Echolocation calls for 11 species recorded from Jordan.
\r\n\t
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Classification of trypanosomes. Source: Baral [
The life cycle of
The general view of the life cycle of
Life cycle of
Metacyclic parasite forms express a set of surface glycoproteins that interact with mammalian cells [13, 14]. One of the glycoproteins, a metacyclic-stage-specific 82-kDa glycoprotein (gp82), has been implicated in host cell invasion [15]. The gp82 glycoprotein is an adhesion molecule that binds to host cells in a receptor-mediated manner and triggers Ca2+ mobilization [16] which is essential for parasite penetration [17, 18, 19, 20]. The gp82 also induces the activation of metacyclic trypomastigote protein tyrosine kinase [21] and an increase in the parasite intracellular Ca2+ concentration [22]. Other glycoproteins which are expressed in bloodstream or tissue-culture derived trypomastigotes and which are implicated in mammalian cell adhesion/invasion are gp83 [23], gp85 [24], and Tc-85 [25]. The gp83 has been reported to signal through the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway to up regulate
Metacyclogenesis is the fundamental step in the life cycle of
Description of metacyclogenesis can be in two parts, the first leading to the second. Firstly, the trypanosome senses loss of sugars from its environment and responds by elongating its cell body and flagellum and by activating its mitochondrion which leads to the lengthening of the trypanosome flagellar membrane that is rich in sterol and more hydrophobic than the somatic membrane. Secondly, the lengthening of the flagellar permits the trypanosomes to adhere to a hydrophobic surface and it is this interaction that triggers metacyclogenesis. This trigger for metacyclogenesis is cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) mediated.
\nCyclic AMP plays an important role in the control of lower eukaryotes differentiation [30, 31, 32]. The relative amounts of cyclic AMP can change according to the surrounding environment, enabling the organisms to adapt quickly to new conditions. The differential balance of cAMP may result in activation of protein kinases [33, 34], transcription of specific genes [35, 36, 37] and changes in the cytoskeleton structure [38], which ultimately lead to morphogenetic cell alterations. Cyclic AMP balance could vary as a response to a changing environment leading to differential gene expression and morphological changes allowing the parasite to go through its life cycle. Calmodulin is known to play a direct role in controlling the levels of cAMP in eukaryotic cells [39] and in the case of
The
Developmental stages of
Membrane proteins play an important role in the biology of
The second mucin protein family TcSMUG family is divided into two groups: TcSMUG S (small) and TcSMUG L (large) according to their encoded mRNA size [58, 62] and encodes for very small open reading frame containing a putative signal peptide at the N-terminus and a GPI-anchor signal in the C-terminus. The TcSMUG S group is found in the epimastigote and metacyclic trypomastigote forms and encodes for 35–50 kDa mucins N-glycosylated (Gp35/50 mucins) and they are the major acceptors of sialic acid on the parasite surface by parasite trans-sialidases in
The trans-sialidases (TS) protein family of
The TS I comprises of proteins with trans-sialidase (TS) and/or neuraminidase activities [74]. Neuraminidase activity occurs when nonsuitable acceptor molecules for sialic acid are present and then sialic acid is transferred to water [75]. Neuraminidase activity is involved in the removal of sialic acid from parasites and/or host-cell molecules which is required for parasite internalization [76]. The TS I members incudes: TCNA (neuraminidase), SAPA (shed acute-phase antigen), and TS-epi. SAPA and TCNA proteins are closely related with 84% homology at the amino acid level and have active trans-sialidase and neuraminidase activities and are expressed during bloodstream trypomastigote stage [77]. SAPA and TCNA have two main regions: an N-terminal catalytic region and a C terminal extension, which repeats 12 amino acids (SAPA repeats) in tandem with the consensus sequence. SAPA has only 14 tandem repeats compared to 44 for TCNA and the presence of SAPA repeats increases the half-life of the protein in the blood [78]. Both proteins are attached by glycosylphosphatidylinositol to the parasite plasma membrane and can be found in the serum of deeply infected mammals.
