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",isbn:"978-1-80356-552-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-551-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-553-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"4c2e03f295fbc697350f0bf3bf89a14f",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Murat Eyvaz, Dr. Ahmed Albahnasawi, M.Sc. Ercan Gürbulak and MSc. Mesut Tekbaş",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11840.jpg",keywords:"Aridity and Drought, Precipitation and Evapotranspiration, Land Use, Human Activity, Desertification, Desert, Soil Structure, Water Treatment, Water Scarcity, Irrigated Agriculture, Remote Sensing, Climate Change",numberOfDownloads:47,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 11th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 10th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 28th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 27th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz has co-authored many journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He serves as an editor in 51 journals and a reviewer in 125 journals indexed in SCI, SCI-E, and other indexes. He has four patents on wastewater treatment systems. Dr. Eyvaz's research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, and filtration systems at the lab.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Albahnasawi is a pioneering researcher in environmental sciences and engineering, he has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers on water and wastewater treatment, and waste remediation. Recently, his research interests are the application and designing of Microbial Fuel Cell integrated with Fenton oxidation for industrial wastewater treatment/solid waste management and monitoring of organic micropollutants by both chromatographic and spectrophotometric analyses.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Gurbulak is a pioneering researcher in environmental sciences and engineering. He has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers on water and wastewater treatment, and advanced waste remediation technologies. His research interests are the application and designing of hydrothermal processes for industrial wastewater treatment/solid waste management and monitoring of organic micropollutants by both chromatographic and spectrophotometric analyses.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:"Dr. Tekbaş is a pioneering researcher in environmental sciences and engineering, he has co-authored numerous journal articles and conference papers on water and wastewater treatment, and advanced waste remediation technologies. His research interests are the application and designing of supercritical water oxidation processes for wastewater treatment/solid waste management and electrochemical analyses.",coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170083/images/system/170083.png",biography:"Dr. Murat Eyvaz is an associate professor in the Environmental Engineering Department, Gebze Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include applications in water and wastewater treatment facilities, electrochemical treatment processes, filtration systems at the lab and pilot-scale, membrane processes (forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, membrane bioreactors), membrane manufacturing methods (polymeric membranes, nanofiber membranes, electrospinning), spectrophotometric analyses (UV, atomic absorption spectrophotometry), chromatographic analyses (gas chromatography, high-pressure liquid chromatography). He has co-authored many journal articles and conference papers and has taken part in many national projects. He serves as an editor and reviewer for many indexed journals. 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Based on his Ph.D. research, Dr. Albahnasawi published three journal articles and participated in three international conferences. 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He received his bachelor’s degree in Environmental Engineering from Marmara University, Turkey, in 2005. He completed his MSc and Ph.D. at Gebze Technical University in 2008 and 2019, respectively. 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vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"70724",title:"Effects of Fire on Grassland Soils and Water: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90747",slug:"effects-of-fire-on-grassland-soils-and-water-a-review",body:'Fire is a dynamic ecosystem process, generally predictable but uncertain in its timing and occurrence on landscapes [1]. It is an integral component of most wildland forest ecosystems as well as wild and managed grasslands (Figure 1). It has been a factor in shaping plant communities for over 300 million years, as long as vegetation and lightning have existed on earth [2, 3, 4, 5]. Both managed and wild grasslands are susceptible to localized and widespread fires if climate conditions (drought and wind) are conducive to fire spread [6, 7]. Wildland fire covers a spectrum from low severity, prescribed and grassland fires, to landscape-level high severity wildfires that affect vegetation, soils, water, fauna, air, and cultural resources [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Knowledge of fire effects has risen in importance to land managers because fire, as a disturbance process, is an integral part of the concept of ecosystem management and restoration ecology. Fire is an intrusive disturbance in both managed and wildland forests and grasslands. It initiates changes in ecosystems that affect the composition, structure, and patterns of vegetation on the landscape. It also affects the soil and water resources of ecosystems that are critical to overall ecosystem functions and processes [1, 10].
Examples of grassland ecosystems: (a) Great Plains Comanche National Grasslands, Colorado (photo courtesy of the Pike and San Isabel National Forest), (b) Emory oak savanna, Coronado National Forest, Arizona, (photo by Daniel G. Neary, USDA Forest Service), (c) high altitude grassland, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest, Arizona, (photo by Daniel G. Neary, USDA Forest Service), (d) Australia farm, Victoria (photo by Daniel G. Neary, USDA Forest Service), (e) Valparaiso, Chile, watershed (photo by Daniel G. Neary, USDA Forest Service), (f) riparian grassland, Arizona (photo by Daniel G. Neary, USDA Forest Service).
Recycling of carbon (C) and nutrients depends on biological decomposition and fire. In regions where decay is constrained either by dry or cold climates or saturated conditions, fire plays a dominant role in recycling organic matter [1]. In warmer, moist climates, decay plays the dominant role in organic matter recycling, except in soils that are predominantly saturated. However, fires do cause hydrologic and physical changes in these soils [13]. Fire in grasslands affects mainly the aboveground components of vegetation and normally does little damage to the large underground reservoir of organic matter in Mollisols typically found in grassland ecosystems (Figure 2, [14]). These soils have typically 80–90% of their carbon pool below ground, away from most of the damaging effects of grassland fires.
Distribution of C and soil organic matter (including litter) in major ecosystem types of the world [
Soil is the earth’s layer of mineral and organic matter, unconsolidated at the interface between atmosphere and geosphere. It results from physico-chemical and biological processes operating simultaneously and over a long period of time on original geological material [15]. Soil is formed by continual interaction between the soil system and the biotic (faunal and floral), climatic (atmospheric and hydrologic), and topographic components of the environment [1]. Grassland soils are unique because of the herbaceous fine root turnover that contributes to the development of deep, organic matter rich, “A” horizons (Figure 3).
Mollisol soil typical of grasslands throughout the world. The notable feature is the organic-rich dark A1 and A2 horizons in the upper 10 to 30 cm formed by grass fine root decomposition and organic matter accumulation in weathered limestone. The deeper white and gold-colored horizon (Cr) is the weathered sedimentary parent material. (photo courtesy of the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service).
Soil is variously integrated to other ecosystem components. It provides plants with air, water, nutrients and also mechanical support for subsistence [10]. It also receives and filters rainfall. In this way, it somewhat defines the portion that evaporates on the surface and the portion that is stored belowground to be slowly drained from upstream slopes to the channels, as well as the portion retained and used for soil processes (e.g., sweating, leaching, etc.). As soon as the infiltration capacity of soil precipitation increases, organic and inorganic surface particles are eroded and end up as sediments, nutrients and pollutants in watercourses that affect water quality. An uninterrupted active movement of gas also occur within the soil and it atmosphere. Soil also provides a repository for many cultural artifacts, which can remain in the soil for thousands of years without undergoing appreciable change [16].
Fire can produce a wide range of changes in landscape appearance but the degree of change and duration in grasslands is usually much less than in forested ecosystems [1]. Grass recovery is usually so rapid that the occurrence of fire is masked within 1 year by rapid regrowth. The fire-induced changes coupled with burn intensities generate varied responses in the water, soil, flowers and fauna of burned ecosystems due to the co-variation between fire severity and ecosystem resonance. There are instantaneous and sustainable reactions to wildfires. Immediate effects result from the combustion of biomass and the release of chemicals in the ash created by fire. The response of biological elements (soil microorganisms and ecosystem vegetation) to these disruptions is both drastic and accelerated.
Fire also releases gas, particles and air pollutants through the combustion of biomass and soil organic matter (Figure 4). It thus affects air quality in large airsheds [9, 17]. The long-term fire effects on soils and water are usually subtle, can persist for years following the fire, or can be permanent [10]. Other long-term fire effects arise from the relationships between fire, soils, hydrology, nutrient cycling, and site productivity [18].
Wallow fire, Arizona, 2011 (photo courtesy of the USDA Forest Service, Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest).
Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to examine the effects of fire on natural and managed grassland ecosystems. Fire has been and continues to be an important disturbance in grassland evolution and management. Natural wildfires have been a component of grasslands for millions of years and were important in creating many of these grass and herbaceous ecosystems. Humans ignited fires over many millennia to improve habitat for animals and livestock. Prescribed fire is a component of modern grassland management. The incidence of wildfires in grasslands continues to grow as droughts persist in semi-arid regions of the world [19].
