Postharvest diseases/pathosystem of leguminous vegetable crops.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
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Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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This book, consisting of 29 chapters gathered in 4 sections, reviews in detail and compiles information about some important physical-chemical properties of ILs and new practical approaches. This is the first book of a series of forthcoming publications on this field by this publisher. The first volume covers some aspects of synthesis, isolation, production, modification, the analysis methods and modeling to reveal the structures and properties of some room temperature ILs, as well as their new possible applications. The book will be of help to chemists, physicists, biologists, technologists and other experts in a variety of disciplines, both academic and industrial, as well as to students and PhD students. 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In addition, he serves as the head of innovation at the Centro de Investigación e Innovación Biomédica (CiiB), a faculty/theses member in the bioMedicine Doctoral (Ph.D. bioMedicina) Program at UAndes, and a visiting clinical and surgical professor at the MaxilloFacial Division of the Universidad de la Frontera and the Department of Head and Neck Surgery, Lautaru Hospital, both in Temuco, Chile.\n\nDr. Haidar is a trained dentist, implantologist, and an oral and maxillofacial surgeon with a Ph.D. in Nanobiomaterials, Pharmaceuticals, and Tissue Engineering from McGill University, Montréal, Canada. He completed a post-doctoral training residency in orthopedics at the Montréal Shriners Hospital, McGill University Health Center, Montréal, Canada. Before moving to Chile, he served as Associate Professor of Bioceramics and the Chair of Excellence in BioEngineering at the Université de Limoges, Limoges, France and was an assistant professor in the Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry (cross-appointment with the Department of BioEngineering), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. Between 2010 and 2012 Dr. Haidar served as an adjunct professor of Head and Neck Surgery and the scientific director of the joint Utah–Inha R&D Center, Inha University Hospital, Incheon, Seoul, South Korea. \n\nHe has won several prestigious awards from the International Bone and Mineral Society, Society for Biomaterials, Canadian Biomaterial Society, and the Canadian and Lebanese Societies of Plastic Surgeons, to name a few. His R&D&I focus on patient-oriented development and evaluation of bionanotechnology, biopolymers, bioceramics, and drug delivery systems for the repair, restoration, reconstruction, and regeneration of challenging craniofacial and orthopedic defects. Dr. Haidar is an international speaker with more than 125 publications, conference proceedings, textbooks, and patents to his credit. He is also an editorial board member of several national and international scientific journals and periodicals.",institutionString:"Universidad de los Andes, Santiago de Chile",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of the Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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With GM cotton pesticides have been substantially reduced, benefiting human safety, adjacent livestock enterprises and the environment, plus improving yields [4, 5, 6]. Herbicide resistant canola both controlled weeds and raised yields [5, 7]. These GM crops can be grown with minimum tillage, thereby conserving soil moisture for crop maturation in the low rainfall Southern cropping zone where every mm saved is 20 kg/ha or more grain [8]! Herbicide weed control allows earlier sowing to better match crop growth with seasonal winter rainfall.
South Australia (SA) was the last mainland state to have a moratoria on GM crops [1]), scheduled to 2025 but now lifted as recommended by Anderson [9]. The moratoria cost the canola industry $33 million over 2004–2018. Australian GM canola with a 10% yield benefit, suffered no adverse international market advantage compared with non-GM canola except for Japan, which paid an estimated price premium of $32/tonne (about 7%) for GM free (zero adventitious contamination) canola from Kangaroo Island (KI) in SA [9]. This entailed segregation of non-GM from GM canola in the delivery-chain with identity protocols and codes of practice. The moratoria was kept for KI crops, and the market chain for KI produce will remain segregated.
In Tasmania GM crops have been banned since 2001 [10]. This is supported by the horticulture and honey industries maintain Tasmania’s image for pure GM free produce.
The National Gene Technology Scheme (NGTS) in Australia was enabled by the Gene Technology Act 2000. Regulation is administered by the Office of the Gene Technology Regulator (OGTR), to apply a process based ‘Precautionary’ approach to any kind of directed genetic alteration [1, 11], specifically DNA transfer between species.
The object of the Act for all living organisms is:
OGTR authorises the release of GM crops in coordination with other agencies; Food Safety Australia and New Zealand (FSANZ), the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority, Therapeutic Goods Administration, National Industrial Chemical Notification and Assessment Scheme, Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, and Department of the Environment and Energy [11, 12].