\nTS-epi, the third member of group TS I is an active trans-sialidase expressed in the insect dwelling epimastigote form at the stationary phase and is different from the trans-sialidase expressed of the blood trypomastigotes. Unlike other members of the group, TS-epi lacks SAPA repeats and is not attached to the membrane by glycosylphosphatidylinositol.
\nMembers of TS group II includes: ASP-1, ASP-2, TSA-1, Tc85, SA85, GP82, and GP90 and they all have been implicated in host-cell attachment and invasion. ASP-1, ASP-2 (both are amastigote surface proteins) and TSA-1 (trypomastigote surface antigen) are targets of
TS Group III which is formed by surface proteins present in mammal bloodstream trypomastigotes includes: complement regulatory protein (CRP), surface flagellar protein (FL-160), chronic exoantigen (CEA), and trypomastigote excretory-secretory antigens (TESA) [79]. These surface proteins are recognized by sera from patients infected with Chagas’ disease and they are able to inhibit the classical and the alternative pathways of complement activation, which could be a protection from lysis by the host in the trypomastigote form [80, 81]. TESA is distributed on the cell surface membrane of
The TS Group IV is included in the trans-sialidase superfamily because it contains the conserved motif VTVxNVxLYNR, which is shared by all known TS members and is composed of genes encoding trypomastigote surface antigens whose biological function is still unknown [84, 85]. The TsTc13 protein, a member of TS Group IV has been shown to be highly antigenic and is present in the infective metacyclic trypomastigote form [86].
\nThis protein is expressed by trypanosomes and
The amastin family which is a group of transmembrane glycoproteins consists of small proteins of about 180 amino acids. The genome of
The TcTASV protein family is conserved among all the
The MASP family is characterized by having highly conserved N and C-terminal domains and a variable and repetitive central region, with a maximum expression in the human infective stages of the parasite. MASP are expressed simultaneously in bloodstream trypomastigotes as well as in amastigotes and epimastigotes and MASP molecules are the most abundant antigens found on the surface of the infective trypomastigote stage of
This glycoprotein is synthesized as a zymogen that is activated by cleavage of the N-terminal pro-domain to generate the mature protease and belongs to the mammalian papain superfamily but contains, as other cysteine proteases (CPs) from trypanosomatids, an unusual C-terminal extension. Cruzipain family has many groups which include: native-cruzipain (N-cruzipain), recombinant-cruzipain 1 (R-cruzipain 1) and recombinant cruzipain 2 (R-cruzipain 2). Cruzipains are expressed on all the body surface of epimastigotes and amastigotes forms while in the trypomastigote form, cruzipain is expressed only in the flagellar pocket region. Cruzipain plays a role in the process of
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) typically consist of a lipid bilayer membrane containing integral membrane proteins and a luminal cavity that is loaded with a variety of soluble proteins and nucleic acids.
Immune cells are one of the main targets of extracellular vesicles. Extracellular vesicles secreted during acute and/or chronic
The life cycle of
Trypanosomatids can use either glucose or amino acids as main carbon and energy source, although one cannot rule out the use of fatty acids as well. Amino acids, especially l-proline and l-glutamine which are abundant in the hemolymph and tissue fluids of the blood sucking vector are the main source of carbon and energy in the insect stages. l-Proline seems to be involved in several mechanisms of resistance to oxidative, nutritional and thermal stress and is important in metacyclogenesis for the differentiation of intracellular epimastigotes to trypomastigotes in
Amino acids are crucial nutrients during the
As a result of changing environments during the life cycle,
Cellular differentiation is controlled at multiple levels including, for most eukaryotic cells, initiation of gene transcription. The discriminatory mechanisms for the initiation of transcription at individual loci is largely absent in trypanosomatids and most protein-coding genes lack promoters and are transcribed as long polycistronic units that are processed into individual mRNAs. Consequently, trypanosomes rely on post-transcriptional processes such as translational efficiency, mRNA stability and post-translational modification to coordinate developmental transitions and other adaptive responses encountered throughout their complex life cycles.