Grasslands collectively constitute the largest ecosystem in the world [20]. They make up 40.5% of the terrestrial land area, excluding Greenland and Antarctica. The areas of grass in the latter two ice-dominated land masses are minor in the global context. Grasslands are divided into woody savannahs and savannahs (13.8%), open and closed shrublands (12.7%), non woody grasslands (8.3%) and tundra (5.7%). The UNESCO definition of grasslands is “lands covered with herbaceous plants that are covered with <10% trees and shrubs”. Wooded grasslands typically have 10 to 40% tree and shrub cover [21].
Grasslands are not entirely natural because they have formed and developed under natural (e.g. fire, wild herbivore grazing) and anthropogenic pressures (e.g. prescribed and wildfire, livestock grazing, woody vegetation clearing, over-sowing with pasture grass, etc.) [20]. Grasslands are not considered to be natural if they have been subject to plowing and grass seeding. Their importance now is to the variety of ecosystem services that they provide: livestock grazing areas, water catchments, biodiversity reserves, tourism sites, recreation areas, religious sites, wild food sources, and natural medicine sources. An important function of grasslands is their sequestration and storage of C [22]. Grasslands are characterized by Mollisols, soils with deep organic matter horizons (Figure 3) [14]. This vegetation type is almost as important as forests for C fixation and storage. Grassland soils are organic matter sinks on the same order of magnitude as tree biomass.
A question that often arises in grassland management is: Are livestock grazing and burning compatible? Studies in Africa grasslands have demonstrated that fire (natural and prescribed) is often essential in grasslands for maintaining livestock forage in a state critical for herbivores [23]. The negative side of the combined practices is that the amounts of C sequestered in these ecosystems can be reduced.
Fire is typically used as a tool to kill undesirable brush, prevent invasions of poor native species or exotics, and increase forage production [24]. Prescribed burning is used especially on tall-grass prairies of the USA central Great Plains, but timing is important [25]. Cool season grass production can be decreased by spring burns. These early burns can increase summer forage in some species but reduce autumn productivity [26]. Late winter burns have been shown to initiate spring growth 2–3 weeks earlier [27]. Although wildfires have always been a constant part of the prairie fire regimes [6], wildfire numbers and area burned have surged in the 21st Century [28]. Wildfire numbers in the Great Plains of North America increased from 33.4 year−1 in 1985 to 116.8 year−1 in 2014. The total burned area grew by 400% over the same time period.
In grasslands of the Russian steppe, fire has been used as a tool for millennia to augment natural wildfire starts [29]. Some research has indicated that the treeless steppe is predominantly a result of fire, not soil conditions or climate [3]. Burning is done to remove dead vegetation from the previous year and dry the soil out quicker in the spring. Regrowth after spring fires in the Russian steppes has shown to be richer in nutrient content but lower in yield and cover with decreased soil moisture content [20].
The overall fire behavior in a particular type of cover or ecosystem during long successions is defined as the fire mode. This mode describes the typical severity of a fire. But it is recognized that on occasion, relatively severe fires also occur in one type of cover. For example, a stand renewal crown fire is common in forests with large fire-return intervals. The fire regime concept is useful for comparing the relative role of fire between ecosystems and for describing the degree of departure from historical conditions [30, 31]. The fire regime classification used here contains a discussion of the development of fire regime classifications based on fire characteristics and effects [32], combinations of factors including fire frequency, periodicity, intensity, size, pattern, season, and depth of burn, severity, and fire periodicity [10].
The fire modes presented in Table 1 are described below [10]:
Understory Fire: These fires are globally not lethal to the dominant canopy and do not significantly change the physiognomy of the predominant vegetation. At least 80% of the dominant vegetation prevails over fires. This mode applies to some types of fire-resistant forests and wooded formations, but also describes the fire regime for true savanna ecosystems (Figure 5).
Stand Replacement Fire: These fires are lethal to most trees, shrub, and grass stems. Greater than 80% of the aboveground dominant vegetation is either incinerated or dies as a result of fire, substantially changing the aboveground vegetative structure. This mode applies to fire-susceptible forests and woodlands, shrublands, and grasslands. In the case of the latter, recovery is very swift within 1 year as grasses sprout from prolific root systems.
Mixed Fire: The severity of fires varies between nonlethal understory and lethal stand replacement fires. The variation occurs in space or time. First, spatial variability occurs when fire severity varies, producing a spectrum from understory burning to stand replacement within an individual fire. The ultimate result is a fine pattern of vegetation patches. This type of fire regime commonly occurs in some ecosystems because of fluctuations in the fire environment [1, 33]. Complex landscapes facilitate alternating fire severity due to the moisture of the fuel and wind that varies spatially. Temporal change in fire severity results from alternation of individual low intensity, non-repetitive surface fires and long interval stand replacement fires. The result is a variable fire regime [33, 34]. Temporal variability also occurs when cool-moist climate cycles are followed by warm dry ones, leading to multiple decade changes in the role of fire [35].
Non-fire: In this regime, fire is not likely to occur. However, in rare instances fires do burn in these vegetation types. Although frequently very wet, swamps such as the Everglades in Florida, the Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia, and wet savannas in Brazil have “grassland” areas and have carried wildfires during droughts in the past [36].
Fire Regime Group | Frequency (years) | Severity | Severity and Effects | Fire Regime |
---|---|---|---|---|
I | 0-35 | Low | Understory Fire | 1 |
II | 0-35 | Stand Replacement | Stand Replacement | 2 |
III | 35-100 | Mixed | Mixed | 3 |
IV | 35-100+ | Stand Replacement | Stand Replacement | 2 |
V | >200 | Stand Replacement | Stand Replacement | 2 |
Non Fire | 4 |
Post-fire results in an Emory oak savanna in Southwest New Mexico, 2008. (photo courtesy of A. Kauffman, University of Arizona).
The effects of a specific fire can be described at the stand and community level [1, 33, 37]. The concept describing the ecological and physical effects of a type of fire is the severity. This term indicates the degree of modification and, by extension, the degree of change in ecosystem components. Fire affects both overhead and underground ecosystems components. Most of the effects are above ground level. This is particularly true in grassland fires (Figure 6). The degree of fire severity is also related to the vegetation type. For example, in grasslands the differences between prescribed fire and wildfire are normally small due to the lower fuel loads and short duration of burning. In forested environments, the magnitude of the effects of fire on water is much lower after a prescribed fire than after a wildfire because of the larger amount of fuel consumed in a wildfire and the heat generated [10]. Canopy-consuming wildfires would be expected to be of the most concern to land managers because of the loss of canopy coupled with the destruction of soil properties. These losses present the worst-case scenario in terms of watershed function impacts.
Wildfire in the Kiowa National Grassland, Cibola National Forest, New Mexico. (photo courtesy of the USDA Forest Service).
There is confusion in both the literature and media reports between the terms fire intensity and fire severity. Fire professionals trained in the United States and Canada in fire behavior prediction systems use the term fire intensity in a strict thermodynamic sense to describe the rate of energy released per unit length of fire line [38, 39]. Fire intensity is concerned mainly with the rate of aboveground fuel consumption and energy release rate [37]. The faster a given quantity of fuel burns, the greater the intensity and the shorter the duration [10]. Because the rate at which energy can be transmitted through the soil is limited by the soil’s thermal properties, the duration of burning is critically important to the effects on soils [40]. Fire intensity is not necessarily related to the total amount of energy produced during the burning process. Most energy released by flaming combustion of aboveground fuels is not transmitted downward. Only about 5% of the heat from a surface fire is transmitted to the soil [40]. Thus, fire intensity is not always an indicator for measuring the energy transmitted to the soil, nor the physico-chemical and biological changes of the latter. Thus, it is likely that a high intensity, high velocity grass fire would consume little surface litter due to the low energy that is dissipated to the ground during fuel combustion and discharged onto the litter [33]. Only about 5% of the heat released by a surface fire is transmitted into the ground [40]. Therefore, fire intensity is not necessarily a good measure of the amount of energy transmitted downward into the soil, or the associated changes that occur in physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. For example, it is possible that a high intensity and fast moving crown fire will consume little of the surface litter because only a small amount of the energy released during the combustion of fuels is transferred downward to the litter surface [33]. In this situation, the resulting surface litter is blackened (charred), but not consumed. Wind driven grassland wildfires will do the same for different reasons.
