\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10363",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Environmental insults such as extremes of temperature, extremes of water status, and deteriorating soil conditions pose major threats to agriculture and food security. Employing contemporary tools and techniques from all branches of science, attempts are being made worldwide to understand how plants respond to abiotic stresses with the aim to manipulate plant performance that is better suited to withstand these stresses. This book searches for possible answers to several basic questions related to plant responses towards abiotic stresses. Synthesizing developments in plant stress biology, the book offers strategies that can be used in breeding, including genomic, molecular, physiological, and biotechnological approaches that have the potential to develop resilient plants and improve crop productivity worldwide.",isbn:"978-1-83881-062-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-055-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-063-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91549",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants",numberOfPages:494,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e4d0b0a5b0d55843e704d38d55206b91",bookSignature:"Shah Fahad, Shah Saud, Yajun Chen, Chao Wu and Depeng Wang",publishedDate:"July 21st 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10363.jpg",numberOfDownloads:10724,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:44,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:63,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 16th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 15th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"194771",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Fahad",slug:"shah-fahad",fullName:"Shah Fahad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194771/images/system/194771.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shah Fahad is an assistant professor in the Department of Agronomy, University of Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. He obtained his Ph.D. in Agronomy from Huazhong Agriculture University, China, in 2015. After completing his postdoctoral research in Agronomy at Huazhong Agriculture University (2015–2017), he accepted the position of assistant professor at the University of Haripur. He has published more than 290 peer-reviewed papers (impact factor = 910.45) with more than 260 research and 30 review articles on important aspects of climate change, plant physiology and breeding, plant nutrition, plant stress responses, and tolerance mechanisms, and exogenous chemical priming-induced abiotic stress tolerance. He has also contributed fifty book chapters to various volumes published by well-renowned publishing houses. He has also edited fifteen book volumes, including this one. Dr. Fahad received the Young Rice International Scientist award and distinguished scholar award in 2014 and 2015, respectively. He won fifteen projects from international and national donor agencies. Dr. Fahad was named among the top 2 percent of scientists in a global list compiled by Stanford University, California. His areas of interest include climate change, greenhouse emission gasses, abiotic stresses tolerance, roles of phytohormones and their interactions in abiotic stress responses, heavy metals, and regulation of nutrient transport processes.",institutionString:"University of Haripur",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Haripur",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"320321",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Saud",slug:"shah-saud",fullName:"Shah Saud",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320321/images/system/320321.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shah Saud received his Ph.D. in Horticulture (turf grasses) from Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China. He is currently working as a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Horticulture, Northeast Agricultural University. Dr. Saud has published more than 125 research publications in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited three books and written twenty-five book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress responses, and environmental problems in relation to agricultural plants. According to Scopus, Dr. Saud’s publications have received roughly 2500 citations with an h-index of 24. He is an editor and reviewer for more than twenty peer-reviewed international journals. His outstanding work has been recognized with five awards for scientific and technological progress in Heilongjiang province, China. Dr. Saud has also won five international projects.",institutionString:"College of Life Sciences, Linyi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Northeast Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"320323",title:"Prof.",name:"Yajun",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"yajun-chen",fullName:"Yajun Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320323/images/system/320323.