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Martínez Niconoff, G. Díaz González, P. Martínez Vara, J. Silva\nBarranco and J. Munoz-Lopez",authors:[{id:"29025",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Martinez-Niconoff",fullName:"Gabriel Martinez-Niconoff",slug:"gabriel-martinez-niconoff"}]},{id:"44980",title:"Holography at the Nano Level With Visible Light Wavelengths",slug:"holography-at-the-nano-level-with-visible-light-wavelengths",signatures:"Cesar A. Sciammarella, Luciano Lamberti and Federico M.\nSciammarella",authors:[{id:"17956",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciano",middleName:null,surname:"Lamberti",fullName:"Luciano Lamberti",slug:"luciano-lamberti"},{id:"20677",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Sciammarella",fullName:"Federico Sciammarella",slug:"federico-sciammarella"},{id:"166241",title:"Prof.",name:"Cesar A.",middleName:null,surname:"Sciammarella",fullName:"Cesar A. 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by",editors:[{id:"134973",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",surname:"Pavlidis",slug:"ioannis-pavlidis",fullName:"Ioannis Pavlidis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10857",title:"Augmented Reality and Its Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d66e2c09cddac7cc377ffb103aa7ef9",slug:"augmented-reality-and-its-application",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10857.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"71455",title:"Security and Privacy in Three States of Information",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91610",slug:"security-and-privacy-in-three-states-of-information",body:'\nThe world is living in an era of information outburst thanks to rapid speed of technological developments in computational domain. Many factors contribute to the immense amount of data available online: Mobile devices are becoming more accessible to everyone with their decreasing cost, underlying network technologies are facilitating data transfer by providing faster and more reliable communication, data processing methods (such as editing, compressing) are helping customize data format, and increasing data storage capacities are turning bulk data storage more effective.
\nWith all technology and convenience so easily reachable, an ordinary user is allured further to handle even more information by either transferring, processing, or storing them. Yet, the issues of security and privacy are often taken for granted, and unfortunately this ignorance may cause a destructive consequence by totally violating the security and privacy of information, as well as its owner.
\nIn this chapter, three fundamental states of information, i.e., information in transit, information in process, and information in storage, are defined first. Then the chapter addresses security and privacy of information in each state by giving examples. It should be noted that as information is the processed form of data, these two terms, i.e., information and data, are used interchangeably throughout the text. The chapter then provides algorithms to achieve privacy and security of information in these three states and how they apply to particular states of information for ensuring security.
\nThe rest of the chapter is organized as follows: In Section 2, three states of information are defined together with examples for each. In Section 3, security mechanisms, i.e., privacy and security algorithms that apply to each state of information, are discussed in detail, and examples are provided. Finally, the chapter is concluded in Section 4.
\nThis section identifies three fundamental states that information can be in at a time. It is essential to distinctively identify each state, as corresponding security measures vary for each of these states. To address each separately, the information residing in either of three states at a time in a computational environment are identified. These three states are listed as information in transit, information in process, and information in storage. Information in transit refers to the status where an underlying network (wired or wireless) facilitates the transmission of data from one place (source) to another (destination). Information in process refers to the case when data is processed so that it transforms from source format to destination format. And information in storage refers to the mostly stagnant form of data that resides on a storage media for future reference. As these brief descriptions imply, information in each state has different properties than information in other states. As an example, information in transit is different from information in process and information in storage.
\nIt should also be noted that these states may overlap to form many variations. As an example, states can form variations in pairs, such as information could be processed first and then transferred, or processed first and then stored, or stored information is retrieved for further processing, etc. Or, in a more complex format, each of the three states of information may combine in any order to form a sequence of operations, such as stored information is retrieved from database and is processed to yield new information and this new information is transferred to a remote destination.
\nThe following subsections address each state of information in detail by describing them first and then providing examples for each state. This, later, serves as a basis for explaining security and privacy measures with respect to each state of information that is explained later in Section 3.
\nThe first state of information is information in transit. This state refers to the situation when information handled is transferred from one place (source) to another place (destination). As depicted in Figure 1, in the context of information in transit state, the information residing in source side is transmitted to destination via an underlying network. The underlying network infrastructure could be of various types, such as cable network, wireless network, etc., and does not differentiate the type of data being transferred, as each data piece is processed in the bit level of granularity. This enables the transfer of information in various possible formats, such as plaintext, still image, movie, voice, etc.