Because the actual energy released in a fire is not easily measured, the term fire intensity has limited practical application when evaluating ecosystem responses to fire. Fire severity is used more appropriately to indicate the effects of fire on the different ecosystem components [10, 32, 33]. Fire severity has been used describe the magnitude of negative fire impacts on natural ecosystems [41]. It can be seen in a post-fire environment in contrast to intensity which can only be estimated indirectly (Figure 7). A further extension of the concept to cover all fire phenomena has been suggested [1, 10]. In this case, severity is a measure of the disruption or damage extent to resources caused by a fire and does not always mean that the phenomenon has negative connotations. Thus, a less severe fire can restore and maintain a range of ecological characteristics that are generally perceived as positive, such as a burning in a pasture. In contrast, a high severity fire in a forest may be a dominant disturbance. In a non-fire adapted ecosystem, it becomes an abnormal, destructive event with long-term consequences.
Fire severity indicated by color differences (orange spots high severity and black or gray spots moderate severity) and consumption of vegetation, Brins Fire, Arizona. (photo by Daniel G. Neary, Rocky Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service).
The relationship of fire intensity to fire severity remains largely undefined because of difficulties encountered in relating resource responses to the burning process [33]. While quantitative relationships have been developed to describe changes in the thermal conductivity of soil, and changes in soil temperature and water content beneath surface and ground fires, these relationships have not been thoroughly extrapolated to field conditions [40, 42]. It is not always possible to estimate the effects of fire on soil, vegetation, and air when these effects are judged by only fire intensity measurements because other factors overwhelm fire behavior. For instance, grassland fires are often high intensity, but their residence time at any one point is extremely short (<15 seconds). The effects on soils are minimal but they are often fatal to animals and humans [43].
The range of fire effects on soil resources can be expected to vary directly with the depth of burn as reflected in the amount of surface litter, organic soil horizons, and woody fuel consumed [10, 33]. Thus, for example, the depth of lethal heat (approximately 60°C) penetration into the soil can be expected to increase with the increasing depth of surface organic material that is burned. In grassland soils this depth is usually very minimal.
The depth of burn into the organic soil horizons, visual observation of charring, and combustion of plant materials defines fire severity for interpreting the effects of fire on soils, plants, and early succession [1, 10, 37] Depth of burn is directly related to the length of time of burning and fuel load in woody fuels [44] and litter [45]. Burn depth can be classified on the basis of visual observation of the degree of fuel consumption and charring on residual plant and soil surfaces [33, 46].
A 1985 summary on the relationships between depth of burn and the charring of plant materials has been updated into a table to reflect subsequent literature [1, 37]. Table 2 can be used as a guide to classifying depth of burn. The characteristic classes are provided for clarification of subsequent discussion of fire effects:
Unburned: Plant parts are green and unaltered, there is no direct effect from heat.
Scorched: Fire did not burn the area, but radiated or convected heat from adjacent burned areas caused visible damage. Soil heating is negligible. Scorched areas occur to varying degrees along the edges of more severely burned areas.
Light: This class is mostly applicable grasslands but can be found in shrubland and forest types. Plants are charred or consumed, but herbaceous plant bases are not deeply burned, and are still identifiable. Charring of the mineral soil is negligible. Light depth of burn is associated with short duration fires either because of light fuel loads, high winds and fire spread, wet fuels, or a combination of these three factors.
Moderate: This class is mostly applicable to forests but can occur in grasslands or shrublands that are savannas. In grasslands, plants are consumed, and herbaceous plant bases are deeply burned and unidentifiable. In shrublands or woodlands with grass components, average char-depth of the mineral soil is on the order of less than 1 cm, but soil texture and structure are not noticeably altered. Charring may extend up to 3.0 cm beneath shrubs with deep leaf litter in savanna grasslands (Figure 5).
Deep: This class of depth of burn is limited to forests since fuel loads and fire residence times in grasslands are insufficient to produce deep burns. The only exception would be wet savanna grasslands and swamps.
Burn class | Category | Description |
---|---|---|
Fire did not burn on the surface. | ||
Some vegetation injury may occur from radiated or convected heat resulting in an increase in dead fuel mass. | ||
A wide range exists in the percent unburned in natural fuels. Under marginal surface fire conditions the area may be >50%. Under severe burning conditions <5% is unburned. 10 to 20% of the area in slash burns is unburned. | ||
Leaf litter is charred or consumed but some plant parts are discernable. Herbaceous stubble extends above the soil surface. Some plant parts may still be standing, bases not deeply burned, and still recognizable. Surface is black after fire. Charring is limited to <0.2 cm into the soil. | ||
Typically, 50 to 90% of herbaceous fuels are consumed and much of the remaining fuel is charred. | ||
Burns are spotty to uniform, depending on grass continuity. Light depth of burn occurs in grasslands when soil moisture is high, fuels are sparse, or fires burn under high wind. This is the dominant type of grassland burning. | ||
In upland grasslands litter is consumed. Charring extends to <0.5 cm into mineral soil, otherwise soil not altered. Gray or white ash quickly disappears. In grasslands, sedge meadows and prairies growing on organic soils, moderate fires partially burn the root-mat. | ||
Herbaceous plants are consumed to the ground-line. | ||
Moderate depth of burn tends to occur when soil moisture is low and fuels are continuous. Then burns tend to be uniform. In discontinuous fuels, high winds are required for high coverage in moderate depth of burn. | ||
In grasslands growing on mineral soil the litter is completely consumed leaving a fluffy white ash surface that soon disappears. Charring to depth of 1 cm in mineral soil. Soil structure slightly altered. In grasslands growing on deep organic soils, fires burn the root-mat and the underlying peat or muck to varying depths. | ||
All above ground fuel is consumed to charcoal and ash. | ||
In uplands, deep depth of burn is limited to areas beneath the occasional log or anthropogenic features (e.g., fences, corrals). In wetland grasslands, deep burns can occur over large areas when the water table is drawn down. |
Depth of burn classes for grasslands [10].
Surface litter and organic soil horizon consumption is a complex process [45]. Depth, bulk density, fire load, mineral filler, moisture rate and wind velocity all affect the heat emission and understory heating. Since these factors are not easily accessed after a fire, it is not possible to define the post-fire criteria potential for discriminating the class. Although analyzing soil calcination is not sufficient to classify the burning severity, the actual depth can be inferred from the preponderance of findings, including the re-composition of the pre-fire plant stratum. Analyses of soil properties, combustion and charring depth of residual vegetation are potential tools to classify the burning extent from the traits presented in Table 2.
The energy generated during the ignition and burning of fuels is the driving force behind the physico-chemical and biological alterations in a soil under warming [10]. The soil thermal transmission phenomena include radiation, conduction, convection, mass transport, vaporization and condensation.
Radiation is defined as the transfer of heat from one body to another, not in contact with it, by electromagnetic wave motion. Radiated energy flows outward in all directions from the emitting substance until it encounters a material capable of absorbing it [1, 10].
Conduction is the transfer of heat by molecular activity from one part of a substance to another part, or between substances in contact, without appreciable movement or displacement of the substance as a whole [1, 10].
Convection is a process whereby heat is transferred from one point to another by the mixing of one portion of a fluid with another fluid. Heat transfer by convection plays an important role the rate of fire spread through aboveground fuels.
Vaporization and condensation are important coupled heat transfer mechanisms that facilitate the rapid transfer of heat through dry soils. Vaporization is the process of heating water until it changes phase from a liquid to a gas. Condensation occurs when a gas is changed into a liquid with heat being released during this process.
Current knowledge on the correlation between soil heating and fire type [10] states the following:
Crown fires are usually large scale, fast-moving, wind-driven, large, and usually uncontrollable by direct attack. They often have a deep flame front. Generally there is little soil heating when a fire front passes rapidly through the tree crowns. However, if there is sufficient fuel from the forest floor to the crowns, fire will consume all the fuel and produce significant soil heating. These fires are typically occurring in forest canopies and dense shrublands.
Surface fires which spread slowly, are small-scale, sporadic and controllable, and often having a thick flame front. These fires are capable of igniting and combusting a large part of the forest biomass, bushes and grasslands and can substantially heat the mineral soil.