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yajun Chen obtained a Ph.D. in Crop Cultivation and Farming System from Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China, in 2005. Later, she completed her postdoctoral research in biology at Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China. Currently, she is a professor at the Horticulture College, Northeast Agricultural University. Over the course of a dozen years, Dr. Chen has studied in Australia (2003–2004), the United States (2010–2011), and Norway (2015–2016) as a visiting scholar funded by the Chinese government. Her research work encompasses ornamental plant adverse physiology and ecology, coping with ecological environment adaptation, and restoration of garden plants. Dr. Chen has published more than 110 research papers in peer-reviewed journals in her field at home and abroad. As a chief editor she has edited more than twenty books on important aspects of local flora, turf and flower culture, and plant stress physiology. She has also trained more than eighty master’s students and five Ph.D. candidates in these fields. Her outstanding work has been recognized with eight awards for scientific and technological progress in Heilongjiang province, China. She has also won two international and thirteen national projects.",institutionString:"Northeast Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Northeast Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:{id:"320324",title:"Dr.",name:"Chao",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"chao-wu",fullName:"Chao Wu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320324/images/system/320324.jpg",biography:"Dr. Chao Wu engages in the field of crop cultivation and physiology, and plant phenomics. He received a Ph.D. from Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China, in 2016, and completed his postdoctorate at Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China, in 2019. Currently, he is an associate research fellow at Guangxi Institute of Botany, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guilin, China. He chairs the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province and two postdoctoral science research foundations. His main research focus is physiological mechanisms of abiotic-stress tolerance (heat, drought) in crops and medicinal plants.",institutionString:"Guangxi Institute of Botany",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Guangxi Institute of Botany",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorFour:{id:"320325",title:"Dr.",name:"Depeng",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"depeng-wang",fullName:"Depeng Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320325/images/system/320325.jpg",biography:"Dr. Depeng Wang obtained a Ph.D. in Agronomy and Crop Physiology from Huazhong Agriculture University, Wuhan, China, in 2016. He is currently a professor at the College of Life Science, Linyi University, Linyi, China. He is the principal investigator of the Crop Genetic Improvement, Physiology & Ecology Center at Linyi University. His current research focuses on agronomy and crop ecology and physiology, including characteristics associated with high-yield crops, the effect of temperature on crop grain yield and solar radiation utilization, morphological plasticity to agronomic manipulation in leaf dispersion and orientation, and optimal integrated crop management practices for maximizing crop grain yield. Dr. Wang has published more than thirty-six papers in reputed journals. He has edited one book and written four book chapters on important aspects of crop physiology, environmental stress, and crop quality formation. According to Google Scholar Citation, his publications have received about 100 citations. He is a reviewer for five peer-reviewed international journals. Dr. Wang is a provincial crop expert in green, high-quality, and efficient technology, and has participated in six national projects with more than $4 million in research funding.",institutionString:"Linyi University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Linyi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"375",title:"Plant Physiology",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-plant-biology-plant-physiology"}],chapters:[{id:"73274",title:"A Review on Kentucky Bluegrass Responses and Tolerance to Drought Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93812",slug:"a-review-on-kentucky-bluegrass-responses-and-tolerance-to-drought-stress",totalDownloads:342,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) is an excellent cool-season turfgrass and is extensively used in urban green space, parks and sports fields worldwide, but it is sensitive to drought stress. Drought reduces turf quality of Kentucky bluegrass by influences on the shoot density, texture, uniformity, color, growth habit and recuperative capacity. It has been a challenge for breeding water saving cultivars and enhances water use efficiency in Kentucky bluegrass. Many studies have revealed the mechanisms of drought stress tolerance in Kentucky bluegrass via multiple approaches. The morphological and physiological attributes as well as molecular information were discovered for better understanding and improving its drought tolerance. In this chapter, we will draw a systematic literature review about Kentucky bluegrass in response to drought stress and provide future perspectives of Kentucky bluegrass drought resistance research.",signatures:"Jian Cui, Saud Shah, Shah Fahad and Yajun Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73274",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73274",authors:[{id:"320321",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",surname:"Saud",slug:"shah-saud",fullName:"Shah Saud"},{id:"320323",title:"Prof.",name:"Yajun",surname:"Chen",slug:"yajun-chen",fullName:"Yajun Chen"},{id:"239094",title:"Dr.",name:"Shah",surname:"Fahad",slug:"shah-fahad",fullName:"Shah Fahad"},{id:"328998",title:"Mrs.",name:"Jian",surname:"Cui",slug:"jian-cui",fullName:"Jian Cui"}],corrections:null},{id:"73995",title:"Management of Abiotic Stress in Forage Crops",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93852",slug:"management-of-abiotic-stress-in-forage-crops",totalDownloads:293,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Forage plays a key role in rearing ruminants and protecting the environment. Apart from serving as the primary source of food for domestic and wild animals, forages also contribute to human civilization in different ways like protecting soil through crop over and fertility by addition of organic matter. It also provides habitat for wild animals. A survival strategy