\nIn eukaryotes, protein-coding genes are transcribed into monocistronic pre-mRNA transcripts containing coding sequences (exons) and non-coding sequences (introns) that are processed into mature mRNAs through
Granules of mRNA such as processing bodies (P bodies) and stress granules (SGs) are involved in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. P bodies are constitutively present in the cell and can grow in size and number when cells are perturbed while SGs only arise under cellular stress. P bodies contain mRNA and proteins involved in translational repression, mRNA decapping, 5′ → 3′ mRNA decay, nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) and the miRNA (microRNA) pathway. P bodies were initially thought to be the place where mRNA was recruited to be degraded and recently, a function as mRNA storage depots has been assigned to P bodies. By contrast, SGs are stalled 43S translation pre-initiation complexes, mainly composed of mRNA, translation initiation factors and 40S ribosomal proteins. SGs are thought to function as mRNA triage centers during stress.
\nI have no conflict of interest to declare.
\nJordan is situated at a crossroad between three continents and with diverse habitats (Mediterranean, Saharo-Arabian, Irano-Turanian, and Afro-tropical). Although Jordan is a small country, the bat fauna is diverse with 26 species representing nine families. Within the past four decades, our knowledge of the bats of Jordan expanded significantly, adding new records [1, 2, 3], distributional data [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12], ectoparasites [13], karyotypic studies [14, 15], activity patterns [16], and conservation [17]. Yet, these studies also pointed out a significant shortage in our knowledge especially about the ecology and conservation of the bat fauna of this country. Benda et al. [18] published the most comprehensive and up-to-date manuscript on the bats of Jordan, including distributional data, ecology, echolocation, ectoparasites, and zoogeographical analysis.
This summary on the bats of Jordan is based on cumulative research and field observation since 1978. Over the past four decades, the senior author was involved in numerous studies on various aspects of the mammalian fauna of Jordan, including bats. As a result, several additional records of the bat fauna were added, and further knowledge on habitat preference and threats affecting bats in Jordan was gained. As a developed country, Jordan witnessed accelerated changes in its natural setting (water resources, agricultural practices, urination, mining, etc.), which, in turn, affected the well-being of several species of animals, including bats.
Jordan is influenced by four major biogeographic regions (Figure 1). Vegetation cover, soil texture, altitude, and annual rainfall are among the major factors that shaped these biogeographic regions. Several types of habitats are present in Jordan, ranging from extreme desertic to mild-forested Mediterranean (Figure 2). It was agreed on the delineation of these four regions based on vegetation cover as well as animal distribution in Jordan [19, 20].
The biogeographic regions of Jordan (modified after Al-Eisawi [
Habitat types: (A, B) Temperate Mediterranean habitat with an abundance of evergreen oak (
This area is represented by mountain ranges extending from Irbid in the north near to the south around Ra’s Al Naqb. This region is characterized by the presence of several types of forests (The Phoenicean juniper,
This area surrounds the Mediterranean region from the west and the east. It extends to the Syrian Desert to the northeast. Few scattered trees can be observed, mainly
This ecozone extends from southern Jordan near Aqaba Gulf along Wadi Araba reaching the southern part of the Jordan Valley near Dayr Alla northward. It also extends to southeastern Jordan near Wadi Ram, the largest sandstone mountain formation and granite mountains to the east. Altitudes range from 400 m bls around the Dead Sea area to as high as 1734 m asl for Jabal Ram mountain. Precipitation is of less than 50 mm annually. Two species of Acacia occur in this region in varying densities,
This region constitutes the largest biogeographical region, covering about 70% of Jordan. It spreads to the east bordering the Irano-Turanian region from the west and the Sudanian Penetration region from the southwest.
The bat fauna of Jordan consists of 26 bat species belonging to nine families (Emballonuridae, Hipposideridae, Pteropodidae, Miniopteridae, Molossidae, Nycteridae, Rhinolophidae, Rhinopomatidae, and Vespertilionidae). Figure 3 shows some representative species.