\nInformation in transit.
Though Figure 1 illustrates information being transmitted from source to destination, more than usual, the roles change and the source becomes destination and the destination becomes source. This is because of the inherently full duplex property of communication in most of the times.
\nIt should also be noted that if information in transit is considered only in isolation, then it should not change the format of data being transferred. This explains why in Figure 1 both sender and destination sides label information exactly the same way. And to guarantee this unchanging property of data, integrity mechanisms are inherently built in network systems that facilitate information in transit. If a more complex system is designed and implemented by combining information in transit and information in process states, then labeling of each information entity will have to be modified accordingly. In particular, these entities will label information as Information1 and Information2 on each side so as to indicate the changing content of the information itself. This phenomenon is explained further in Section 2.2 and is depicted later in Figure 2.
\nInformation in process.
Sending a memo that has text, pictures, and videos in it as part of a business operation from company headquarters to a branch office is an example of the case where information is transmitted from source (the company headquarters) to destination (the branch office).
\nWhile improvements in technology are facilitating the way information can be transferred, this brings along the issue of providing the security and privacy of information transferred. These issues are addressed in the security and privacy section that follows.
\nThis state focuses on how one operates on data to change its form. It is very common in computational operations today to process data such that it no longer possesses its original format. As an example, one may compress data so that it occupies less space, another may encrypt it so that it becomes unintelligible to unintended third parties, yet another combines compression and encryption so as to benefit from combined effects of the two.
\nInformation in process is represented graphically in Figure 2, where a series of operations are applied to input data to yield the output data. The expectation in the end of the process in this figure is that the output (Information2) will be different from input (Information1). This is a fundamental difference from Figure 1, where information on each side was expected to be the same.
\nIn the context of information in process, take, for example, the process of encrypting text. The input data will be a legible text, such as a sentence, a document, etc., whereas the output generated will be an unintelligible sequence of characters, as is deliberately meant to be by the process. The process itself could be one single operation as simple as circularly shifting characters a certain amount to the left or right or, in the hope to achieve sophisticated complexity, a sequence of operations, such as applying a complex math-based prediction model on previous data to calculate the overall end of year benefit for a company.
\nThe concern with information in process is that the reliability of data should be preserved at all times so that the resulting data can be trusted. This involves authentication and reliability of input and output data, as well as the trustability of the process itself, each of which are discussed later in the Security Mechanisms for Three States of Information subsection below.
\nInformation in storage state refers to the case when information rests in a storage media of choice for making it available in the future. Figure 3 depicts the last state of information which is called information in storage.
\nInformation in storage.
The expectation at this state is to ensure that the information remains intact in the storage and moreover no unauthorized party can access to it. These efforts involve authentication of the users who can access the information, as well as integrity of information being stored. The requirement to keep the data intact, i.e., prevent its integrity while in storage, explains why the information is labeled the same in both user and storage sides in Figure 3. This is a similar requirement that was mentioned while explaining the information in transit, as was depicted in Figure 1. Yet, as information in process inherently changes the format of data, the labeling of information on each side of the process was different for information in process (see Figure 2).
\nAs for the storage media, various options are possible: Information can be stored on a local database, or on cloud, particularly when local storage is not sufficient to accommodate large amount of data.
\nOnce stored, information usually is accessed again for retrieval purposes, explaining the full duplex form of communication between the user and storage.
\nAs an example, a person can store family vacation pictures on his cell phone and then may decide to store them on a DVD for allocating more space on his cell phone storage.
\nIt should be noted that the distinction among these three states of information, namely, transit, process, and storage, is not crystal clear. This is because almost all the time these states are utilized in an overlapped manner. Formally, if the set of states is S = {s1, s2, s3}, then all possible permutations of these states generate the following permutation set P = {Ø, s1, s2, s3, s1s2, s2s1, s1s3, s3s1, s2s3, s3s2, s1s2s3, s1s3s2, s2s1s3, s2s3s1, s3s1s2, s3s2s1}. It should also be noted that it is permutations, not combinations, as the order matters when combining each of the three states. An example regarding the three states of information could be given as follows: Compressing data first and then emailing it to destination should be considered a different operation than emailing the data first and then compressing it at the destination.