plays a more important role than a growth strategy to improve the sustainability of forage production, especially in extreme environmental conditions . Climate change is likely to affect the forage production and nutritional food security for domestic animals. Long-term rainfall data in India indicate that rainfed areas experience 3 to 4 years of drought in every 10 years. Of these, one or two of it occur in severe form. Forage crop production is largely affected by abiotic factors related stress such as drought, salinity, etc. There is need to adopt various conventional and genetic approaches to improve stress tolerance of forage crops.",signatures:"Amanpreet Singh and Harmandeep Singh Chahal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73995",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73995",authors:[{id:"321310",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amanpreet",surname:"Singh",slug:"amanpreet-singh",fullName:"Amanpreet Singh"},{id:"323216",title:"MSc.",name:"Harmandeep Singh",surname:"Chahal",slug:"harmandeep-singh-chahal",fullName:"Harmandeep Singh Chahal"}],corrections:null},{id:"73432",title:"Responses of Neotropical Savannah Plant Species to Abiotic Stresses: A Structural and Functional Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93891",slug:"responses-of-neotropical-savannah-plant-species-to-abiotic-stresses-a-structural-and-functional-over",totalDownloads:326,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plants under field conditions are subject to different types of abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and light excess that adversely affect their growth and survival. In addition, several studies have pointed out the effect of climate change such as an increase in the concentration of atmospheric CO2, as well as an increase in global temperature on the distribution and wealth of plants. Adaptation to abiotic stress and survival occurs on different scales, at the cellular level for each individual, and requires a range of strategies, whether morphological, physiological, molecular or structural. Such strategies may be determinant in the distribution of plant species in natural habitats, depending on ecological adaptations shaped by the evolutionary history of species. In this chapter, we discuss recent information about mechanisms of plant adaptation to abiotic stress in the Neotropical savannah based on the cell and individual scales.",signatures:"Silvana Aparecida Barbosa de Castro and Vinícius Coelho Kuster",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73432",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73432",authors:[{id:"322261",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvana Aparecida Barbosa",surname:"de Castro",slug:"silvana-aparecida-barbosa-de-castro",fullName:"Silvana Aparecida Barbosa de Castro"},{id:"329042",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinícius Coelho",surname:"Kuster",slug:"vinicius-coelho-kuster",fullName:"Vinícius Coelho Kuster"}],corrections:null},{id:"74080",title:"Influence of Water Stress on Growth, Chlorophyll Contents and Solute Accumulation in Three Accessions of Vicia faba L. from Tunisian Arid Region",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94563",slug:"influence-of-water-stress-on-growth-chlorophyll-contents-and-solute-accumulation-in-three-accessions",totalDownloads:214,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, we aim to investigate the physiological and biochemical adaptations of Vicia faba plants to moderate irrigation regime (T1) and describe the effects of water stress on their growth performance and chlorophyll contents. For this reason, three Tunisia accessions (ElHamma, Mareth and Medenine) were studied. An experiment was conducted for one month. Faba bean plants were first grown in a greenhouse and then, exposed to water stress, whereby they were irrigated up to the field capacity (FC) of 0% (control, T0) and 50% of the control (moderate stress, T1). The effect of water stress on physiological parameters showed differences in relation to the accessions studied and the water regime. Relative water content (RWC) of ElHamma accession does not seem to be affected by stress as compared with the control regime. Total chlorophyll content decreases, whereas soluble sugar contents increases for all accessions studied. ElHamma has the highest content. About morphological parameters, bean growth varies according to the ascension and treatment. Hydric stress impedes the growth of the root part and caused a significant reduction in the shoot and root Dry Weight (DW) of the T1-stressed beans, compared to the optimal irrigation (T0).",signatures:"Hanen Enneb, Leila Ben Yahya, Mohamed Ilyas, Datta Asaram Dhale, Mohamed Bagues and Kamel Nagaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74080",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74080",authors:[{id:"253292",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamel",surname:"Nagaz",slug:"kamel-nagaz",fullName:"Kamel Nagaz"},{id:"328915",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanen",surname:"Enneb",slug:"hanen-enneb",fullName:"Hanen Enneb"},{id:"340629",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila Ben",surname:"Yahya",slug:"leila-ben-yahya",fullName:"Leila Ben Yahya"},{id:"340630",title:"Dr.",name:"Datta Asaram",surname:"Dhale",slug:"datta-asaram-dhale",fullName:"Datta Asaram Dhale"},{id:"340631",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Ilyas",slug:"mohamed-ilyas",fullName:"Mohamed Ilyas"},{id:"340632",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Bagues",slug:"mohamed-bagues",fullName:"Mohamed Bagues"}],corrections:null},{id:"73257",title:"Abiotic Stress Responses in Plants: Current Knowledge and Future Prospects",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93824",slug:"abiotic-stress-responses-in-plants-current-knowledge-and-future-prospects",totalDownloads:587,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Exposure