(A) The lesser mouse-tailed bat,
This family of fruit bats includes a single species, the Egyptian fruit bat,
This family is represented by two species, the greater rat-tailed bat,
This family includes six species inhabiting a variety of habitats. Geoffroy’s horseshoe bat,
The tomb bat,
The trident leaf-nosed bat,
The European free-tailed bat,
The Egyptian slit-faced bat,
This is the most diverse family in Jordan and is presented by seven genera (
The Asian barbastelle,
Christie’s big-eared bat,
Kuhl’s pipistrelle,
The lesser mouse-eared bat,
Bat echolocation calls for 11 bat species from Jordan are documented. Figure 4 and Table 1 show recorded calls and durations and frequency variables using Song meter from different localities.
Representative echolocation calls for 11 species from Jordan.
Species | No. of calls | D [ms] | SF [kHz] | EF [kHz] | PF [kHz] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
116 | 28.7 ± 12.3 | 85.8 ± 1.7 | 85.9 ± 1.7 | 86.2 ± 0.8 | |
7 | 23.4 ± 15.2 | 105.3 ± 0.9 | 98.5 ± 7.4 | 105.8 ± 0.5 | |
107 | 42 ± 10.5 | 75.7 ± 4 | 77.9 ± 6.5 | 82.2 ± 0.5 | |
145 | 29.8 ± 13 | 107 ± 4.8 | 107 ± 5.1 | 111 ± 1.39 | |
14 | 3.6 ± 2.25 | 35.2 ± 1.9 | 28.94 ± 0.9 | 31.2 ± 0.85 | |
103 | 8.7 ± 3.3 | 115 ± 2 | 109 ± 6.2 | 116 ± 2 | |
105 | 5.6 ± 2 | 38.1 ± 4 | 30.8 ± 1 | 32.6 ± 1.2 | |
76 | 5.53 ± 1.57 | 50.5 ± 6.3 | 39.3 ± 2.2 | 40.4 ± 2.2 | |
130 | 5 ± 2 | 51.7 ± 5 | 47.9 ± 2.6 | 48.4 ± 2.4 | |
7 | 2.3 ± 0.9 | 46.8 ± 3.5 | 37.2 ± 3.5 | 41.8 ± 3 | |
26 | 66 ± 1.02 | 20.2 ± 2.3 | 15.06 ± 0.12 | 15.2 ± 0.5 |
Echolocation calls for 11 species recorded from Jordan.
D, call duration; SF, start frequency; EF, end frequency; PF, peak frequency.
Species of the genus
All of the calls are within the range of previous studies in the Middle East [21, 22, 23]. Table 2 lists frequencies for bats recorded from the Negev desert on the opposite side of Jordan. It clearly shows that calls reported in our study are similar for most species.
Cave | Type | Number of bat species recorded | Species observed | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Al Hamma | Karstic | 1 | [7, 18] | |
Al Majdal | Karstic | 2 | [11] | |
Al Wardeh | 5 | [18] | ||
Al-Mahhatta | Pressure ridge | 1 | [1] | |
Ar Raddass | 1 | [18] | ||
Arjan | 2 | [18] | ||
Bir Hamma cave | Lava | 1 | [18] | |
Dhana village caves | Sandstone | 2 | [18] | |
Dibbin Forest caves | 4 | [1, 11, 14, 18] | ||
Iraq Al Amir | Artificial | 6 | [18] | |
Iraq Al Wahaj | Karstic | 6 | [18] | |
Jabal Al Bayda | Sandstone | 2 | [18] | |
Jesus’ cave | 1 | [18] | ||
Lot’s cave | 1 | [18] | ||
Mahjub cave | Sandstone | 3 | [18] | |
Malka cave | Artificial | 1 | [18] | |
Mgharet Issa | 1 | [18] | ||
Mogharet Al-Roum Cave | 1 | [1] | ||
Mukawir | 1 | [18] | ||
Qaraiqira cave | 1 | [11] | ||
Tabaqat Fahl | Artificial | 5 | [14, 18] | |
Umm Al Iraq | 1 | [18] | ||
Wadi Al Hasa | 1 | [18] | ||
Wadi Ben Hammad | Limestone | 1 | [20] | |
Wadi Dhana | Sandstone | 1 | [18] | |
Wadi Dharih | Karstic | 1 | [18] | |
Wadi Shu’ayb | 1 | [18] | ||
Zubiya | Karstic | 6 | [18] |
Important bat caves with recorded species.