\n\nTable 1 presents all possible permutations of these three states applied either in isolation, or combined in pairs, or combined in triplets based on the underlying scenario each represents. The states listed in Table 1 map to generic states s1, s2, and s2 of the formal definition given above as follows: s1 = information in transit, s2 = information in process, and s3 = information in storage.
\nPermutation | \nState | \nDescription | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nØ | \nNo operation (trivial case) | \n
2 | \ns1\n | \nTransit | \n
3 | \ns2\n | \nProcess | \n
4 | \ns3\n | \nStorage | \n
5 | \ns1s2\n | \nTransit-process | \n
6 | \ns2s1\n | \nProcess-transit | \n
7 | \ns1s3\n | \nTransit-storage | \n
8 | \ns3s1\n | \nStorage-transit | \n
9 | \ns2s3\n | \nProcess-storage | \n
10 | \ns3s2\n | \nStorage-process | \n
11 | \ns1s2s3\n | \nTransit-process-storage | \n
12 | \ns1s3s2\n | \nTransit-storage-process | \n
13 | \ns2s1s3\n | \nProcess-transit-storage | \n
14 | \ns2s3s1\n | \nProcess-storage-transit | \n
15 | \ns3s1s2\n | \nStorage-transit-process | \n
16 | \ns3s2s1\n | \nStorage-process-transit | \n
Permutation of information states.
Take, for example, the case where the husband retrieves previous year’s tax records from his hard disk and emails them to his wife, and then the wife processes them to create this year’s tax amount to be paid to the government. All three states of information are employed in this scenario in this particular order, storage-transit-process, corresponding to line 11 of Table 1. To make it even more complex, imagine the wife submits the tax form for this year via online submission and then stores it in her disk. This would mean expanding the order of states to include “transit-storage” operations in addition to what already exists in line 11 of the table.
\nIn this section, each of the three states of information described in Section 2 is addressed, regarding the security features each state requires. In particular, Section 3.1 focuses on the security of information in transit state and hence introduces and explains network security. Section 3.2 concentrates on the state of information in process and explains the security measures, algorithms, and their implementations defined under the title of computer security. And Section 3.3 analyzes the security of information in storage state and provides information pertaining to database as well as cloud security.
\nAs each state handles information differently, the security requirements per state differ accordingly. For this reason, subsections below elaborate security concerns with regard to each state of information and present various techniques to provide the security of information in each of these states.
\nDifferent network infrastructures are probable today. The decision to make on which network infrastructure to employ depends on the needs for speed, reliability, the type of data being transferred, and the technology available where the source and destination are. The most common network infrastructures are TCP/IP and UDP communications. Each of these communication protocols utilize a layered architecture to process transmitted data. Essentially, they use similar fields for uniquely identifying the data being transmitted (such as source IP address, destination IP address, source port number, destination port number, flags, and other fields).
\nThe fundamental security services that are expected to be provided by network security are confidentiality, integrity, availability (known as CIA principles), and authentication. In the following subsections, each of these services is discussed, and examples of tools and mechanisms used to provide these services are given.
\nConfidentiality refers to the service where secrecy of the data being transmitted is preserved at all times. It is an essential requirement to ask from a network communication as otherwise the trust is violated irreparably.
\nThe means that to provide confidentiality service is to employ encryption, i.e., encoding data so as to make it unintelligible to unintended third parties.
\nBased on the number of encryption keys used in an encryption system, two types of encryption are possible: symmetric encryption and asymmetric encryption. In a cryptosystem where C is the ciphertext, P is the plaintext, K is the secret key, E is the encryption algorithm, and D is the decryption algorithm, the symmetric encryption and decryption processes are formulized as seen in Eqs. (1) and (2), respectively.
\nIn symmetric encryption, each communicating party uses the same secret key to encrypt the transmitted content. The need to use a secret key in symmetric encryption raises the question of how to provide the secrecy of this key itself. The solution is to employ a different key (named as session key) each time a new transmission takes place. Surely this adds on to the complexity of the scheme, but this is the inevitable result of the tradeoff between secrecy and complexity in security systems. The most common symmetric encryption algorithms are DES [1] and AES [2] with key sizes of 128 bits and 256 bits, respectively.
