. 2016;119:463-472. DOI: 10.1016/j.enconman.2016.04.064'},{id:"B17",body:'Hossain N. Characterization of novel moss biomass, Bryum dichotomum Hedw as solid fuel feedstock. Bioenergy Res. 2020;13:50-60'},{id:"B18",body:'Pathomrotsakun J, Nakason K, Kraithong W, Khemthong P, Panyapinyopol B, Pavasat P. Fuel properties of biochar from torrefaction of ground coffee residue: effect of process temperature, time, and sweeping gas. Biomass Convers Biorefin. DOI: 10.1007/s13399-020-00632-1'},{id:"B19",body:'Grycova B, Pryszcz A, Krzack S, Lestinsky P. Torrefaction of biomass pellets using the thermogravimetric analyser. Biomass Convers Biorefin. DOI: 10.1007/s13399-020-00621-4'},{id:"B20",body:'Manatura K. Inert torrefaction of sugarcane bagasse to improve its fuel properties. Case Stud Therm Eng. 2020;19:100623'},{id:"B21",body:'Azevedo SG, Sequeira T, Santos M, Mendes L. Biomass related sustainability: a review of the literature and interpretive structural modeling. Energy. 2019;171:1107-1125'},{id:"B22",body:'Mochizuki Y, Ma J, Kubota Y, Uebo K, Tsubouchi N. Production of high-strength and low-gasification reactivity coke from low-grade carbonaceous materials by vapor deposition of tar. Fuel Process Technol. 2020;203:106384'},{id:"B23",body:'Puig-Arnavat M, Bruno JC. Alberto Coronas, Review and analysis of biomass gasification models. Renew Sust Energ Rev. 2010;14:2841-2851'},{id:"B24",body:'Taba LE, Irfan MF, Daud WAMW. The effect of temperature on various parameters in coal, biomass and CO-gasification: a review. Renew Sust Energ Rev. 2012;16:5584-5596'},{id:"B25",body:'Pirraglia A, Gonzalez R, Saloni D, Denig J. Technical and economic assessment for the production of torrefied lignocellulosic biomass pellets in the US. Energy Convers Manag. 2013;66:153-164'},{id:"B26",body:'Dubey MK, Pang S, Walker J. Changes in chemistry, color, dimensional stability and fungal resistance of Pinusradiata D. Don wood with oil heat treatment. Holzforschung. 2012;66:49-57'},{id:"B27",body:'Pfriem A, Zauer M, Wagenfuhr A. Alteration of the unsteady sorption behaviour of maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) and spruce (Piceaabies (L.) Karst.) due to thermal modification. Holzforschung 2010;64(2):235-241'},{id:"B28",body:'Ates S, Akyildiz MH, Ozdemir H. Effects of heat treatment on calabrian pine (Pinus brutia ten.) wood. Bioresources 2009;4(3):1032-1043'},{id:"B29",body:'Borrega M, Karenlampi PP. Mechanical behavior of heat-treated spruce (Piceaabies) wood at constant moisture content and ambient humidity. Holz Roh Werkst 2008;66:63-69.'},{id:"B30",body:'Hakkou M, Petrissans M, Gerardin P, Zoulalian A. Investigations of the reasons for fungal durability of heat-treated beech wood. Polym Degrad Stabil 2006;91:393-7'},{id:"B31",body:'Tjeerdsma BF, Militz H. Chemical changes in hydrothermal treated wood: FTIR analysis of combined hydrothermal and dry heat-treated wood. Holz Roh Werkst. 2005;63:102-11'},{id:"B32",body:'Kamdem DP, Pizzi A, Jermannaud A. Durability of heat-treated wood. Holz Roh Werkst. 2002;60:1-6'},{id:"B33",body:'Pelaez-Samaniego MR, Yadama V, Lowell E, Espinoza-Herrera R. A review of wood thermal pretreatments to improve wood composite properties. Wood Sci Technol. 2013;47(6):1285-319'},{id:"B34",body:'Funke A, Ziegler F. Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass: a summary and discussion of chemical mechanisms for process engineering. Biofuels, Bioprod Biorefin. 2010;4:160-177'},{id:"B35",body:'Vyazovkin S, Burnham AK, Criado JM, Pérez-Maqueda LA, Popescu C, SbirrazzuoliN. ICTAC kinetics committee recommendations for performing kinetic computations on thermal analysis data. Thermochim Acta. 2011;520:1-19.'},{id:"B36",body:'Xu Y, Zhang Y, Zhang G, Guo Y, Zhang J, Li G. Pyrolysis characteristics and kinetics of two Chinese low-rank coals. J Therm Anal Calorim. 2015;122:975-84.'},{id:"B37",body:'Xu Y, Zhang Y, Zhang G, Guo Y. Low temperature pyrolysates distribution and kinetics of Zhaotong lignite. Energy Convers Manage. 2016;114:11-19'},{id:"B38",body:'Chen WH, Peng J, Bi XT. A state-of-art review of biomass torrefaction, densification and applications, RenewSust Energ Rev. 2015;44:847-866'},{id:"B39",body:'Prins MJ, Ptasinski KJ, Janssen FJJG. Torrefaction of wood, Part 1. Weight loss kinetics J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis. 2006;77:28-34'},{id:"B40",body:'Onsree T, Tippayawong N, Williams T, McCullough K, Barrow E, Pogaku R, Lauterbach J. Torrefaction of pelletized corn residues with wet flue gas. Bioresour Technol. 2019;285:1213302'},{id:"B41",body:'Li SX, Chen CZ, Li MF, Xiao X. Torrefaction of corncob to produce charcoal under nitrogen and carbon dioxide atmospheres. Bioresour Technol. 2018;249:348-353'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade",address:"tkolugbade@futa.edu.ng",affiliation:'
Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 704, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10127",type:"book",title:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",slug:"biotechnological-applications-of-biomass",publishedDate:"August 18th 2021",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso, Thiago Olitta Basso and Luiz Carlos Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10127.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-182-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-180-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-183-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"436926",title:"Prof.",name:"Qian",middleName:null,surname:"Li",email:"liqian@pkusz.edu.cn",fullName:"Qian Li",slug:"qian-li",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Peking University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"78824",title:"Blue Laser Diode-Based Visible Light Communication and Solid-State Lighting",slug:"blue-laser-diode-based-visible-light-communication-and-solid-state-lighting",abstract:"In this chapter, we review our recent work on blue laser diode-based visible light communication and solid-state lighting. Gallium nitride (GaN) phosphor-converted white light-emitting diodes (Pc-WLEDs) are emerging as an indispensable solid-state lighting (SSL) source for next-generation display system and the lighting industry. Together with the function of lighting, visible light communication (VLC) using Pc-WLEDs has gained increasing attention to fulfill the growing demand for wireless data communication. Practically, the low modulation response and low emitting intensity of light-emitting diodes (LED) are the drawbacks for the development of ultrahigh-speed VLC and high-quality SSL system. Blue GaN laser diode (LD) and remote phosphor-based white light can be used for both high-speed VLC and SSL simultaneously. We demonstrated a color-rendering index (CRI) of 93.8, a correlated color temperature (CCT) of 4435 K, and a data rate of 1.6 Gbps under NRZ-OOK modulation by an exciting blue laser diode on narrowband green−/red-emitting composite phosphor film. 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His research interest includes microwave and optical device design, metamaterial, photonics nano-device, machine vision and machine learning, with applications to autonomous vehicles and robot.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"348809",title:"M.A.",name:"Ange Joel",surname:"Nounga Njanda",slug:"ange-joel-nounga-njanda",fullName:"Ange Joel Nounga Njanda",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/348809/images/16466_n.png",biography:"je m\\'appelle Nounga Joel née le 16 Aout 1998 a Ndoungue , Originaire de la région du littoral Cameroun j\\'ai obtenu en 2020 mon diplôme d\\'Ingénieur en Télécommunication a l\\'école Nationale Supérieure Polytechnique de Douala dans mes travaux de fin d\\'etudes j\\'ai travaille sur le Co-Design d\\'un Bloc PA-Antenne Pour Application Radar Automobile a 79 GHz",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"348834",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amenah I.",surname:"Kanaan",slug:"amenah-i.-kanaan",fullName:"Amenah I. Kanaan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"349601",title:"Dr.",name:"Nianxi",surname:"Xu",slug:"nianxi-xu",fullName:"Nianxi Xu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"349806",title:"Dr.",name:"Putu",surname:"Artawan",slug:"putu-artawan",fullName:"Putu Artawan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349806/images/16468_n.jpg",biography:"Putu Artawan. Was born in Seririt, Bali, Indonesia on 20 December 1979. Following elementary school until senior high school in Seririt Bali. He was graduated (S.Pd) at IKIP Negeri Singaraja, Bali Indonesia in Physics Education programme on 2002. And, was graduated in Master Programme (M.Si) at ITS Surabaya, Indonesia in Optoelectronics field, Department of Physics, Faculty of Sciences on 2011. Now, he has graduated in Doctoral programme at Physics