CRISPR Genome Editing (GE) is able to alter genetic expression without transfer of new genetic material with the SDN1 procedure, as a more advanced version of GM. OGTR has made a recent incremental change to a ‘Principles based’ flexible approach, with recognition of the SDN 1 with a product history of low risk [4, 11, 12]. However OGTR risk assessment and oversight remain, plus the regulations of complementary agencies.
SDN 1 genome editing is classified as GM/GE under ‘Notifiable Low Risk Dealings’ (NLRD) [11, 12]. NLRD products cannot be released to the environment without OGTR approval, and must be compliant with OGTR regulations for transport, storage and disposal, while GM field trials have to be registered and isolated [11]. NLRDs must be approved by the Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC) and OGTR [11, 12]. Costs apply for administration, risk assessment and management.
OGTR requires that GM/GE crop development must undergo detailed case-by-case assessment of risks to food safety and to the environment, with research and development conducted in contained facilities; this is expensive research [13, 14]. This is based on the ‘Precautionary’ principle, rather than ‘Outcome’ based with recognition of benefits to society and the environment.
The science of gene technology is poorly understood publicly, enabling the Green lobby to demonise GM for socio-economic reasons or to challenge details of a scientific study [15, 16], or now to raise fears that SDN 1 GE is GM in disguise, so allowing GM foods to be unlabelled and hidden from the public [17, 18].
The anti-GM lobby is well funded in USA through tax deductions to ‘organic’ and environmental groups [19, 20]. Anti-GM protesters have destroyed GM field trials in UK and Australia, and with non-scientific health and environmental claims supported risk regulation of GM crops and discouraged developing countries from approving GM crops [18, 19, 21, 22]. Organic certification demands no GM products, so that the organic industry has a large vested interest in denigrating GM.
Foods derived from GM crops pose no greater safety risk than from conventional plant breeding [2, 4, 5, 23, 24]. GM food safety has been validated with over 25 years of research by the American Medical Association [25], World Health Organisation [26], The British Royal Society [27], and 500+ independent institutions. GM crops benefit the environment primarily by substantially reducing the use of toxic pesticides/fungicides [28].
The new GE techniques such as CRISPR enable precise changes to the genome, with cutting of DNA at a specific location, and insertion, deletion, or modification of nucleotides in a gene, and include gene silencing, gene enhancement, and synthetic genes (Figure 1) [4, 29, 30].
Image adapted from source U.S. Food and Drug Administration [
China has heavily invested in GE with the purchase of Syngenta [31]. Genome editing has been developed for tomato, potato, maize, rice, wheat, sorghum and citrus, and presents a major challenge to GM crop regulators [4]. GE dramatically increases the number of traits which can be modified in crops, in a manner which is far quicker and cheaper than the original GM technology has been able to achieve [30, 32].
Base pair alteration (SDN 1) may be indistinguishable from either a random mutation or what may be achieved by conventional breeding, and is regarded as very low risk for health and the environment [4]. It is unlikely however to replace most uses of GM from before 2010 and already in farmers’ fields. The SDN 2 CRISPR procedure involves larger DNA changes with a DNA repair template, while SDN 3 enables targeted insertion of foreign DNA, both are still subject to full OGTR regulation.
The CRISPR-Cas9 DNA insertion is displayed in Figure 2 [29].
A Schematic diagram of the Cas9 enzyme (yellow) and the guide RNA (gRNA) that directs the enzyme to cleave double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) at specific sites. Image adapted from source: Marus Walter, Attribution-share alike 4.0 International (CC BY-SA 4.0).
Occurrences of ‘off-target’ changes are very rare in plants and detectable by whole genome sequencing [4]. Mutation breeding has always been exempt from regulations, a precedent for SDN 1 GE.
Policies on GM regulation are evolving with changes in biotechnology, but at different rates and to different extents in various countries. Genome editing targets the introduced traits themselves rather than the technology used to create them, in contrast to the traditional process-triggered GM regulatory system championed by Europeans [13, 33, 34]. EU does not exempt GE from GM regulations [4, 35].
In recent national responses to advances in GE [36]; USA, Norway, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and Argentina either permit SDN 1 genetic changes, or are considering relaxation of regulation. Lassoued
Agribio Victoria can process 50,000 SNPs at a time, and has sequencing capabilities for reliable detection of interactions between large numbers of different genes. These affect the majority of traits of agricultural interest, and can be a significant complement to the expression of major genes such as ‘blackleg’ resistance in canola [43]. The advances in sequencing and in GE together make possible the targeted transfer of complex abiotic stress tolerance traits from CWR to domestic crops.