\nTake, as an example, the case where n users communicate with each other by using symmetric encryption scheme. To achieve a secure communication, each entity will have to ensure that his/her communication will not be revealed to other entities in the system. This will lead to a requirement to employ \n
In asymmetric encryption, each communicating party possesses a key pair {privateKey, publicKey} and employs this pair for communicating with any of the other parties in the system. Therefore, for communication among n users, the need for total number of keys is 2n only, a dramatic reduction as compared to the symmetric key encryption. A common asymmetric algorithm is RSA that is widely used in cryptographic platforms.
\nAnother classification for cryptographic algorithms is based on how the plaintext bits are processed: stream cipher and block cipher. In stream cipher, as the name implies, the plaintext bits are processed individually to encrypt, while block cipher bits are processed in blocks of multiples of 8 during encryption. The inherent nature of these encryption methods introduces a tradeoff between the two: Stream cipher is faster and has the advantage of low error propagation, yet it is more prone to malicious bit injection as they can go undetected very easily. The block cipher performs slower, as it has to incur the extra cost of block forming each time. It also cannot prevent error propagation in blocks. Yet, the block cipher is secure against malicious bit injection.
\nYet another classification for cryptographic algorithms is based on how the plaintext is transformed into ciphertext. According to this classification, one can perform a substitution cipher or transposition (permutation) cipher. In substitution cipher, plaintext bits are transformed into ciphertext bits by employing a single alphabet (hence called monoalphabetic cipher) or multiple alphabets (hence called polyalphabetic cipher). In a monoalphabetic cipher, the key size is fixed and is reused for the entire plaintext encryption, which leads to a 1:1 mapping between plaintext and ciphertext letters. As an example, for encrypting a given plaintext in English with length n, if the encryption key is designated as K = 5, then the encryption algorithm could be written as seen in Figure 4.
\nMonoalphabetic cipher encryption.
Similarly, the corresponding decryption algorithm for monoalphabetic cipher can be written as seen in Figure 5.
\nMonoalphabetic cipher decryption.
Monoalphabetic cipher is straightforward to implement. The risk is once the key is known, it will lead to decryption of the entire ciphertext promptly, violating the requirement for security. As for deciphering a suspected to have been monoalphabetically encrypted text, one can use the source language (such as English) n-gram statistics to reveal the key size. The oldest known encryption algorithm Caesar cipher is a monoalphabetic cipher with a key size of 3. Once statistical analysis is used to decrypt monoalphabetic cipher, the letter frequencies of ciphertext will reflect the letter frequencies of source language, only with “substituted” letters this time. As an example, if key size is 4 for a monoalphabetic cipher, then the plaintext letter “A” will be encrypted into ciphertext letter “E,” ciphertext letter “B” will be encrypted into plaintext letter “F,” etc. Therefore, the frequency of the ciphertext letter “E” will be similar to the frequency of source language letter “A,” the frequency of the ciphertext letter “F” will be similar to the frequency of source language letter “B,” etc. This is a very important clue in helping one decrypt the ciphertext correctly and fast.
\nIn an effort to strengthen the security of monoalphabetic cipher, polyalphabetic encryption has been introduced. As the name implies, in polyalphabetic cipher, there is an M/N mapping between plaintext letters and the ciphertext letters. This means that a plaintext letter “A” may be encoded into cipher letter “Y” once, and into ciphertext letter “F” another time, and into ciphertext letter “K” yet another time, etc. Therefore, there is no one fixed key size which will make decryption harder and more time-consuming. This will also cause a phenomenon called uniform letter frequencies for the ciphertext letters, which will be very close to uniform distribution of letters, rather than reflecting the natural language statistical characteristics (where letters “A,” “E,” and “T” occur the most frequent, whereas letters “Z” and “Q” occur the least frequent for English). Deciphering a ciphertext with uniform letter frequencies is very hard as compared to deciphering a ciphertext that possesses the underlying source language frequencies.