Wind-driven grass fires spread very quickly, being sometimes large and marked by a restricted flame front. This is the typical fire of pastoral and wildland ecosystems. The fuel biomass of pastures is less abundant than that of brush and forests and, as a result, soil heating is limited to the passage of surface fires.
Smoldering fires are flame-free, slow moving and unimpressive, but frequently have long burnout times. These fires are not common in grasslands but can occur, particularly in savannas, where woody roots have extended into grass areas.
The general effects of fire on soil physical properties range from very minor to serious [1, 10]. Since grassland fires are often rapidly-moving with the wind, and have much less fuel than that in brush and forest ecosystems, soil heating is significantly lower, and therefore physical damage much less than what occurs during crown, surface, or smoldering fires. Physical effects include alterations in soil physical properties, development of water repellency, and erosion [47, 48]. Comparisons of wildfire and prescribed fire in grassland ecosystems show little differences in soil impacts due to the low fire severities characteristics of both types of fire.
The amount of aboveground and belowground organic matter varies widely between different vegetation types depending upon on the temperature and moisture conditions prevailing in a particular area. In almost all ecosystems throughout the world, greater quantities of C (a measure of organic matter production) are found belowground than aboveground (Figure 2). In grasslands, savannas, and tundra-covered areas, much greater quantities of organic C are found in the underground plant parts of herbaceous vegetation ecosystems (90%) than in aboveground components (<10% of the total C) [49]. Because of the large belowground pools of C in grasslands, fires do not significantly affect the role or importance of C in soil physical properties.
Plant litter is a key factor in determining watershed condition. In grassland ecosystems, easily identifiable layers (Oi, Oe, and Oa layers) may not be present and will be different from forests with thin Oi and Oe horizons and a very deep Oa. The Oi layer consists of freshly fallen plant litter. The Oe layer is made up of partially decomposed litter, and the Oa layer consists of well-decomposed organic matter [50]. Mesic grasslands have a complete herbaceous plant cover and well-developed organic soil horizons (60 cm or more), but in semi-arid environments, the soil is sometimes devoid of cover between the plants. Surface organic matter absorbs precipitation, allowing water to infiltrate deep down instead. Reduction of organic material by high severity fire could result in adverse changes in hydrologic conditions in some instances.
Undisturbed forests have the highest saturated hydraulic conductivities (Ksat) because of their deep soils and high porosities [50]. Grassland soils are similar but not quite as porous as woodlands due to the lack of root-caused macroporosity. Woodlands have the lowest since they are less productive ecosystems and their soils are often lithic, shallow, poorly structured, less permeated by roots and soil organisms that develop macroporosity. Thus the relationships of (Ksat) in these wildland soils is forests > grasslands > woodlands. The importance of surface organic horizons in determining the levels of (Ksat) in forest, woodland, and grassland soils cannot be overstated.
The (Ksat) rates for most undisturbed forests range from 143 to 1000 mm hr1 [50]. The rates for grasslands reported by in the same paper are 8–612 mm hr−1. Heavily grazed grasslands can have significantly lower rates due to compaction from animal traffic. The highest Ksat rates are usually associated with thick Oe or Oa horizons. A number of recent studies reported changes in Ksat that demonstrate clear reductions in conductivity after fires. Fire severity plays a key role in some of these reductions, but other investigators have demonstrated a surprising lack of correlation with severity and even a reverse trend (Table 3; [51, 52]).
Location | Reference | Burned condition | Soil depth (cm) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Saturated hydraulic conductivity Ksat (mm hr−1) | ||||
Unburned | Burned (Rx/Wf) | |||
[51] | 16 | 34 | 0–40 | |
[52] | 612 | 972 | 0–05 |
Effects of fire in grasslands on soil saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat). Adapted from [50].
An interesting trend emerging out of some of the recent Australian research on the impacts of wildfires on soil hydrologic properties is that the soil surface Ksat values can be similar regardless of severity and that natural water repellency may produce Ksat values less than those measured in burned soils [53]. Seasonal effects are occur when summer natural water repellency disintegrates and the Ksat coefficient reinforces the correlation between control and burnt soils during winter. As a result, fire’s gravity—water repellency—hydraulic conductivity ratios are obviously more complex.
Investigations about the impacts of fire frequency on grazing lands and shrubs have had less desirable outcomes. For example, the annual burning of tall grass prairies in the Great Plains of the Central United States resulted in a significant decrease in soil organic nitrogen (N), microbial biomass, N availability and higher C/N ratios in soil organic matter [54]. Similarly, the increase in available N could harm some nutrient-deficient shrub ecosystems, as previously reported in South Africa. On lowland fynbos, a double increase in soil nutrient content through fire threatens the survival of native species developed on these impoverished ecotopes [55].
The influence of soil heating on earthworms is still little known. The indirect effects of a fire are probably more pronounced than the direct heating of earthworm populations in tallgrass pastures and prairies [56]. Thus, fire intensified the activity of earthworms due to differences in productivity between plants before and after the occurrence of fire. In general, grassland soils are full of roots and rhizomes, which, combined with soil moisture, provide an ideal microclimate for earthworms in the upper 10–20 cm of soil depth. Deep soil protects earthworms from the direct consequences of soil heating during fuel burning, except in the case of severe, long-lasting fires under slash and log piles or in smoldering roots and litter. Grassland fires increase exotic earthworm species at the expense of endemic ones [57].
Many plant roots, regeneration structures and seeds are just above the ground or spread deep down. These plant parts include taproots, surface roots, rhizomes, stolons, root crowns and bulbs. Many roots are in the superficial plant litter layers (L, F and H horizons) and are directly affected when these layers are heated or consumed by fire [10]. Roots of grass plants are less susceptible to damage since they are distributed mainly in the mineral soil and at depths where heating is minimal (Figure 2).
Plant roots are sensitive to both duration of heating and the magnitude of the temperature reached. Temperatures of 60oC for 1 minute are sufficient to coagulate protein [58]. Lethal temperatures can occur before proteins began to coagulate. The plant material lethal temperature is very dependent on its moisture content. Wetter plants are prone to destruction at very low temperatures and during shorter warming [59]. Plant roots of grassland soils are well insulated by the soil and have a lower risk of being subjected to lethal temperatures during a fire [1]. The two most important factors that insulate roots against soil heating are their depth in the soil and the soil water content. Generally, the deeper the plant roots are located in the soil, the greater will be the survival rate [60]. Grassland soils have deep “A” horizons formed by fine root turnover and thus are less at risk from low severity, high intensity, and short duration herbaceous fuel fires [14]. Low-severity fire destroys only the surface plant litter aboveground plant structures. In contrast, high-severity fires can consume all the surface organic matter and easily heat the mineral soil above the lethal temperature for roots [1, 10]. This situation typically occurs where woody trees and shrubs have invaded grasslands in the absence of fire. It contributes to the mortality of the woody species and survival of herbaceous plants.
Most seeds are stored in the litter and under the foliage. Medium and intensive fires heat the surface deposits enough to eliminate the seeds deposited there. The deadly seed temperature is about 70oC in wet soils and 90oC in dry soils [61]. Fire can destroy seeds, but it also can enhance reproduction by destroying allelopathic substances that inhibit seed production [62]. Or, fire can provide a mineral seedbed required for new grass germination and growth. The heating associated with fires may also stimulate the germination of seeds that lie dormant in the soil for years because of impermeable seed coats. Regeneration of grass ecosystems after burning is mostly dependent on sprouting from deep and undamaged root systems than seed sprouting.
Soil heating, heat transport and the lethality consequences on seeds and roots are more complex in moist than dry soils [10]. Dry soil is a poor thermal vector and, as a result, heat does not reach deeper into the ground, especially whether the flame front is of short duration. This is the situation with grassland fires. They are incredibly hot, but move rapidly over any one point of ground. The surface of dry soil can easily exceed the lethal temperature of living tissue of roots, while ambient daily soil temperatures can prevail in just 2 cm downward in the soil, with little damage occurring to the roots. Therefore, when the roots of grassland plants are in dry soil, they are not likely to be damaged by wildfire unless the residence time of the flaming front is long.
The magnitude of the effects of fire on water quantity and quality are primarily driven by fire severity, and ancillary factors such as post-fire cover, slope, water repellency, and rain fall amount and intensity [1, 10]. Fire intensity is rarely a factor. Fire severity is related to the amount of fuel consumed and resource damage, while fire intensity is only a measure of the rate of heat release. The more severe the fire, the greater the amount of fuel consumed, heat released, soil properties affected, and hydrologic condition altered.