A total of 142 caves and dwelling areas suitable for bats have been mapped (Figure 5). Caves are classified, as lava tunnel, pressure ridge, artificial, limestone, karstic, and sandstone caves. Most of the caves are located along the mountainous ridge extending from the north to the south on the western side of the country. Other sites include historical castles, mine-shafts, man-made tunnels, and rock crevices.
Map of Jordan showing caves and other suitable bat-dwelling areas.
Based on previous studies over the past 30 years, the bat faunae for 28 caves are summarized in Table 2. The number of bat species per cave ranged from six to one, whereas Al Wardeh, Iraq Al Amir, Iraq Al Wahaj, and Zubiya caves harbored six species. It seems that cave size is related to the number of bat species recorded; Zubiya, Al Wardeh, Dibbin Forest caves, and Iraq Al Wahaj are large caves extending over 300–500 m, while smaller caves usually are inhabited by a single bat species (Table 2). Other bat species such as
Some caves in northern Jordan. (A) Arjan cave entrance. (B) Arjan cave from inside. (C) Zubiya cave entrance after development. (D) Zubiya cave from inside. (E) Iraq Al Wahaj cave entrance. (F) Iraq Al Wahaj cave from inside.
Our current projects on the bats of Jordan are to study the bat fauna associated with caves and identify threats that can affect bat populations. On the other hand, a campaign to protect bat important cave areas through legislative authorities is among high-priority issues.
Eid et al. [24] compiled the national red list for the mammals of Jordan. Of the 26 bat’s species, one, nine, and three species were listed as critically endangered, endangered, and near threatened, respectively (Table 3). At the global level,
Species | Common name | National IUCN status | Global IURCN status |
---|---|---|---|
Mehely’s horseshoe bat | CR | VU | |
Mediterranean horseshoe bat | EN | NT | |
Greater horseshoe bat | EN | LC | |
Greater mouse-tailed bat | EN | LC | |
Egyptian tomb bat | EN | LC | |
Naked-rumped tomb bat | EN | LC | |
Egyptian slit-faced bat | EN | LC | |
Pale bent-wing bat | EN | LC | |
Lesser mouse-eared bat | EN | LC | |
Geoffroy’s bat | EN | LC | |
Trident leaf-nosed bat | VU | LC | |
Egyptian fruit bat | NT | LC | |
Lesser horseshoe bat | NT | LC | |
Asian barbastelle | NT | LC | |
Long-fingered bat | DD | VU | |
Blasius’s horseshoe bat | LC | LC | |
Geoffroy’s horseshoe bat | LC | LC | |
Egyptian mouse-tailed bat | LC | LC | |
European free-tailed bat | LC | LC | |
Botta’s serotine | LC | LC | |
Desert pipistrelle | LC | DD | |
Natterer’s bat | LC | LC | |
Desert long-eared bat | LC | LC | |
Kuhl’s pipistrelle | LC | LC | |
Common pipistrelle | LC | LC | |
Christie’s big-eared bat | LC | DD |
Conservation status of bats in Jordan according to the global and national IUCN red lists.
DD, data deficient; CR, critically endangered; EN, endangered; LC, least concern; NT, near threatened; VU, vulnerable.
Jordan is a member of several conventions, treaties, and agreements related to the provide protection for wildlife (Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Treaty of Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Convention on the Protection of Marine Pollution by Preventing the Disposal of Waste and other Materials, RAMSAR, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification). Several national laws have been enacted at the national level. In addition, the Agriculture Law No. 13 of 2015 addresses to a large extent Jordan obligations related to the protection of wildlife under these conventions [20].