\nIn the case of a polyalphabetic cipher, more complex deciphering techniques such as Kasiski test [4] and index of coincidence [5] should be used. Both these techniques employ statistical analysis on ciphertext partitions formed by reordering ciphertext letters in varying lengths to reveal a meaningful plaintext correspondence, in the hope to find a most probable key size. The ultimate polyalphabetic encryption algorithm is called the Vernam Cipher (also called one-time pad) [6] and uses a key size as large as plaintext to obstruct key size computation and prevent the facilitating contribution of n-gram statistics.
\nThe transposition (permutation) cipher uses the same letters as the plaintext while encrypting the text. As an example, in rail cipher where key size is K, the plaintext letters are combined by right shifting each letter K positions to form the ciphertext. Therefore, the ciphertext letter frequencies will remain exactly the same as the plaintext letter frequencies. This is a very important discovery that will help determine whether a transposition cipher or a substitution cipher was used in the first place.
\nRegardless of the type of encryption algorithm, confidentiality service for network security is provided by applying the encryption cipher of choice. For a system with symmetric encryption, encryption algorithm for the sender side will be as seen in Eq. (3), and decryption algorithm for the receiver side will be as seen in Eq. (4):
\nFor a system with asymmetric encryption, each entity will use a pair of keys {privateKey, publicKey}. Hence, encryption algorithm for the sender side will be as seen in Eq. (5), and decryption algorithm for the receiver side will be as seen in Eq. (6):
\nMore security services are needed to provide a comprehensive security for a communication network. In the following section, these additional services are introduced.
\nWhile confidentiality focuses on the secrecy of data, integrity overlooks this concern and is primarily concerned about the trustworthiness data, i.e., the data is not changed by unauthorized entities. Consider a banking transaction where 1000$ is transferred from one account to another. The identity of sender and customer may be known to those who are processing this transaction. So, confidentiality is not a concern. Yet, the fact that the 1000$ amount should be transferred fully and correctly is the upmost concern and should be addressed via integrity.
\nIn a network setting, integrity is achieved by implementing a hash algorithm on data to be transmitted. A hash algorithm H is an encoding function that takes an input (plaintext) P of any size to yield an output D (digest) of fixed size as seen in Eq. (7):
\nImplementing a hash algorithm on input data generates a message digest, which is then transmitted to the receiver along with the plaintext. It should be noted that for a cryptographic system where integrity is the only concern, confidentiality is disregarded and plaintext can be sent in the clear. Having received the plaintext, the receiver applies the same hash function (that should have been agreed upon beforehand) on the plaintext and compares the computed digest with what has been received. If they match, it means that the integrity of data has remained intact. Otherwise the data has been compromised in transit.
\nIn order for hash function to perform properly, it should have all two of the following properties:
One-way property: given a digest \n
Weak collision property: for two different plaintexts as
Several hash functions having strong hash properties exist to provide integrity of data. Examples of such functions are SHA [7], MD5 [8], etc.
\nFor confidentiality to provide secrecy, and for integrity to provide trustworthiness of data, availability of this data should be guaranteed first. In network security context, availability is concerned about the entities being available at all times throughout communication. Those entities are information pertaining to the sender and receiver, the data itself that is being sent, and the metadata that is uniquely identifying the data under operation.
\nAttacks targeting fields of network protocol headers (IP, TCP, MAC headers) may disrupt availability. Denial of service (DoS) is a common type of network security attack that exploits the three-way handshake protocol between a sender and a receiver. Ideally, the three-way handshake should start by step 1 where the sender sends the TCP header with SYN flag field set along with a sender sequence number. Upon receipt of this request, in step 2 the receiver—if available—informs its availability by sending back the TCP header with ACK flag field set, the sender sequence number + 1, and the receiver sequence number to the sender. Finally, in step 3, the sender sends the TCP header with ACK field set, sender sequence number + 1, and the receiver sequence number + 1. Only then the actual communication can start.
\nWhen the three-way handshake is compromised, a rogue sender bombards a victim receiver by sending him too many “half-open” connections, i.e., step 1 of the three-way handshake protocol with SYN flag fields set in each with a different sender sequence number. The victim receiver tries to respond to each SYN request by sending back an ACK + SYN response addressing each independent sender sequence number, but as the rogue sender deliberately never sends back an ACK response to these responses, the victim gets overwhelmed shortly as its half-open connection buffer overflows. The solution to DoS attack is to limit and advertise the buffer size for each entity in the network.