High severity fires increase the amount of nutrients mobilized and alter the hydrologic response of catchments. These combinations of factors make sites more susceptible to erosion of soil and release of nutrients into stream and lakes where they could potentially affect water quality. Wildfires usually are more severe than prescribed fires because of controls over burning conditions and fuel loads in the latter case. As a result, they are more likely to produce significant impacts on watershed resources.
As mentioned earlier, the degree of fire severity is related to the vegetation type. For example, in grasslands the differences between prescribed fire and wildfire are usually small. In forested environments, the magnitude of the effects of fire on water yield and water quality are much lower after a prescribed fire than after a wildfire because of the larger amount of fuel consumed in a wildfire, the greater heat release, and the generally higher severity. Canopy-consuming wildfires are the greatest concern to watershed managers because of the loss of canopy coupled with soil property damage and alterations to hydrologic conditions. The differences between wildfire and prescribed fire in shrublands are intermediate between those seen in grass and forest environments.
In grassland ecosystems, high-severity fires have been shown to increase the amount of nutrients mobilized and alter the hydrologic response of catchments [63]. The combination of these factors makes sites more susceptible to erosion of soil and the release of nutrients into stream and lakes where they could potentially affect water quality. Typically, prescribed fires are less severe than wildfires because of controls over burning conditions and fuel loads. Prescribed fire at Konza Prairie Biological Station, one of the last remaining areas of unplowed, tall-grass prairie in the Midwestern United States, released Dissolved Black Carbon (DBC) into nearby grassland stream systems [64]. The study concluded that there was not a direct relationship between water quality and DBC generated by prescribed burning. They suggest one reason for this is that the export of DBC through stable grassland systems can be on the scale of decades to centuries.
Another important factor in the impact on wildfire on watershed function is the size of the fire. Wildfire spread in grasslands is a function of fuel type, fuel moisture, air temperatures, and wind speeds. Influenced by the spotting of embers out ahead of the main fire front, wind-driven fire events in grasslands can move rapidly. Fire spread was modeled in Australian grasslands based on a critical wind speed based on a critical wind speed of 5 km hr−1 [65]. A linear relationship was used for rates of spread below wind speeds of 5 km hr−1. Above that speed a power function with an exponent of less than 1 was needed for the model to match field data. Data from 21 grassland fires with wind speeds ranging from 27 to 78 km hr−1 produced spread rates of 4 to over 23 km hr−1.
After months of drought, low-humidity and above average temperatures in 2011 a series of wind-driven grassland fires in the state of Texas, U.S.A. consumed nearly 1,618,750 ha during a single fire season, nearly double the previous record [66]. Multiple individual fires were in excess of 50,000 ha in size. Due to their size, fires of this magnitude compound the impacts of large scale erosion events [63]. This sort of situation has the potential to result in large scale degradation of grassland soil nutrients and hydrologic function and lead to desertification on the scale seen in the Great Plains of North America in the 1930s.
A prescribed fire in a Texas grassland resulted in a large increase (1150%) in streamflow in comparison to an unburned watershed in the first year after burning [68]. The increased post-fire streamflow was short lived, however, with flows returning to pre-fire levels shortly after the burning. By contrast, post-fire streamflow increases in forests and shrublands remained elevated for significant number of years because of the delay in revegetation. Grassland vegetation growth after fire is usually quite rapid (a few months to a year).
Another important determinant of the magnitude of the effects of fire on water is slope. Steepness of the slope has a significant influence on movement of soil and nutrients into stream channels where they can affect water quality. A study of the impacts of slope on grassland fires demonstrated that as slope increased in a prescribed fire, erosion from slopes accelerated [67, 68].
Annual streamflow totals (annual water yields) generally increase as precipitation inputs to a watershed increase [10]. Streamflows originating on forest watersheds, therefore, are generally greater than those originating on grassland watersheds, and those from grasslands are greater than flows originating on desert watersheds. Furthermore, annual streamflow totals frequently increase when mature forests are harvested or otherwise cut, attacked by insects, or burned [68, 69]. The observed increases in streamflow following disturbances often diminish with decreasing precipitation inputs to a watershed. This decrease can occur within a year or take many years, depending on the disturbance and vegetation type.
Grasslands collectively are the largest ecosystem in the world, making up 40.5% of the land mass excluding Greenland and Antarctica. They are not entirely natural because they have formed and developed under the influence of natural and anthropogenic disturbances fire, (e.g. prescribed fire, wildfire, livestock grazing, woody vegetation clearing, over-sowing with pasture grass, etc.). Their importance now is in the variety of ecosystem services that they provide. A critical function of grasslands in global C circulation is their subsoil sequestration and storage of organic matter. Grasslands soils are classified as Mollisols, soils with deep, organic matter horizons. This characteristic makes grasslands almost as important as forests for C fixation and storage. Grassland soils are organic matter sinks on the same order of magnitude as tree biomass.
Although wildfires have always been a constant part of prairie fire regimes, wildfire numbers and area burned have surged in the 21st Century due to drought. The number of wildfires in the Great Plains of North America increased from 33.4 year−1 in 1985 to 116.8 year−1 in 2014. The total burned area grew by 400% over the same time period. Measured wind speeds ranging from 27 to 78 km hr−1 have produced spread rates of 4 to over 23 km hr−1.
The general effects of fire on soil physical properties range from very minor to serious. Since grassland fires are often rapidly-moving with the wind, and have much less fuel than that in brush and forest ecosystems, soil heating is significantly lower, and therefore physical damage is much less than what occurs during crown, surface, or smoldering fires in forests and woodlands. Physical effects of fire include alterations in soil physical properties, development of water repellency, and erosion. Comparisons of wildfire and prescribed fire in grassland ecosystems show little differences in physical impacts due to the low fire severities characteristics of both types of fire, the narrow flame fronts, and rapid spread rates.
In grasslands, savannas, and tundras, much greater quantities of organic C are found in the underground (90%) than in aboveground components (<10% of the total C). Because of these large belowground pools of C in grasslands, fires do not significantly affect the role or importance of organic C in maintaining the physical and hydrological properties of Mollisol soils.
The Authors would like to thank the Rocky Mountain Research Station, Air-Water-Aquatic Environments Research Program, and the Program Manager, Frank McCormick, for support of this effort.
There are no “Conflicts of Interest” associated with this paper. It was produced by U.S. Forest Service employees during normal work hours and on appropriated funding.
An ever-increasing worldwide population, especially in many developing nations, necessitates additional food, fiber, and oil supplies, posing a serious challenge to agricultural scientists to produce more and more from limited, diminishing, and degraded land and water resources. By 2050, it is expected that the global population will have increased by 50%, and global grain demand would have doubled [1]. The stress from climate change, accompanying extreme weather and urbanization also creates the burden. Global agriculture in the present status points to a formidable challenge to agricultural sustainability. The most important danger to food security and the environment is dwindling per capita natural resources, as well as resource depletion and degradation. Existing intensification technologies are showing symptoms of wear and tear. The loss of biodiversity, groundwater shortages, fossil water extraction, groundwater contamination, and rising atmospheric CO2 levels are all severe risks to sustainability. A variety of methodologies are used in sustainable production practises. Specific strategies must take into account the site specific and individual nature of sustainable agriculture. Reduced dependency on monocultures can give better resilience and reduce the chance of total system failure, which is critical for attaining long-term sustainable agricultural development. It can be a dynamic and continuous process to adjust in changing circumstances. Diversification is the process of utilization of the various emerging opportunities created by new market, technology, changes in governmental policies, higher profitability and also stability in the production system [2]. It is a useful strategy for reducing the risk in farming [3]. Crop diversification is generally viewed as shift from a traditionally grown less remunerative crops to more remunerative crops. Crop diversification is recognized as one of the most environmentally feasible, cost-effective, and reasonable approaches to reduce uncertainty in agriculture, particularly in the face of climate change. Crop diversification helps in minimizing the alleviating second generations problem such as soil degradation, soil salinity, insect-pest and disease insurgence, environmental pollution, decline in farm profit, nutrient imbalance, climate change etc. Crop diversification promotes farm resilience, or the ability of an agroecosystem to return to its former productive state after being perturbed, by increasing geographical and temporal biodiversity. Although crop diversification is not a new concept to many rural people in developing and emerging economies, there has been little research on the subject to date. However, there is increasing global interest in the area, owing to current worries about biodiversity loss, as well as human and environmental health. Thus, in this book chapter we are trying to give some understanding about the topic Crop diversification an effective strategy for sustainable agriculture development.