However worldwide acceptance of revised regulations would be needed to achieve international consensus and removal of asynchronous trade barriers [44, 45, 46], which are significant barriers to international commercialisation of GM/GE [47, 48].
Future challenges include a warmer more variable climate for which CRW can provide genes for abiotic and biotic stress tolerances [40, 41, 49]. In many cases biotechnology applications can assist introgression of these stress tolerant traits into crops [4]. This would help to address twin challenges to agriculture of climate change and food security for a predicted 10 billion people by 2060 [50].
World food security has become severely threatened since the introduction of regulations on gene technology for crops over 20 years ago [1]. Gene technology regulation needs to recognise that crop environments are becoming more variable and challenging. There has been an unprecedented growth in world population by over three-fold in the last 100 years to 7.85 billion today [50], with an equally dramatic 60% rise in the greenhouse gases, especially CO2 mainly from coal, oil, gas and cement sources of pollution to over 400 ppm [51], resulting in a continual but fluctuating increase in global mean temperature towards 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels since 1900 [51]. On most scenarios this warming will rise above 2°C by 2100, with the lowest emission scenario very unlikely to eventuate, with increasing urbanisation and more energy intensive life styles. Certain trends such as polar warming can set up reinforcing feedback loops for warming: ice melts, permafrost thaws, and desertification. Spikes in high temperature will be from a higher base, and frosts and droughts will be more severe especially upon seed set. Food security will be under threat [30, 49].
Thus a climate crisis for agriculture has intensified since the 1990s, when genetic modification of food and fibre crops raised safety concerns. However GM crops have been shown to be beneficial with improvements in crop and food nutrition, disease and pest resistances, yield productivity, and tolerances of drought, high temperature, frost and salinity [4].
Now in the 2020s there is an urgent need to widen the genetic diversity of food and fibre crops to address the coming challenges of abiotic and biotic crop stresses with Climate Change [30, 41, 49]. GE provides the tools to exploit the largely untapped genetic diversity of CWR, the evolutionary ancestors of crops [17, 30], with precise introgression of genes for abiotic/biotic tolerances (heat, frost, and drought tolerances, salinity, pest and disease resistances). CWR have genetic diversity for adaptation to far more extreme environments than crops were exposed to during domestication over the past 12,000 years, and provide opportunities to transform crop adaptation to Climate Change [17, 52]. However it is an immense challenge to implement GE transformations across all crops; from vegetables, spices, cereals and legumes to root crops and fruits, before the world is stranded with agricultural systems un-adapted to changed environments.
There is a future opportunity cost in not recognising that climate change combined with an unprecedented growth in population creates an urgency to re-adjust GM regulation, to promotion and acceptance of new gene technologies, especially GE [16, 29, 45, 53, 54, 55]. NGTS can re-align towards an aspiration of crop adaptation (climate proofing) to climate change [24, 39]. Advances in cropping ingenuity and crop genetics will be essential to produce more food in more hostile environments.
An appropriate tiering of regulation for crops should recognise outcomes of product benefits to farming and the environment, and a long established food safety record.
GM/GE food and fibre crops should be exempt from NGTS regulation [1]. The current NGTS/OGTR over-regulation stifles the opportunity to realise the benefits from CWR for adaptation to climate change, raises costs, and tends to exclude GM/GE research and development from small research organisations. The present costs to market for GM/GE crops are prohibitive [16]. The current NGTS/OGTR regulations are no longer fit for purpose, and NGTS could be changed to exempt food and fibre crops only, but not vaccine and pharmaceutical crops, micro-organisms and animals [1, 11].
A Revised NGTS [1] for food and fibre crops would have a new aim: ‘
This Revised NGTS would greatly reduce operational costs of the plant-centric OGTR and better secure its funding sustainability, without the monitoring, surveillance and compliance activities for GM/GE food and fibre crops.
A restructured OGTR could change from regulating GM food and fibre crops, to play a major role in educating the public on the benefits of new biotechnologies with publications, educational webinars and social media posts [1]. OGTR has the required expertise to explain and illustrate new developments in biotechnology [11, 12]. This could be supported with championing of a Revised NGTS for food security in a more populous world with a changing climate.
OGTR regulations on GM food and fibre crops need to be removed for equivalence with conventionally bred crops. The proposal is for an exemption of GM food and fibre crops from current NGTS regulation, and adoption of a Revised NGTS for sustainability of agriculture under climate change.
As proposed by Redden [1], a Revised NGTS would include:
Regulations of relevant agencies such as OGTR, FSANZ, and APVMA, to be science based and supportive of GM products.