to abiotic stresses has become a major threatening factor that hurdles the sustainable growth in agriculture for fulfilling the growing food demand worldwide. A significant decrease in the production of major food crops including wheat, rice, and maize is predicted in the near future due to the combined effect of abiotic stresses and climate change that will hamper global food security. Thus, desperate efforts are necessary to develop abiotic stress-resilient crops with improved agronomic traits. For this, detailed knowledge of the underlying mechanisms responsible for abiotic stress adaptation in plants is must required. Plants being sessile organisms respond to different stresses through complex and diverse responses that are integrated on various whole plants, cellular, and molecular levels. The advanced genetic and molecular tools have uncovered these complex stress adaptive processes and have provided critical inputs on their regulation. The present chapter focuses on understanding the different responses of the plants involved in abiotic stress adaptation and strategies employed to date for achieving stress resistance in plants.",signatures:"Deeksha Marothia, Navdeep Kaur and Pratap Kumar Pati",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73257",authors:[{id:"324164",title:"Dr.",name:"Navdeep",surname:"Kaur",slug:"navdeep-kaur",fullName:"Navdeep Kaur"},{id:"324446",title:"Ms.",name:"Deeksha",surname:"Marothia",slug:"deeksha-marothia",fullName:"Deeksha Marothia"},{id:"324447",title:"Prof.",name:"Pratap Kumar",surname:"Pati",slug:"pratap-kumar-pati",fullName:"Pratap Kumar Pati"}],corrections:null},{id:"74119",title:"Molecular Abiotic Stress Tolerans Strategies: From Genetic Engineering to Genome Editing Era",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94505",slug:"molecular-abiotic-stress-tolerans-strategies-from-genetic-engineering-to-genome-editing-era",totalDownloads:457,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In last decades, plants were increasingly subjected to multiple environmental abiotic stress factors as never before due to their stationary nature. Excess urbanization following the intense industrial applications introduced combinations of abiotic stresses as heat, drought, salinity, heavy metals etc. to plants in various intensities. Technological advancements brought novel biotechnological tools to the abiotic stress tolerance area as an alternative to time and money consuming traditional crop breeding activities as well as they brought vast majority of the problem themselves. Discoveries of single gene (as osmoprotectant, detoxyfying enzyme, transporter protein genes etc.) and multi gene (biomolecule synthesis, heat shock protein, regulatory transcription factor and signal transduction genes etc.) targets through functional genomic approaches identified abiotic stress responsive genes through EST based cDNA micro and macro arrays. In nowadays, genetic engineering and genome editing tools are present to transfer genes among different species and modify these target genes in site specific, even single nuclotide specific manner. This present chapter will evaluate genomic engineering approaches and applications targeting these abiotic stress tolerance responsive mechanisms as well as future prospects of genome editing applications in this field.",signatures:"Sinan Meriç, Alp Ayan and Çimen Atak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74119",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74119",authors:[{id:"147364",title:"Prof.",name:"Çimen",surname:"Atak",slug:"cimen-atak",fullName:"Çimen Atak"},{id:"191695",title:"Dr.",name:"Alp",surname:"Ayan",slug:"alp-ayan",fullName:"Alp Ayan"},{id:"191696",title:"Dr.",name:"Sinan",surname:"Meriç",slug:"sinan-meric",fullName:"Sinan Meriç"}],corrections:null},{id:"73636",title:"Elevated CO2 Concentration Improves Heat-Tolerant Ability in Crops",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94128",slug:"elevated-co-sub-2-sub-concentration-improves-heat-tolerant-ability-in-crops",totalDownloads:639,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The rising concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (aCO2) and increasing temperature are the main reasons for climate change, which are significantly affecting crop production systems in this world. However, the elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration can improve the growth and development of crop plants by increasing photosynthetic rate (higher availability of photoassimilates). The combined effects of elevated CO2 (eCO2) and temperature on crop growth and carbon metabolism are not adequately recognized, while both eCO2 and temperature triggered noteworthy changes in crop production. Therefore, to increase crop yields, it is important to identify the physiological mechanisms and genetic traits of crop plants which play a vital role in stress tolerance under the prevailing conditions. The eCO2 and temperature stress effects on physiological aspects as well as biochemical profile to characterize genotypes that differ in their response to stress conditions. The aim of this review is directed the open-top cavities to regulate the properties like physiological, biochemical, and yield of crops under increasing aCO2, and temperature. Overall, the extent of the effect of eCO2 and temperature response to biochemical components and antioxidants remains unclear, and therefore further studies are required to promote an unperturbed production system.",signatures:"Ayman EL Sabagh, Akbar Hossain, Mohammad Sohidul Islam, Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Ali Raza, Çetin Karademir, Emine Karademir, Abdul Rehman, Md Atikur Rahman, Rajesh Kumar Singhal, Analía Llanes, Muhammad Ali Raza, Muhammad Mubeen, Wajid Nasim, Celaleddin Barutçular, Ram Swaroop Meena and Hirofumi