\nOther examples of network attacks targeting availability can be listed as SYN guessing, IP spoofing (by impersonating a legitimate entity), covert channels (by embedding secret data on unused fields of network protocol headers), messing up fragmentation of packages so that they will not defragment correctly in the receiving entity, etc.
\nA common protection against availability attacks is to use firewalls. They protect systems from outside entities by enforcing strict rules only to allow packets with particular properties (IP number, port number field, etc.).
\nAuthentication focuses on whether the originator of data really is who he claims to be. It is directly associated with trustworthiness, which makes it closely related to integrity. In other words, authentication is origin integrity.
\nTo provide authentication in network systems, digital signature is used. Digital signature is an encoding function that is similar to a hash function, with the additional property of having a key. The key should belong to the originator, as an evidence for proving his identity. A hash function with a key is called message authentication code (MAC). Several MAC algorithms exist, HMAC [9] being the most popular.
\nIn a digital signature scheme, asymmetric encryption is used, where encoding and decoding are named as signing and verifying, respectively. Eqs. (8) and (9) list the signing and verifying algorithms for digital signature.
\nElGamal algorithm is a commonly used digital signature scheme. It provides varying levels of authentication based on the choice of key size.
\nThe concentration on computer security is on secrecy and privacy of data during processing. Therefore, those security tools and mechanisms introduced for network security also apply to computer security. In particular the following three security services are needed to deliver a comprehensive security service while processing data:
Cryptography to help with confidentiality
Hash functions to provide integrity
Digital signatures to help with providing authentication
Take, as an example, a banking transaction in which 1.5% interest is added to customer’s bank account. It is very important that identity of this account holder should be kept confidential. So, an encryption tool should be incorporated to provide confidentiality. Moreover, the balance amount should remain intact throughout transaction (except when the resulting balance is calculated), and this requirement can be met via hash algorithms. Furthermore, the system should assure at all times that the transaction belongs to the actual owner of the account, but no other account holder. So, a digital signature scheme should also be employed to prevent repudiation, hence to provide authentication.
\nAs being one of the probable states information can reside in, storing data usually involves one of two media: database or cloud.
\nWhen data is stored on a database, the security measures that should be considered comprise of the following:
Encrypting the data stored so as to provide confidentiality.
Compressing data so as to occupy less space—additionally, compression offers augmented security as it shuffles data. A large selection of compression algorithms is available. The choice on which algorithm to choose depends on data type (for text data, a lossless compression algorithm should be utilized, while for image files, voice and video lossy compression can be tolerated), space requirements, speed, and compression rate (how much the compression algorithm reduces the input size).
Prevent against SQL injection attack so that input forms for data entry cannot be exploited to potentially damaging SQL instructions. As an example, if a database system is vulnerable against SQL injection attack, an attacker can “inject” a rogue statement (such as dropping a database table) to execute, immediately following a biased statement (e.g., as simple as “1 = 1”) that will always yield true. A suggested method to prevent against SQL injection attack is to use data sanitization (so that data entry will not allow some characters such as apostrophe, etc.), or using stored procedures to execute instructions, rather than exposing forms for easy injection. There exist several forms of SQL injection, and cross-site scripting (XSS) is one of them.
Secure the database physically so that data can be protected against access from unintended third parties.
Based on NIST’s cloud security definition [10], cloud provides one of the three fundamental services:
Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) allows subscribers to execute any application and OS on the hardware and resources (abstracted via hypervisors) made available by the cloud. Some examples of IaaS type are Amazon Web Services (AWS), Google Compute Engine (GCE), Microsoft Azure, Rackspace, and Cisco Metapod.
Platform as a service (PaaS) allows subscribers to create their custom applications on the cloud. The cloud makes itself available to its customers by providing tools such as a DBMS, OS, system software, and applications. The examples of PaaS type can be listed as Apache Stratos, Windows Azure, OpenShift, Heroku, Google App Engine, and AWS Elastic Beanstalk.