Exemption of GM food and fibre crops from NGTS/OGTR legislation, yet still comply with FSANZ standards.
Deployment of current and new gene technologies for world food security, even as cropping environments become less favourable.
Research organisations to champion the introgression of genes from CWR into crops for improved productivity, food nutrition, and adaptation to abiotic and biotic stresses.
An education campaign across primary to tertiary education levels, and social media.
Risk objections to GM crops and derived foods to be science based, taking into account both medical expertise on health risks and social and environmental benefits.
Relaxation of regulations for crop GE would facilitate new market entrants for GM crops and broaden the scope of GE across more crops and key traits.
Individual food choice is retained, but labelling requirements should not be burdensome on GM derived foods.
International trade barriers to GE produce are removed as other countries also rollback GM regulations on food and fibre crops.
Co-existence of GM and non-GM crops is manageable in Australia, given existing SA segregation protocols and stack management practices at grain reception points.
GE also benefits the organics industry, both with genetic resistances to pests and diseases, and tolerances of abiotic stresses.
Excluded from the proposed Revised NGTS are vaccine, and pharmaceutical crops, micro-organisms and domestic animals.
India is the second-largest producer of vegetables in the world after China, and shares about 16% of global vegetable production [1]. Processed vegetables have been exported at a compounded annual growth rate in the volume of 16% and in value of 25% [2, 3]. Vegetables have a significant role in enhancing farm income, sustainable global food as well as nutritional security. Vegetables suffer from several fungal and bacterial postharvest diseases [4, 5, 6]. Postharvest losses in vegetables are reported up to 30–40% owing to poor postharvest practices [7].
Fungicide is commonly applied for post-harvest disease control. Hot air, curing and hot-water brushing reduces disease incidence and increases the efficacy of antagonists. Biocontrol agents and botanicals may also reduce the amount of fungicide frequently used in postharvest disease management. Biocontrol of postharvest diseases of vegetable crops has great potential under storage conditions and biological products/biopesticides are available in the market. The biopesticides Ecogen US (Aspire™), Azotobactor (Bio-Save™), and Anchor (Yield Plus™) are involved to combine products with a low level of fungicide and salt solutions (calcium chloride or sodium bicarbonate @ 1–2%) and other food additives to improve efficacy against postharvest diseases. EcoSMART formulation based on rosemary oil, viz. EcoTrol™, Sporan™ (fungicide) and eugenol oil formulation Mataran™ (weedicides) are recognized as safe plant protectants. Therefore, the postharvest application of eco-friendly control methods may be exploited to manage the disease of vegetables.
Postharvest diseases cause qualitative and quantitative losses of vegetables and make them unfit for human consumption due to potential health risks. A large number of postharvest diseases are caused by black, white, and yellow fungi-derived carcinogenic mycotoxins and mutagenic secondary metabolites [8]. Losses due to postharvest disease may occur during the handling of produce from harvest to consumption. Primary and secondary agricultural practices are also important and costs such as harvesting, packaging, and transport must be taken into account when estimating the value of the produce lost as a result of postharvest wastage. Fresh vegetables are highly perishable, and they have relatively short shelf lives. Fresh vegetables are living, respiring tissues that start senescing immediately after harvest. They are mostly comprised of water, with most having 90–95% moisture content. Because of the perishable nature of vegetables, special skills are required for postharvest handling.
Application of good postharvest management practices which are supported by good technologies and also improving postharvest systems will maintain the quality of vegetables and reduce quantitative losses. Losses in vegetables are the result of (i) poor knowledge about the right harvesting index; thus, a large proportion of the harvested beans are usually over-mature (ii) poor handling practices, such as the use of plastic sacks for bulk packaging and transportation which results in mechanical damage that serves as entry points for disease-causing organisms leading to rotting of the pods (iii) poor transport practices such as the use of trucks that have no cover, thus exposing the produce to direct sunlight and high temperature (iv) the absence of low-temperature storage facilities and transport systems, and (v) rough handling practices during distribution in retail markets.
In general, postharvest diseases and losses of vegetables are incited by fungi and bacteria. Postharvest diseases are often classified on the basis of the infection as “quiescent”or “latent”, where the pathogen infects before harvest in the field. Examples of postharvest diseases arising from quiescent infections include anthracnose of various vegetables caused by
Pathogens were isolated on agar medium and identified on the basis of macroscopic and microscopic analysis of colony and conidia/spore morphology by Microscopy, Sero-diagnostics (ELISA, Dot-blot assays), and nucleic acid (PCR) based methods.