Crop diversification, as opposed to specialized farming, can be defined as an attempt to promote crop diversity by crop rotation, multiple cropping, or intercropping, with the goal of improving productivity, sustainability, and supply of ecological systems [4, 5, 6]. It could be one step toward more sustainable production systems, value chains for minor crops [7], and socioeconomic benefits [8]. Enhanced agricultural diversity, better diverse crop rotations, mixed cropping [9, 10], cultivation of grain legumes in generally cereal-dominated systems [11], perennial leys or grassland [12], and regionally adapted varieties or variety combinations are all examples of agricultural diversification strategies. In developing countries, crop diversification is defined as the substitution of one or more agricultural products for another. Diversification in agriculture can be defined as the reinvestment of some farm productive resources, such as land, capital, farm equipment, and labour, into new enterprises [13]. A shift from less profitable cropping system to more profitable cropping system is also known as diversification. Diversification of agriculture, in general, refers to transitioning from a single crop’s regional or temporal dominance to the production of a variety of crops in order to meet the ever-increasing need for cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fibers, fuel, and feed. Crop diversification is a demand-driven, need-based situation specific and national goal seeking dynamic and iterative concept that incorporates spatial, temporal, value addition, and resource-complementary techniques, as well as a move from traditional and less-remunerative crops (Figure 1).
Basic concept of crop diversification.
South Asia has a long history of intensive agriculture, particularly irrigated rice cultivation techniques. Sector strategies in the region are mostly based on food self-sufficiency policies [14]. Throughout the last 30 years, the system’s research and agricultural support services have increased food production faster than population expansion and diminished the percentage of people living in poverty. There has been significant income increase, diet diversification, and decreases in per capita grain intake throughout the comparable time span. South Asian countries are actively diversifying their economies in favor of high-value commodities such as fruits, vegetables, livestock, and fisheries, with some inter-country variation. Price policy, infrastructure development (particularly markets and highways), urbanization, and technical advancements all have a significant impact on agricultural diversification. Agricultural diversification in favor of high-value crops by substituting inferior coarse grains has helped rainfed areas more [15]. Agricultural diversification is also helping to increase export markets and create new job possibilities. Using appropriate institutions, it is necessary to properly coordinate the production and selling of high-value commodities. Market reforms in the form of building and strengthening desired institutions through necessary legal changes might go a long way toward encouraging agricultural growth, increasing small farm income, and boosting exports. Diversifying rural production is the process by which families create several livelihoods utilizing different variations of resources and assets in order to be less influenced by changes in the marketplace (such as price decreases) and to secure market stability [16]. So, if a region has high demographic pressure but minimal diversification, low-profit traditional commodities cultivation will increase and the farming frontier will spread, causing deforestation and soil erosion [17, 18]. As a result, investing in agricultural diversification can help to prevent environmental degradation by allowing for the production of a wider range of commercially feasible and productive crops [19]. Various options of crop diversification in South Asian countries are presented in the below Figure 2.
Various options of crop diversification.
The next sections examine the many techniques to crop diversification depending on land appropriateness, water availability, and market demand viz. regional, seasonal, and temporal [20]. The different approaches of crop diversifications are presented in Figure 3.
Different approaches of crop diversifications.
It is done by basically two approaches, through crop substitution and crop intensification. These two approaches have been the two main process of crop diversification. Crop substitution means replacing any crop which is continuously growing as a monoculture crop or gain a tendency of specialization. For example, during green revolution era there was a tendency to growing cereals crops only. Now a days the trend has change a lot in developing countries. Farmers are shifting from monoculture cereals based staple food to high value crops like vegetable, spices etc. There are several advantages of crop substitution which could be higher net returns, improve resource use efficiency (land and labour), break in cycle of pest and disease etc. On the other hand, crop intensification is adding of new value crops to existing cropping system to increase the farm’s overall productivity. To reap the benefits of agricultural diversification, we must move away from simple crop rotation and toward intensive systems such as multiple cropping, intercropping, relay cropping, and so on. Crop intensification helps in job opportunity, profitability and energy use efficiency [21]. Some examples of crop intensification and their advantages are discussed in Table 1.
Conventional cropping system | Crop intensification | Advantages | References |
---|---|---|---|
Maize-fallow | Maize–rajmash Maize–toria Maize–buckwheat Maize–buckwheat Maize (green cobs)-urdbean–buckwheat | Increased the grain equivalent yield, system production efficiency, relative production efficiency and land use efficiency. | Babu et al. [21] |
Transplanted boro-transplanted aman | Wheat-mungbean-T. aman with full tillage Wheat-mungbean- dry seeded aman with strip tillage | Increased land and water productivity, system productivity. | Alam et al. [22] |
Example of crop intensification and their advantages.
Vertical crop diversification, on the other hand, represents the degree and level of industrialization of agricultural production. In this approach famers and others add value to products through packaging, processing, regional branding, merchandizing to improve the marketable value of crops. Food crop vertical diversification is also described as the extension of post-harvest activities, such as processing and transformation industries, to allow food crops to be sorted, graded, processed into both food and industrial products, packed, stored, and transported to domestic or export markets [23]. The rise of processing and transformation industries appears to be the most important factor in rural areas in terms of creating revenue and jobs. To boost crop yields and income creation at the local, regional, and national levels, both types of diversification (
Options of vertical diversification.
Land based approach
Water-based approach
Varietal diversification
Diversification for nutritional security
Diversification for nutrient management
Diversification for pes management
Diversification for mitigation and adaption of climate change
Different measurements of crop diversification and their characterization are depicted in the Table 2 [24].
Measure of crop diversification | Characterization |
---|---|
1. Temporal crop diversification | |
Crop rotation | Growing of two or more different crops by one after another in consecutive ways |
Catch crop | Growing of crops to in between the space of two main crop or when no main crops are being grown |
Double or multiple cropping | Growing two or more crops in one growing season |
Relay cropping | In relay cropping second crop is grown in standing crop before the first crop is harvested |
2. Spatial crop diversification | |
Alley cropping | It is an agroforestry system in which food crops are grown in alleys formed by trees |
Intercropping | Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same land with definite pattern |
Mixed cropping | Growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same field |
Variety mixture | Growing two or more varieties of a same species |
Trap | Growing commercial and non-commercial crop simultaneously in the same land |
Measure of crop diversification and its characterization.
Extent of crop diversification pattern, Sympson index and sources of crop diversification is presented in Table 3 [15].
Country | Sympson index of diversification in triennium ending | Sources of diversification (%) (1991–1992 to 1999–2001) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1981–1982 | 1991–1992 | 1999–2000 | Cropping intensity | Crop substitution | |
Bangladesh | 0.39 | 0.36 | 0.35 | 64.67 | 35.33 |
Bhutan | 0.37 | 0.48 | 0.44 | 97.82 | 2.18 |
India | 0.61 | 0.65 | 0.66 | 36.63 | 63.37 |
Maldives | 0.77 | 0.77 | 0.77 | 83.22 | 16.78 |
Nepal | 0.39 | 0.40 | 0.41 | 84.79 | 15.21 |
Pakistan | 0.54 | 0.56 | 0.57 | 76.56 | 23.44 |
Sri Lanka | 0.76 | 0.77 | 0.75 | 78.90 | 21.10 |
South Asia | 0.59 | 0.63 | 0.64 | 42.98 | 57.02 |
Extent of diversification and sources of diversification in South Asian countries.
High-value commodity production is driven by demand, which is primarily determined by rising income and urbanization. The major drivers of crop diversifications are discussed in Figure 5.
Rapid urbanization of developing countries is one of the biggest reasons of crop diversification. Urbanization puts pressure on land resources, a small number of farmers requires to produce for a larger number of consumers.
Change in consumers demand due to shifting from a diet-based staple to nutrient rich animal products, fruits and vegetables.
Improving nutritional benefits by diversifying the monoculture of traditional cereals crop.
Climate change
Value addition
Export potential
The key driver in altering production portfolios in favor of high-value commodities is road and market. They connect the producer and the consumer directly, reducing transportation and transaction costs. Mostly in case of perishable items, they lessen the danger of post-harvest loss [15].