Departement, Faculty of Science ITS Surabaya, Indonesia in Antenna Design and its application in communications systems specifically. \r\nThe author is a lecturer in Physics Department, Math and Science Faculty, Ganesha University of Education, Bali Indonesia since 2006. Now, this the author as a doctoral student in Physics Department, Faculty of Science, ITS Surabaya Indonesia. Besides teaching the author is activelly involved in some researches, especially in applied physics field. The author also advises schools/students in physics olympiads preparation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"355124",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinodh",surname:"Minchula",slug:"vinodh-minchula",fullName:"Vinodh Minchula",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"I have been performing consistently exceptionally in my academic career starting from primary studies to University education. This ensures my flair for Academics, which eventually made me university 3rd in M.Tech Communication Engineering from VIT University (it is 15th best Engineering Institute of India since 2016 rankings by NIRF & also recognized as Institution of Eminence in 2019 by Govt. of India) and also received a National Research Fellowship from NFOBC-UGC Govt. of INDIA for doing Ph.D. in wireless communications from Andhra University (19th rank in University category by NIRF, Govt. of India) and got International Fellowship in Japan”-Asia youth exchange program in science under Sakura Science program sponsored by Japan Science and Technology, Japan in the year 2017. I have been teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students of Electronics and Communication Engineering specialization, also supervising their project and dissertations works. I have evinced considerable interest and initiative in Research publication and Industrial interaction through conferences, seminars, training for quality improvement, in keeping up with the growing trends of Next-generation technological advancements.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"414482",title:"Prof.",name:"Sashibhushana Rao",surname:"Gottapu",slug:"sashibhushana-rao-gottapu",fullName:"Sashibhushana Rao Gottapu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Andhra University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"417058",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruoqian",surname:"Gao",slug:"ruoqian-gao",fullName:"Ruoqian Gao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417059",title:"Prof.",name:"Yan",surname:"Gong",slug:"yan-gong",fullName:"Yan Gong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"423671",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul Samuel",surname:"Mandeng",slug:"paul-samuel-mandeng",fullName:"Paul Samuel Mandeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
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Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"
\r\n\tIf we aim to prosper as a society and as a species, there is no alternative to sustainability-oriented development and growth. Sustainable development is no longer a choice but a necessity for us all. Ecosystems and preserving ecosystem services and inclusive urban development present promising solutions to environmental problems. Contextually, the emphasis on studying these fields will enable us to identify and define the critical factors for territorial success in the upcoming decades to be considered by the main-actors, decision and policy makers, technicians, and public in general.
\r\n
\r\n\tHolistic urban planning and environmental management are therefore crucial spheres that will define sustainable trajectories for our urbanizing planet. This urban and environmental planning topic aims to attract contributions that address sustainable urban development challenges and solutions, including integrated urban water management, planning for the urban circular economy, monitoring of risks, contingency planning and response to disasters, among several other challenges and solutions.
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He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:[{id:"181486",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Trillo",slug:"claudia-trillo",fullName:"Claudia 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Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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