Why do we need, want, or should detect emerging postharvest pathogens (diseases) in vegetable crops?
Determine presence and quantity of the pathogen (s) for quarantine legislation.
Assess the effectiveness of Integrated Disease Management (IDM) modules.
Issuing of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) certificate vegetable produce for safe export/transboundary movement under trade.
Quantify spatial and temporal pathogen populations in a specific location.
Quantify pathogen populations in relation with regional and seasonal yield losses.
Common postharvest diseases resulting from wound infections initiated during and after harvest includes blue and green mold (
White mold (
Typical symptoms of Sclerotinia white rot and culture plate. (A) Indian bean, (B) Indian bean, (C) French bean, (D) pea, (E) pea, (F) brinjal, (G) tomato, (H) bottle gourd, (I) PDA culture plate.
Pathogen | Disease | Symptom |
---|---|---|
Watery soft rot or white stem rot | Disease symptom initially appears in the form of water-soaked lesions on pods and stems. Later, infected tissues become whitish and covered with white mycelia mats and black-colored sclerotia. | |
Anthracnose | Disease symptoms appear in the form of brown to black sunken spots and lesions on leaves, stems, and pods. The center of anthracnose lesions on pods is covered with numerous black dot-like acervuli. | |
Black spot symptoms on pods result in the production of round tan-colored sunken spots bearing dark margins with pycnidia on pods. | ||
Charcoal rot or ashy stem blight | Disease symptoms appear in the form of dark brown to black charcoal-colored lesions covered with black dot-like fruiting bodies (resting microsclerotia and pycnidia) on pods. | |
Sclerotiorum rot | Whitish growth with mustard-like sclerotia on pods. | |
Cottony leak | White mycelial growth on pods. |
Postharvest diseases/pathosystem of leguminous vegetable crops.
Tomato (
Typical Symptom of
Chili (
Typical symptoms of
Gummy stem blight (GSB) is caused by
Disease | Pathogen | Incidence (%) |
---|---|---|
Black rot | 50 | |
Fruit spot | 18–23 | |
10 | ||
Blossom blight | 30 |
Postharvest diseases/pathosystems of cucurbitaceous vegetable crops.
Brinjal (
Disease | Pathogen | Crop | Incidence (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Brinjal | 40–60 | ||
Brinjal | 5–10 | ||
Fruit blight | Tomato | 15 | |
Tomato | 30 | ||
Tomato | 30 | ||
Tomato | 30 | ||
Colletotrichum fruit rot | Chili | 20 |
Postharvest diseases/pathosystems of solanaceous vegetable crops.
Typical symptom of
Phytopathogenic bacteria cause postharvest diseases of economically important vegetables. Different species of bacteria belonging to top ten genera viz.
Biological (culture media, diagnostic hosts, bacteriophages (phage typing); biochemical (based on properties of the bacteria in culture (gram stain, bacterial cell size, flagella), metabolic fingerprinting (API/BIOLOG system), thin layer chromatography, gel electrophoresis, conductance assays, isozyme analysis); immunoassays (agglutination, gel diffusion, ELISA, dot blot assays, immunofluorescence, flow cytometry); nucleic acid (hybridization, RFLPs, PCR, ICAN, DNA arrays, multilocus sequence typing) were used for reliable and accurate detection of plant pathogens for their effective management.
The disease is caused by pathogen,
Crop | Disease | Pathogen | Incidence (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Tomato | Soft rot | 5 | |
Bacterial speck | 5 | ||
Chili | Soft rot | 2 | |
Beans | Soft rot | 5 | |
Cabbage | Black rot | 10 | |
Cauliflower | Soft rot | 19 | |
Summer squash | Soft rot | 5–10 |
Postharvest bacterial diseases/pathosystem of vegetable crops.
Postharvest losses in vegetables are found due to fungal and bacterial infection worldwide. New challenges are faced under trade liberalization and globalization, and serious efforts are needed to reduce these losses in vegetables.