Regulation No. Z/2 for the year 2021 regulates wildlife protection, hunting, and trade. This bylaw was issued in accordance with article No. 56, of the Agriculture Law No (13) for the year 2015. Bylaw No. 43 for the year 2008 categorized mammals and other wildlife banned from hunting according to its level of protection (Table 4). This bylaw was issued in accordance with article No. 56, paragraph (H) of the Agriculture Law No (13) for the year 2015. In addition, Regulation No (Z/2) for the year 2021 includes instructions of regulating the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora under Article (56) of the Agriculture Law No (13) for the year 2015 [20].
Common name | Scientific name |
---|---|
Egyptian Fruit Bat | |
Long-fingered Bat | |
Natterer’s Bat |
Bats listed in appendix III of bylaw no. 43 for the year 2008.
Over the past 70 years, the population of Jordan increased 17-folds during reaching 10,320,000 by 2021. A great burden on the natural and wild habitats due to this accelerated population increase became evident with the expansion of cities, towns, and villages. Construction style using cement was by far the most important factor that affected bat populations. Previously, old houses were built using mud, wood, or stone, creating suitable habitat for bat roosting. Many of these old houses are by now demolished and replaced by modern buildings [17]. Al Mahatta cave in Amman that used to harbor a population of the Egyptian Fruit Bat is by now void of bats due to housing projects that changed its integrity.
Noise and light pollution and heavy traffic disturbed many bats populations that are sensitive to human activity. One of the most evident examples of the disturbance that affected bat habitats is the disappearance of a healthy population of
Tourism and outdoor activities in wild habitats (e.g., Dibbin Forests, Wadi Ram, and Zubiya) have a direct impact on the roosting populations of bat species living in such habitats. For example, large colonies of
The Egyptian Fruit Bat populations declined or disappeared from several sites where it used to be in abundance. Al Hemma cave is a classic example, where it used to harbor thousands of bats [7]. By now, only a few hundreds of the fruit bats were present and continued to decline. Also, the population of the Egyptian Fruit Bat in Wadi ben Hammad is declining due to extensive tourism activities within the vicinity of this site. The Zubiya cave, one of the largest karstic caves in Jordan, whereas seven bat species were previously recorded (
Recently, many caves were turned into restaurants and coffee shops. This was observed in Asef cave where it was remodeled as a recreation site, and all bats were exterminated (Figure 7A).
Cave destruction in Jordan. (A) Asef cave remodeled as a recreation site. (B) Arjan cave with evidence of fire to be used as an animal barn. (C) Al Wardeh cave before mining activities in 2017. (D) Al Wardeh cave after mining activities in 2020.
In recent years, mining for extraction minerals for the cement industry and rocks for buildings expanded in many parts of the country. This in turn brought many bat populations to their demise. For example, Al Wardeh cave located near Ajlun was inhabited by large colonies of
Another cave used to harbor a significant population of over 500 individuals of
In the past decade, windmills projects increased to reach up to six operational sites mostly in the southwestern part of the country, with a total of 151 turbines (Figure 8). Cumulative effect assessment was developed for Al Tafilah site to help in determining bat species that are at the highest risk and to identify potential mitigations and monitoring measures that should be considered by investors [26]. Eight species of bats were identified of major or moderate risk ratings (Table 5).
Location of wind farms in southern Jordan.
Species | Species sensitivity | Eurobats level of collision risk | Likelihood of effect score | Risk rating |
---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Unknown | Low | Minor | |
Medium | Low | Negligible | Negligible | |
High | Low | Negligible | Minor | |
Low | Unknown | Low | Minor | |
Low | Medium | Medium | Minor | |
Medium | High | High | Major | |
Medium | Low | Negligible | Minor | |
Low | Unknown | Low | Negligible |
Species sensitivity, levels of collision risk, and risk rating for Wind Power Projects.
Source: IFC [26].
Carcasses of bats are surveyed on a monthly basis in the operational sites. We are aware of bat mortality in these sites; however, data remain undisclosed for the meantime.