Saneoka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73636",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73636",authors:[{id:"215584",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayman",surname:"EL Sabagh",slug:"ayman-el-sabagh",fullName:"Ayman EL Sabagh"},{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"},{id:"309311",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Sohidul",surname:"Islam",slug:"mohammad-sohidul-islam",fullName:"Mohammad Sohidul Islam"},{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"},{id:"317878",title:"Prof.",name:"Hirofumi",surname:"Saneoka",slug:"hirofumi-saneoka",fullName:"Hirofumi Saneoka"},{id:"317879",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Mubeen",slug:"muhammad-mubeen",fullName:"Muhammad Mubeen"},{id:"317880",title:"Prof.",name:"Celaleddin",surname:"Barutçular",slug:"celaleddin-barutcular",fullName:"Celaleddin Barutçular"},{id:"318779",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Aamir Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-aamir-iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal"},{id:"320400",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singhal",slug:"rajesh-singhal",fullName:"Rajesh Singhal"},{id:"320721",title:"Dr.",name:"Wajid",surname:"Nasim",slug:"wajid-nasim",fullName:"Wajid Nasim"},{id:"320879",title:"Dr.",name:"Analía",surname:"Llanes",slug:"analia-llanes",fullName:"Analía Llanes"},{id:"329978",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Raza",slug:"ali-raza",fullName:"Ali Raza"},{id:"329979",title:"Prof.",name:"Çetin",surname:"Karademir",slug:"cetin-karademir",fullName:"Çetin Karademir"},{id:"329980",title:"Prof.",name:"Emine",surname:"Karademir",slug:"emine-karademir",fullName:"Emine Karademir"},{id:"329981",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",surname:"Rehman",slug:"abdul-rehman",fullName:"Abdul Rehman"},{id:"329982",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Atikur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"md.-atikur-rahman",fullName:"Md. Atikur Rahman"},{id:"329983",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Ali Raza",slug:"muhammad-ali-raza",fullName:"Muhammad Ali Raza"}],corrections:null},{id:"73439",title:"Ecological and Economic Potential of Major Halophytes and Salt Tolerant Vegetation in India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93841",slug:"ecological-and-economic-potential-of-major-halophytes-and-salt-tolerant-vegetation-in-india",totalDownloads:651,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Soil salinization is a global and climatic phenomenon that affects various spheres of life. The present rate of salinization is perilously fast because of global climate change and associated events leading to enhanced land degradation, loss of soil fertility and crop productivity. In this chapter, we tried to focus on the arid and semiarid regions of India along with our coastal zone which are economically fragile regions and need much closer attention. In future, India will face extreme pressure on its land resources in agriculture because of likely rapid degradation of these resources. Thus, salt affected soils must be brought under cultivation by adopting site specific strategies to ensure national food and nutritional security. In this regard, a comprehensive review of the major halophytes of these ecological zones, its mechanism of salt tolerance, ecological and economic potential is done. The potential applications of saline land vegetation including halophytes in climate change mitigation, phytoremediation, desalination, food, secondary metabolite and nutraceutical production, medicine, and saline agriculture have been discussed. Further, we tried to focus on popular farmer adopted halophytic species including edible ones, their uses, products of economic significance etc. which is highly imperative for effective utilization of these saline soils leading to improved livelihood and sustenance of resource poor farmers along with improved ecological balance.",signatures:"T.V. Vineeth, Shrvan Kumar, Monika Shukla, Anil Chinchmalatpure and Parbodh Chander Sharma",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73439",authors:[{id:"318835",title:"Prof.",name:"Parbodh Chander",surname:"Sharma",slug:"parbodh-chander-sharma",fullName:"Parbodh Chander Sharma"},{id:"324271",title:"Mr.",name:"T.V.",surname:"Vineeth",slug:"t.v.-vineeth",fullName:"T.V. Vineeth"},{id:"329419",title:"Dr.",name:"Shrvan",surname:"Kumar",slug:"shrvan-kumar",fullName:"Shrvan Kumar"},{id:"329420",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",surname:"Shukla",slug:"monika-shukla",fullName:"Monika Shukla"},{id:"329422",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",surname:"Chinchmalatpure",slug:"anil-chinchmalatpure",fullName:"Anil Chinchmalatpure"}],corrections:null},{id:"73618",title:"Protagonist of Mineral Nutrients in Drought Stress Tolerance of Field Crops",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94135",slug:"protagonist-of-mineral-nutrients-in-drought-stress-tolerance-of-field-crops",totalDownloads:347,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The food demand is increasing hastily, that is inducing continuous pressure on agriculture sector and industries to fulfill rising dietary needs. To meet with increasing demand, the food production must be elevated up to 70% until the year 2050. On the other hand, changing climate is disturbing crop production around the World. Crops grown under field conditions are affected by more than one abiotic stress. It is continuous task and challenge for agronomists to make crops environment hardy to obtain maximum yield. It is considered that different agronomic managements, if done appropriately, could be beneficial for increasing crop production. The optimal provision of plant nutrients can assist the crops to fight in better way with environmental stress like drought; it