Software as a service (SaaS) subscribers sign a service agreement for this service to execute cloud-owned online applications. Some common examples of SaaS type of cloud service are listed as follows: GoToMeeting, Salesforce, Dropbox, Cisco WebEx, Google Apps, and Concur.
Regardless of the type of service cloud provides, security of the cloud should consider boundary security that builds itself on the layered architecture of hypervisors. Moreover, hardware boundary and abstraction boundary definitions are protections should be offered regarding whether the cloud itself is private or public.
\nIt is dramatically important for cloud to isolate individual customers’ data so that they will not interfere with other customers’ data. So, anonymity is a primary concern. A straightforward technique to provide anonymity is by incorporating encryption.
\nMoreover, it should be computationally infeasible to extract summary data that will bring together multiple subscribers’ data pool, as this may lead to unfair and unethical advantage. As an example, personal healthcare data stored for multiple healthcare providers should not be analyzed easily to extract a conclusion that persons inhabiting in a particular region are more prone to a particular disease as this may cause people from this region be charged higher by insurance companies.
\nThough security measures are classified and analyzed separately, due to the complex nature of information systems, handling information most of the time involves multiple aspects of security at the same time. For this reason, complex information security systems have been developed and are widely used. Some examples of such systems are Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) [11] for data encryption, integrity, and authentication, Kerberos for secure key distribution, and many more [12].
\nThis section introduces the three fundamental states of information, namely, information in transit, information in process, and information in storage, and then discusses the security measures pertaining to each state of information. In particular, network security methods to provide security of information in transit, computer security methods to provide security of information in process, and database/cloud security to provide security of information in storage are introduced and discussed in detail.
\nAs the computer technology evolves in rapid speed, security measures will be extended by either improving the existing algorithms or adding more algorithms to the suit.
\n"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. 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Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. Nartsissov"},{id:"80821",title:"Neuroimmunology and Neurological Manifestations of COVID-19",slug:"neuroimmunology-and-neurological-manifestations-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:41,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103026",abstract:"Infection with SARS-CoV-2 is causing coronavirus disease in 2019 (COVID-19). Besides respiratory symptoms due to an attack on the broncho-alveolar system, COVID-19, among others, can be accompanied by neurological symptoms because of the affection of the nervous system. These can be caused by intrusion by SARS-CoV-2 of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS) and direct infection of local cells. In addition, neurological deterioration mediated by molecular mimicry to virus antigens or bystander activation in the context of immunological anti-virus defense can lead to tissue damage in the CNS and PNS. In addition, cytokine storm caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection in COVID-19 can lead to nervous system related symptoms. Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. There are symptomatic or/and curative therapeutic approaches to combat COVID-19 related nervous system damage that are partly still under study.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Robert Weissert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:99,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:290,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11404,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11405,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:17,paginationItems:[{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness"},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR"},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",scope:"Evolutionary computing is a paradigm that has grown dramatically in recent years. This group of bio-inspired metaheuristics solves multiple optimization problems by applying the metaphor of natural selection. It so far has solved problems such as resource allocation, routing, schedule planning, and engineering design. Moreover, in the field of machine learning, evolutionary computation has carved out a significant niche both in the generation of learning models and in the automatic design and optimization of hyperparameters in deep learning models. This collection aims to include quality volumes on various topics related to evolutionary algorithms and, alternatively, other metaheuristics of interest inspired by nature. For example, some of the issues of interest could be the following: Advances in evolutionary computation (Genetic algorithms, Genetic programming, Bio-inspired metaheuristics, Hybrid metaheuristics, Parallel ECs); Applications of evolutionary algorithms (Machine learning and Data Mining with EAs, Search-Based Software Engineering, Scheduling, and Planning Applications, Smart Transport Applications, Applications to Games, Image Analysis, Signal Processing and Pattern Recognition, Applications to Sustainability).",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",keywords:"Genetic Algorithms, Genetic Programming, Evolutionary Programming, Evolution Strategies, Hybrid Algorithms, Bioinspired Metaheuristics, Ant Colony Optimization, Evolutionary Learning, Hyperparameter Optimization"},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:{title:"Artificial Intelligence",id:"14"},selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",annualVolume:11966,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"