Technology innovation may be a powerful driver for fostering agricultural diversification and accelerating agricultural growth. The fundamental driver of the ‘Green Revolution’ of the 1970s was biological technology [15].
Changing in governmental policy
Resilience and stability in production system.
Higher profitability
Factors determining crop diversification.
Nutritional food security and quality of life can be improved through diversification in food basket.
Food security
Poverty alleviation
Employment generation
Trade needs
Protecting the environmental degradation by reversing the decline trend in soil productivity and ground water table.
Income growth
Ecological balance
Sustainability of natural resources
Shifting from low yielding low value crops to high yielding high value crops.
Shifting toward higher water requirement crop to lower requirement crops.
Shifting toward low energy efficient crop to higher energy crop
Inclusion of legumes and oilseed crops
Inclusion of crop which has national and international market demand.
The domination of marginal and small farmers is one of the primary issues confronting India’s agricultural sector. These household makes up the majority of the rural population. Due to their low operating base, increasing the production of existing crops (staple food crops) may not be enough to boost their earnings. Therefore, diversifying the traditional cropping system is a best option to enhance income of small and marginal farmers.
Employment generation is a significant role of agriculture. But adopting the conventional cropping system like rice-wheat generally leads to lack of employment during off seasons. According to a number of studies, there is a serious problem of seasonal unemployment in different regions of our country, which leads to seasonal migration of labours/farmers to surrounding cities/towns in quest of contractual work [25]. Crop diversification helps rural households to have more opportunities of full-time employment.
Diversification is required to recover and enhance the value of the deteriorated natural resource base. Farmers in eastern India, particularly in West Bengal adopted wheat into a primarily rice system to take advantage of leftover moisture and so minimizes the need for wheat irrigation. In Punjab, on the other hand, an injudicious crop-mix, such as wheat-rice, has exacerbated the problem of water logging and salinity.
To increase export potential, it is very much essential to adopt diversification in cropping systems. Such factors have weighed heavily on the minds of farmers in eastern India, particularly in West Bengal, where wheat has been introduced into a primarily rice system to take advantage of leftover moisture and so minimizes the need for wheat irrigation.
Crop diversification is very much responsive to climatic and biotic vagaries, particularly in fragile ecosystems by expanding locally adapted or introducing novel varieties and related production systems will help resource-poor farmers improve their food security and income generation while also protecting the environment [26].
Crop diversification, which favors species combinations over monocultures, is one of the most cost-effective ways to combat pests and disease, and it has sparked a lot of attention in recent years [27].
One of the most important constraints for sustainable crop production is low soil fertility. In smallholder systems, poor farming practises, mostly continuous cropping with limited external inputs, have gradually depleted soil fertility. Interaction of crop species with beneficial soil biota helps in maintaining biogeochemical cycling of both organic and inorganic nutrients in the soil and maintaining soil quality [28].
Kasem and Thapa during 2011 conducted a study in Thailand, collecting primary data from 245 farm households using a structured questionnaire to examine the impact of crop diversification on income and input consumption. They discovered that the vast majority of farmers stated that crop diversification contributed to a significant rise in their revenue [29]. The results of their research findings are depicted in Table 4.
Opinion | Frequency (n = 81) | % |
---|---|---|
Increased income | 68 | 84 |
Enhanced food sufficiency | 54 | 66.7 |
Flow of income throughout the year | 43 | 53.1 |
Offers opportunity to produce crops according to market demand | 12 | 14.8 |
Smoothens the effect of price fluctuation | 10 | 12.3 |
Diversified farmers viewpoint about benefits of crop diversification.
Birthal et al. studied into the impact of crop diversification on India’s farm poverty. Data from a nationally representative survey was used. The dataset, according to them, contains information on the crops grown, as well as the costs and returns associated with each crop. This allows us to investigate the pattern and breadth of high value crop diversification across land sizes, as well as their profitability in comparison to other crops. In comparison to other crops, Table 5 shows the estimated net returns per hectare from high value crop cultivation. When compared to cereals, high value crop (HCVs) provided much higher returns to all types of farmers, including marginal farmers [30].
Crops | Marginal ≤1 ha | Small (1–2 ha) | Medium (2–4 ha) | Large >4 ha | All |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total cereal | 9044 (456) | 7099 (256) | 7518 (403) | 6164 (599) | 8301 (304) |
Fruits | 37,347 (9283) | 51,859 (19,187) | 36,726 (13,289) | 30,433 (13,585) | 39,523 (9566) |
Vegetable | 22,423 (3100) | 19,226 (1748) | 20,641 (2402) | 19,114 (4657) | 21,459 (1852) |
High value crops | 25,618 (2486) | 22,329 (2292) | 21,411 (2834) | 21,518 (4014) | 24,263 (2091) |
Comparison of net returns (Rs ha−1) from higher value crops with other crops by crop diversification.
One US$ = 47.62 in the survey year i.e., 2002–2003 [30].
Figures in parentheses are standard errors. Total cereals include rice, wheat, maize, and coarse cereals like pearl millet, sorghum, and barley. High-value crops include vegetables, fruits, condiments and spices, flowers, aromatic and medicinal plants, and plantation crops like tea and coffee.
Despite differences between countries, rural households in the majority of countries tend to rotate a small number of crops. Two, three, or a maximum of four agricultural products are the most common combinations used by households. Few households grow more than six distinct crops, most likely due to the small size of their allotment and the inherent challenge of producing many goods viz. water requirements, necessity of sun exposition and type of soil, among others. An empirical evidenced from eight different countries were analyzed and presented in Table 6 [31].
Diversification of crop through intercropping system has significant advantage in land use efficiency, monetary returns and crop productivity as compared to monocropping. Intercropping results in more efficient use of solar energy and harnessing benefits of positive interactions of crop association. Benefits of some potential intercropping system are discussed in below Table 7 with regards to system productivity, net returns and B:C ratio.
Number of crops produced and share of households (% of total national sample) producing each number | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country and year | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | ≥8 | Total |
Malawi, 2004 | 11 | 21 | 23 | 20 | 13 | 6 | 3 | 3 | 100 |
Nepal, 2003 | 3 | 25 | 8 | 18 | 8 | 10 | 3 | 25 | 100 |
Vietnam, 1998 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 7 | 8 | 46 | 100 |
Pakistan, 2001 | 22 | 61 | 15 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 |
Nicaragua, 2001 | 6 | 19 | 20 | 17 | 11 | 9 | 7 | 11 | 100 |
Indonesia, 2000 | 28 | 29 | 25 | 11 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 100 |
Albania, 2005 | 11 | 31 | 15 | 14 | 8 | 9 | 3 | 9 | 100 |
Panama, 2003 | 36 | 38 | 19 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 |
Share of household practicing different numbers of crops (an empirical evidence from eight developing countries) [31].
Intercropping system | Location | System productivity (t ha−1) | Net returns (×103 ₹ ha−1) | B:C ratio | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chickpea + Indian mustard | Kanpur, India | 2.4 | 17.1 | 2.4 | [32] |
Sugarcane + Maize | Pantnagar, India | 200.6 | 124.9 | 1.90 | [33] |
Wheat + Mustard | Kangra, India | 4.7 | 26.7 | 2.55 | [34] |
Maize + Potato | Pusa, New Delhi | 14.0 | 35.7 | 2.14 | [35] |
Ratoon cane + Berseem | Lucknow | 90.8 | 56.2 | 2.64 | [36] |
Economics of intercropping system for crop diversification.
These are primarily socioeconomic and institutional barriers, such as the lack of holding consolidation and group farming, geographic disadvantages (remote areas far from shops and supermarkets), farmer ‘lack of education, the outright failure of the agricultural extension system, and a lack of transportation and marketing facilities.
Lack of salt and excess moisture tolerant crops and cultivars.
Lack of skill and knowledge in choosing alternate crops in cropping system
Small and fragmented land holding creates difficulty to ensure that they participate more fully in crop diversification.
Agricultural output is used as a raw material in agro-based industries. When monoculture becomes unsustainable, a more sustainable and profitable crop must be substituted. Because of massive infrastructure expenditure, switching over becomes difficult by that time; for example, the rice industry in Punjab and Haryana, the sugarcane industry in Uttar Pradesh, and the soybean industry in Madhya Pradesh states in India.