can help them to continue their normal metabolism even under hostile abiotic circumstances. The regions that have reduced availability of water for crop production, a balanced nutrient management can assist crops to give adequate production. Some of nutrients have potential of not only maintaining plant metabolism but also to enhance the quality of product. This chapter highlights the protagonist of plant nutrients in alleviation of drought stress in field crops.",signatures:"Malik Ghulam Asghar and Anam Bashir",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73618",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73618",authors:[{id:"322154",title:"Mr.",name:"Malik",surname:"Ghulam Asghar",slug:"malik-ghulam-asghar",fullName:"Malik Ghulam Asghar"},{id:"331201",title:"Ms.",name:"Anam",surname:"Bashir",slug:"anam-bashir",fullName:"Anam Bashir"}],corrections:null},{id:"73344",title:"An Insight into the Responses of Early-Maturing Brassica napus to Different Low-Temperature Stresses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93708",slug:"an-insight-into-the-responses-of-early-maturing-em-brassica-napus-em-to-different-low-temperature-st",totalDownloads:327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) is an important oil crop worldwide, responds to vernalization, and shows an excellent tolerance to cold stresses during vegetative stage. The winter-type and semi-winter-type rapeseed were typical winter biennial plants in Europe and China. In recent years, more and more early-maturing semi-winter rapeseed varieties were planted across China. Unfortunately, the early-maturing rapeseed varieties with low cold tolerance have higher risk of freeze injury in cold winter and spring. The molecular mechanisms for coping with different low-temperature stress conditions in rapeseed recently had gained more attention and development. The present review gives an insight into the responses of early-maturing B. napus to different low-temperature stresses (chilling, freezing, cold-acclimation, and vernalization), and the strategies to improve tolerance against low-temperature stresses are also discussed.",signatures:"Xin He",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73344",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73344",authors:[{id:"322626",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin",surname:"He",slug:"xin-he",fullName:"Xin He"}],corrections:null},{id:"73200",title:"Effects of Salinity on Seed Germination and Early Seedling Stage",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93647",slug:"effects-of-salinity-on-seed-germination-and-early-seedling-stage",totalDownloads:1152,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Salinity is the major environmental stress source that restricts on agricultural productivity and sustainability in arid and semiarid regions by a reduction in the germination rate and a delay in the initiation of germination and subsequent seedling establishment. Salt negatively effects the crop production worldwide. Because most of the cultivated plants are salt-sensitive glycophytes. Salt stress affects the seed germination and seedling establishment through osmotic stress, ion toxicity, and oxidative stress. Salinity may adversely influence seed germination by decreasing the amounts of seed germination stimulants such as GAs, enhancing ABA amounts, and altering membrane permeability and water behavior in the seed. Rapid seed germination and subsequent seedling establishment are important factors affecting crop production under salinity conditions. Seed priming is one of the useful physiological approaches for adaptation of glycophyte species to saline conditions during germination and subsequent seedling establishment. In seed priming, seeds are exposed to an eliciting solution for a certain period that allows partial hydration without radicle protrusion. Seed priming is a simple, low cost, and powerful biotechnological tool used to overcome the salinity problem in agricultural lands.",signatures:"Cüneyt Uçarlı",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73200",authors:[{id:"189302",title:"Dr.",name:"Cüneyt",surname:"Uçarlı",slug:"cuneyt-ucarli",fullName:"Cüneyt Uçarlı"}],corrections:null},{id:"73412",title:"Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants: Role of Phytohormones",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93710",slug:"abiotic-stress-tolerance-in-crop-plants-role-of-phytohormones",totalDownloads:786,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Crop plants are encountered by various abiotic pressures which limit their growth and development. Stresses such as drought, heat, pathogen attack, heavy metal, salinity, and radiations impose negative effect on crop plants. The reduction in crop productivity in the current era of climate change is compromising the efforts/strategies used for sustainable agricultural practices. Therefore, plant stress physiologists are engineering plants with suitable exogenous signaling elicitors to engineer tolerance to various stresses. In the present chapter, an appraisal has been made in the “Introduction” section to first assess the damages caused by various abiotic stresses in crop plants. In the second section, we attempt to summarize the role of various plant hormones, namely, salicylic acid (SA), brassinosteroids (BRs), ethylene (ET), and methyl jasmonate (MJ) in enhancing abiotic stress tolerance. The current concept may lead to the development of strategies for unraveling the underlying mechanisms of plant hormone-mediated abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants.",signatures:"Haifa Abdulaziz S. Alhaithloul, Abdelghafar M. Abu-Elsaoud and Mona H. Soliman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73412",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73412",authors:[{id:"286445",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelghafar M.",surname:"Abu-Elsaoud",slug:"abdelghafar-m.