Chemical fungicides are commonly used for the management of postharvest disease in vegetables. For postharvest pathogens which infect produce before harvest, the fungicides should be applied at field level during the crop season, and/or strategically applied as systemic fungicides. At the postharvest level, the fungicides are often applied to reduce infections already established in the surface tissues of produce or they may protect against infections occurring during storage and handling. Fungicides used during postharvest are actually fungistatic rather than fungicidal under normal usage. The fungicides are applied on the produce as dips, sprays, fumigants, treated wraps, and box liners or in waxes and coatings. Dip and spray methods are very common in postharvest treatments. The fungicides generally applied as a dip or spray method are benzimidazoles (e.g. benomyl and thiabendazole) against anthracnose, and triazoles (e.g. prochloraz and imazalil) and fumigants, such as sulfur dioxide, for the control of gray mold used for postharvest disease control [24, 25]. Dipping in hot water (at 50°C for 5–10 min, depending on the size of produce in combination with the fungicide) is also used for effective control of the disease. Sodium hypochlorite as a disinfectant is used to kill spores of pathogens present on the surface of the vegetable produce.
International markets reject produce containing unauthorized pesticides, with pesticide residues exceeding permissible limits, and with inadequate labeling and packaging. Hence, biological control of postharvest diseases has great potential because postharvest environmental conditions like temperature and humidity can be strictly controlled to suit the needs of the biocontrol agent. Much information has been provided in relation to postharvest biocontrol and the problems faced by the development of commercial products [26, 27]. Biological control is used through microbes such as fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, and viruses (bacteriophages) to control the postharvest disease of vegetables [1, 28, 29, 30, 31]. The degree of disease control or disease suppression achieved with these bioagents can be comparable to that achieved with chemicals. As per estimates, the market of Indian bioagents is equivalent to 2.89% of the overall pesticide market in India with the worth of rupees 690 crores. It is expected to show an annual growth rate of about 2.3% in the coming years [32, 33]. In India, so far only 18 types of bio-pesticides have been registered under the Insecticide Act of 1968. Among agriculturally important microbes,
Antagonistic yeast forms a biofilm to stick pathogen and parasitize on the hyphae of the pathogen. Bar-Shimon et al. [34] reported that biocontrol efficacy of yeast correlates with the production of lytic enzymes and their ability to tolerate high concentrations of salts. Further, molecular approaches were used to examine the role of glucanases in the biocontrol activity of the yeast
An effort has been made to develop two new products based on yeast antagonist
Botanical pesticides cause no adverse effects on non-target biota with biodegradability. It should be noted that most of the crops sprayed with botanical pesticides are quite safe for consumption after a short period after spraying. A large number of defensive of rich chemicals such as terpenoids, alkaloids, phenols, tannins, coumarins, flavonoids, etc. are present in plants which cause physiological effects on pathogens. These compounds have already been identified in the extracts/exudates of many plants. They have antimicrobial activities and are used for postharvest disease control.
The use of natural botanical products would be a supplement or an alternative to synthetic fungicide. Examples include 1,8-cineole, the major constituent of oils from rosemary (
Many exhaustive studies have been carried out on the utility of neem oil against various fungal pathogens. Its efficacy has been evaluated against fungal pathogens and found to be on par with the fungicide hymexazole in the control of the soil pathogens
Maintenance of hygiene in all stages of postharvest handling is critical to minimize the source of primary inoculum for postharvest diseases [39]. Produce should be harvested during the day instead of early morning. Field containers should be smoothed. Containers should be cleaned. Sterilized packing and grading equipment, particularly brushes and rollers, are used. Chlorinated water @ 100 ppm is commonly used for washing vegetables. This can be done with chlorine gas or with either liquid hypochlorite (pH 6.0–7.0). Containers should not be overfilled, which causes severe damage during stacking. Management of temperature is the most important factor to extend the shelf life of fresh vegetables after harvest. It begins with rapid removal of the field heat by using any of the following cooling methods: hydro-cooling, in-package ice, top icing, evaporative cooling, room cooling, forced air cooling, serpentine forced air cooling, vacuum cooling, and hydro-vacuum cooling. The relative humidity during storage should be maintained at about 85–95% for most fruits and 95–98% for vegetables. Transport vehicles should always be cleaned and sanitized before loading.
For postharvest disease management, various strategies such as postharvest handling systems, sanitation, and integration of botanicals/plant essential oil, microbial bioagents, and safe chemicals need to be integrated and develop integrated postharvest diseases management techniques under World Trade Organization (WTO) regime. Among them, it is expected that the knowledge of biocontrol will lead to new, innovative approaches to minimize postharvest decay of the product and it presents the best hope for the future of postharvest disease management of vegetable produce. Future research in this field will include a better understanding of the molecular basis of variability in the pathogen, pathogenesis, accurate and reliable diagnostic of the disease and to engineer novel and durable protection strategies against devastating postharvest diseases of vegetable crops.
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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/423812",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"423812"},fullPath:"/profiles/423812",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()