The major causes of high cost of production are rising wage rates and declining factor productivity. The researchers are being challenged to reduce the cost of production and produce new adaptive cultivars that can capture high market prices.
Over use and sub optimal use of natural resources like water and land resources, may negative impact on environment and sustainability.
Weak research-extention and farmers linkage.
Lack of knowledge among the farmer
Though there are hundreds of scientific papers in the field of agronomy on agricultural diversity such as crop rotation or intercropping, only a small percentage of these studies are about diversification as a concept [21].
Diversification is one of the most effective ways to boost farm revenue, resulting in increased food, nutrition, and environmental security, as well as poverty reduction in developing countries. It creates a tremendous impact on agro-socio-economic gains.
It increased the flow of income throughout the year.
Offers opportunity to produce crops according to market demand
Smoothens the effect of price fluctuation
Increase the grain equivalent yield, system production efficiency, relative production efficiency and land use efficiency of maize-fallow system.
Overall potential of crop diversification is yet to be studied.
Impact of crop diversification on rural economics and poverty alleviation needs to be investigated in details.
Effect of crop diversification on soil health properties needs to be studied in details.
Social benefits of crop diversification are less well known.
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This is specific for the Republic of Slovenia because of its large amount of area designated as least favoured areas (LFA) that are not suitable for arable farming.",book:{id:"5142",slug:"applications-and-theory-of-analytic-hierarchy-process-decision-making-for-strategic-decisions",title:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process",fullTitle:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process - Decision Making for Strategic Decisions"},signatures:"Monica Huehner, Črtomir Rozman and Karmen Pažek",authors:[{id:"179642",title:"Prof.",name:"Karmen",middleName:null,surname:"Pažek",slug:"karmen-pazek",fullName:"Karmen Pažek"}]},{id:"33747",title:"What Do We Know About Time Management? 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The work shows how to use the results of environmental engineering tools or models as an input for the AHP method. Three case studies are presented: selection of the best municipal solid waste disposal system, assessment of the tap and bottled water consumption on the environment, and selection of the heat pump for the individual home. In the first case study, the AHP analysis was required to assess the environmental impact of waste disposal system. This was done by the use of Integrated Waste Management model (IWM-1), which delivered results aggregated, at the next step, into Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) categories. The obtained results were used in the AHP analysis to choose the best scheme for the waste disposal system. In the second case study, the AHP method was used to evaluate different patterns of water drinking. Obtained results help decision makers in assessing regional and individual environmental impact if the drinking pattern changes. Selected evaluation criteria were solid waste stream, energy consumption, carbon dioxide emission, and Eco-indicator 99 H/A points. The third case study presents the method of heat pump selection. The environmental performance criteria were developed using the criteria of the ecolabeling program. All three case studies are based on real data.",book:{id:"5142",slug:"applications-and-theory-of-analytic-hierarchy-process-decision-making-for-strategic-decisions",title:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process",fullTitle:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process - Decision Making for Strategic Decisions"},signatures:"Tomasz Stypka, Agnieszka Flaga-Maryańczyk and Jacek Schnotale",authors:[{id:"179383",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Stypka",slug:"tomasz-stypka",fullName:"Tomasz Stypka"},{id:"179392",title:"Dr.",name:"Agnieszka",middleName:null,surname:"Flaga-Maryańczyk",slug:"agnieszka-flaga-maryanczyk",fullName:"Agnieszka Flaga-Maryańczyk"},{id:"179695",title:"Prof.",name:"Jacek",middleName:null,surname:"Schnotale",slug:"jacek-schnotale",fullName:"Jacek Schnotale"}]},{id:"68601",title:"How Does Socio-Technical Approach Influence Sustainability? Considering the Roles of Decision Making Environment",slug:"how-does-socio-technical-approach-influence-sustainability-considering-the-roles-of-decision-making-",totalDownloads:756,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Aim/purpose: the current study explains the mediation of ERP in the role of a socio-technical approach and decision-making with firms’ sustainable performance. Background: despite the existence of existing literature on success and failure factors of ERP, the current work highlights the impact of socio-technical factors and decision-making environment on ERP success. Additionally, the weak research work regarding the mediation of ERP is addressed here in this study and has tried to fill the mentioned gap. Contribution: the most important contribution of the study is assessing the mediating role of the ERP system in the linkage of decision-making environment and socio-technical factors. Moreover, the work contributes by examining the moderation of organizational culture while relating the socio-technical environment and ERP system. Findings: the study finds that there is a significant role of ERP as a mediator while relating socio-technical elements and the decision-making environment; however, we do not find any significant moderation of organizational culture in the linkage of ERP system and socio-technical elements. Impact on Society: the societal implication of the study is that it provides a reference for the firms having the same cultural characteristics while using ERP to overcome the issue of pollution in Iraq.",book:{id:"9332",slug:"application-of-decision-science-in-business-and-management",title:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management",fullTitle:"Application of Decision Science in Business and Management"},signatures:"Hadi AL-Abrrow, Alhamzah Alnoor, Hasan Abdullah and Bilal Eneizan",authors:[{id:"303565",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Abrrow",slug:"hadi-al-abrrow",fullName:"Hadi Al-Abrrow"},{id:"303609",title:"Mr.",name:"Alhamzah",middleName:null,surname:"Alnoor",slug:"alhamzah-alnoor",fullName:"Alhamzah Alnoor"},{id:"303612",title:"Mr.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Abdullah",slug:"hasan-abdullah",fullName:"Hasan Abdullah"},{id:"307559",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Eneizan",slug:"bilal-eneizan",fullName:"Bilal Eneizan"}]},{id:"50912",title:"Analytic Hierarchy Process Applied to Supply Chain Management",slug:"analytic-hierarchy-process-applied-to-supply-chain-management",totalDownloads:2483,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Resource allocation (RA) and supplier selection (SS) are two major decision problems regarding supply chain management (SCM). A supply chain manager may solve these problems by considering a single criterion, for instance, costs, customer satisfaction, or delivery time. Applying analytic hierarchy process (AHP), the supply chain manager may combine such criteria to enhance a compromised solution. This chapter presents AHP applications to solve two real SCM problems faced by Brazilian companies: one problem regarding the RA in the automotive industry and another one to SS in a chemical corporation.",book:{id:"5142",slug:"applications-and-theory-of-analytic-hierarchy-process-decision-making-for-strategic-decisions",title:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process",fullTitle:"Applications and Theory of Analytic Hierarchy Process - Decision Making for Strategic Decisions"},signatures:"Valerio Antonio Pamplona Salomon, Claudemir Leif Tramarico and\nFernando Augusto Silva Marins",authors:[{id:"137460",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Marins",slug:"fernando-marins",fullName:"Fernando Marins"},{id:"179921",title:"Dr.",name:"Valerio",middleName:"A. P.",surname:"Salomon",slug:"valerio-salomon",fullName:"Valerio Salomon"},{id:"179926",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudemir",middleName:null,surname:"Tramarico",slug:"claudemir-tramarico",fullName:"Claudemir Tramarico"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"433",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:302,paginationItems:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"11",type:"subseries",title:"Cell Physiology",keywords:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease, Free Radicals, Tumor Metastasis, Antioxidants, Essential Fatty Acids, Melatonin, Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology",scope:"
\r\n\tThe integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, as well as the expression, structure, and function of molecular and cellular components, is essential for modern physiology. The following concerns will be addressed in this Cell Physiology subject, which will consider all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, liver; gut, kidney, eye) and their interactions: (1) Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disease (2) Free Radicals (3) Tumor Metastasis (4) Antioxidants (5) Essential Fatty Acids (6) Melatonin and (7) Lipid Peroxidation Products and Aging Physiology.
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He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"186048",title:"Prof.",name:"Ines",middleName:null,surname:"Drenjančević",slug:"ines-drenjancevic",fullName:"Ines Drenjančević",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186048/images/5818_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Osijek",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/79615/images/system/79615.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"84459",title:"Prof.",name:"Valerie",middleName:null,surname:"Chappe",slug:"valerie-chappe",fullName:"Valerie Chappe",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/84459/images/system/84459.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalhousie University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",signatures:"Jelena Milić",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81298",title:"Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Metastasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103798",signatures:"Eman Helmy Thabet",slug:"roles-of-extracellular-vesicles-in-cancer-metastasis",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Extracellular Vesicles - 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