Bat blood is prescribed for female infants so no hair will grow under their armpits [27]. Fresh bat’s blood is applied to the newborn body. This belief was adopted from the Roman culture and remained practiced by the local people in many parts of the Middle East that were under the Roman Empire, but is not practiced on a large scale.
Search for red mercury became a threat to bats in Jordan in the past 10 years. Many locals strongly believed that red mercury can be found in bat’s nests. Caves and colonies in many parts of the country were disturbed in pursue of the red mercury to sell it at a high price. A campaign to educate the public that bats do not form nests through all forms of public media was undertaken.
Scattered caves in the country have been used as sheep or goat’s barns. Caves were sat on fire first to remove all kinds of wild animals such as snakes, scorpions, birds, and bats. This practice was observed in the caves of Jarash and Ajlun mountains (Figure 7B).
Since the emergence of the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in Jordan in 2012 [28], health authorities and research institutes collected blood samples from the Egyptian fruit bat,
Although human rabies is considered very rare in Jordan, six isolates of rabies were found in wild animals (badger and squirrel) and domestic animals (cow, dog, donkey, and goat) [31]. No information is available on rabies caused by bats in Jordan. Further studies should evaluate the role of zoonotic infections that could be possibly transmitted by bats.
This study shed the light on the urgent need to conserve the bats of Jordan, taking into consideration the alarming decline in bat populations observed over the past decades affecting their natural habitats. Further studies on the ecological requirements and habitat selection for the bats of Jordan are needed. Such studies will provide baseline data to implement conservation strategies for each species. Other avenues of future research include identification, both quantitatively and qualitatively, the impacts of various man-made changes and threats to the existing bat population.
We would like to thank Qamar Almimi (RSCN) for map preparations. Also we thank Thabit Al Share, Sameh Khatatbeh, and Mohammad Al Zoubi (The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature) for their help in the field studies. This study was supported in part by the Deanship of Academic Research, Jordan University of Science & Technology.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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Simulation results in Matlab/Simulink and experimental results on a 150-W four-phase 8/6 SRM are used to validate the fault identification, and on a 750-W, three-phase 12/8 SRM are used to validate the fault tolerance operation of the proposed strategy, which may have significant implications for EV/HEV applications.",book:{id:"5079",slug:"new-applications-of-electric-drives",title:"New Applications of Electric Drives",fullTitle:"New Applications of Electric Drives"},signatures:"Yihua Hu, Chun Gan, Wenping Cao and Stephen Finney",authors:[{id:"174154",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenping",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"wenping-cao",fullName:"Wenping Cao"}]},{id:"49509",title:"Electric-driven Zonal Hydraulics in Non-Road Mobile Machinery",slug:"electric-driven-zonal-hydraulics-in-non-road-mobile-machinery",totalDownloads:2491,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The goal of this research is to apply direct-driven hydraulics (DDH) to the concept of zonal (i.e., locally and operation-focused) hydraulics, which is an essential step in the hybridization and automation of machines. 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It starts with the objectives, fundamentals, and current research issues of alternative fuel vehicles based electric drives, before moving on to new definitions of unified modeling of the entire electric drive system and design of the proposed DC active power filter aimed at energy storage system chaotic current elimination. Next, novel motor control strategies taking into account alternative fuel vehicle operations are presented for improvement of sensorless drive and flux weakening control performance. Finally, conclusions of this chapter are drawn.",book:{id:"5079",slug:"new-applications-of-electric-drives",title:"New Applications of Electric Drives",fullTitle:"New Applications of Electric Drives"},signatures:"Xi Zhang",authors:[{id:"176403",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Xi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"xi-zhang",fullName:"Xi Zhang"}]},{id:"49272",title:"Battery Management System for Electric Drive Vehicles – Modeling, State Estimation and Balancing",slug:"battery-management-system-for-electric-drive-vehicles-modeling-state-estimation-and-balancing",totalDownloads:3624,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Electric-drive vehicles (EDVs) have drawn more and more attention worldwide. As one of the most important parts of EDVs, battery management systems (BMSs) manage the huge amount of battery cells in EDVs and assures their safety. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. 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He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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