-abu-elsaoud",fullName:"Abdelghafar M. Abu-Elsaoud"},{id:"325451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mona H.",surname:"Soliman",slug:"mona-h.-soliman",fullName:"Mona H. Soliman"},{id:"325820",title:"Dr.",name:"Haifa",surname:"Abdulaziz S. Alhaithloul",slug:"haifa-abdulaziz-s.-alhaithloul",fullName:"Haifa Abdulaziz S. Alhaithloul"}],corrections:null},{id:"73771",title:"Morphophysiological Traits, Biochemical Characteristic and Productivity of Wheat under Water and Nitrogen-Colimitation: Pathways to Improve Water and N Uptake",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94355",slug:"morphophysiological-traits-biochemical-characteristic-and-productivity-of-wheat-under-water-and-nitr",totalDownloads:438,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Drought stress is the most prominent limiting factor and abiotic stress that manipulates the physiological pathway, biochemical traits and hence negatively affects wheat crop productivity. The global nitrogen (N) recovery indicated that about two-fifths of N inputs are lost in the ecosystems through emission, denitrification, gaseous loss, leaching, surface runoff and volatilization etc. Farmers are using higher rates of N to harvest maximum yield but about 50–60% of applied N to crop field is not utilized by the plants and are lost to environment causing environmental pollution. These deleterious environmental consequences need to be reduced by efficient management of N and/or water. N-availability is often regulated by soil water; hence crop is experiencing N- and water-limitation simultaneously. There is great impetus to optimize their uptake through interconnectedness of water and N for yield determination of wheat because of the water scarcity and N losses. It is further advocate that there is need to investigate the intricate role of economizing N rate and water simultaneously for wheat crop growth, yield and backing quality may be beneficial to be investigate.",signatures:"Nawab Ali and Mohammad Akmal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73771",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73771",authors:[{id:"240710",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawab",surname:"Ali",slug:"nawab-ali",fullName:"Nawab Ali"},{id:"333984",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Akmal",slug:"mohammad-akmal",fullName:"Mohammad Akmal"}],corrections:null},{id:"73281",title:"Adapting Cereal Grain Crops to Drought Stress: 2020 and Beyond",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93845",slug:"adapting-cereal-grain-crops-to-drought-stress-2020-and-beyond",totalDownloads:668,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Among other environmental instabilities, drought stress is the primary limitation to cereal crops growth, development and productivity. In the context of continuing global climate change, breeding of drought resistant crop cultivars is the most economical, effective and sustainable strategy for adapting the crop production system and ensuring food security for the growing human population. Additionally, there is need for improving management practices. Whereas conventional breeding has sustained crop productivity gains in the past century, modern technological advancements have revolutionized our identification of important drought tolerance genes and underlying mechanisms, and accelerated new cultivar development. Large-scale high throughput sequencing, phenotyping, ‘omics’ and systems biology, as well as marker assisted and quantitative trait loci mapping based breeding approaches have offered significant insights into crop drought stress tolerance and provided some new tools for crop improvement. Despite this significant progress in elucidating the mechanisms underlying drought tolerance, considerable challenges remain and our understanding of the crop drought tolerance mechanisms is still abstract. In this chapter, therefore, we highlight current progress in the identification of drought tolerance genes and underlying mechanisms, as well as their practical applications. We then offer a holistic approach for cereal crops adaptation to future climate change exacerbated drought stress.",signatures:"Tinashe Zenda, Songtao Liu and Huijun Duan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73281",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73281",authors:[{id:"322870",title:"Dr.",name:"Tinashe",surname:"Zenda",slug:"tinashe-zenda",fullName:"Tinashe Zenda"},{id:"322875",title:"Prof.",name:"Huijun",surname:"Duan",slug:"huijun-duan",fullName:"Huijun Duan"},{id:"328655",title:"Prof.",name:"Songtao",surname:"Liu",slug:"songtao-liu",fullName:"Songtao Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"73040",title:"Abiotic Stress-Induced Molecular and Physiological Changes and Adaptive Mechanisms in Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93367",slug:"abiotic-stress-induced-molecular-and-physiological-changes-and-adaptive-mechanisms-in-plants",totalDownloads:320,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Abiotic stress is the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crop plants by more than 50%. Among abiotic stress, drought, salinity, high temperature, and cold are major adverse environmental factors that limit the crop production and productivity by inhibiting the genetic potential of the plant. So, it leads to complete change of morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular behavior of the plants and modifies regular metabolism of life, thereby adversely affecting plant productivity. Major effects of the drought, salinity, extreme temperatures, and cold stress are often interconnected and form similar cellular damage. To adopt plants with various abiotic stresses, plants can initiate a number of molecular, cellular, and physiological changes in its system. Sensors are molecules that perceive the initial stress signal from the outside of the plant system and initiate a signaling cascade to transmit the signal and activate nuclear transcription factors to induce the expression of specific sets of genes. Understanding this molecular and physiological basis of plant responses produced because of abiotic stress will help in molecular and modern breeding applications toward developing improved stress-tolerant crops. This review presents an overview and implications of physiological and molecular aspects of main abiotic stress, i.e., drought, heat, salt, and cold. Potential strategies to improve abiotic tolerance in crops are discussed.",signatures:"Sivaji Mathivanan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73040",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73040",authors:[{id:"325687",title:"Dr.",name:"Sivaji",surname:"Mathivanan",slug:"sivaji-mathivanan",fullName:"Sivaji Mathivanan"}],corrections:null},{id:"73641",title:"HSPs under Abiotic Stresses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93787",slug:"hsps-under-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Different organisms respond to the altered environmental conditions by different ways. Heat shock proteins’ (HSPs) production is one among the different defense mechanisms which defend the photosystem II and thylokoid membrane in plants. There are different types of HSPs based on their size, that is, high molecular weight (60–100 kDa) and low molecular weight heat shock proteins (15–30 kDa). Small HSPs are further classified based on their localization and role in different sub-cellular organelles. Cp-sHSPs are the chloroplast-specific small HSPs that protect the photosystem II and thylokoid membrane. A model to control the Cp-sHSPs in Chenopodium album has been put forward in this chapter. According to this model, Cp-sHSPs of Chenopodium album are created in cytoplasm and are moved toward chloroplast. The transit peptide is removed on reaching to the target sub-cellular organelle, that is, chloroplast and the premature Cp-sHSPs are converted into mature ones which have multiple roles under different abiotic stress conditions.",signatures:"Noor ul Haq and Samina N. Shakeel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73641",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73641",authors:[{id:"322188",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor Ul",surname:"Haq",slug:"noor-ul-haq",fullName:"Noor Ul Haq"},{id:"323816",title:"Dr.",name:"Samina N.",surname:"Shakeel",slug:"samina-n.-shakeel",fullName:"Samina N. Shakeel"}],corrections:null},{id:"73340",title:"Plant Growth and Morphophysiological Modifications in Perennial Ryegrass under Environmental Stress",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93709",slug:"plant-growth-and-morphophysiological-modifications-in-perennial-ryegrass-under-environmental-stress",totalDownloads:321,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) is a popular and important cool-season turfgrass used in parks, landscapes, sports fields, and golf courses, and it has significant ecological, environmental, and economic values. It is also widely used as forage and pasture grass for animals around the world. However, the growth of perennial ryegrass is often affected by various abiotic stresses, which cause declines in turf quality and forage production. Among abiotic stresses, drought, salinity, temperature, and heavy metal are the most detrimental factors for perennial ryegrass growth in different regions, which result in growth inhibition, cell structure damage, and metabolic dysfunction. Many researches have revealed a lot useful information for understanding the mechanism of tolerance to adverse stresses at morphophysiological level. In this chapter, we will give a systematic literature review about morphological and physiological changes of perennial ryegrass in response to main stress factors and provide detail aspects of improving perennial ryegrass resistance based on research progress. Understanding morphophysiological response in perennial ryegrass under stress will contribute to improving further insights on fundamental mechanisms of perennial ryegrass stress tolerance and providing valuable information for breeding resistance cultivars of perennial ryegrass.",signatures:"Fuchun Xie, Rahul Datta and Dong Qin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73340",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73340",authors:[{id:"313525",title:"Dr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Datta",slug:"rahul-datta",fullName:"Rahul Datta"},{id:"327845",title:"Dr.",name:"Dong",surname:"Qin",slug:"dong-qin",fullName:"Dong Qin"},{id:"328138",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fuchun",surname:"Xie",slug:"fuchun-xie",fullName:"Fuchun Xie"}],corrections:null},{id:"73824",title:"Advances in Developing Multigene Abiotic and Biotic Stress-Tolerant Rice Varieties",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93751",slug:"advances-in-developing-multigene-abiotic-and-biotic-stress-tolerant-rice-varieties",totalDownloads:594,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Increasing incidences of multiple abiotic stresses together with increasing population are the major constraints to attain the global food security. Rice, the major staple food crop is very much prone to various abiotic and biotic stresses, which can occur one at a time or two or more together in a single crop growing season and adversely affects the rice production and productivity. The devastating effect of multiple stresses on rice crop is much more erratic and complex leading to higher losses in the crop grain yield. The concurrent occurrence of multiple streeses can destroy rice production in many of the rainfed areas of South and Southeast-Asia. Genomics-assisted breeding strategies have been instrumental in introgression of various major effect QTLs/genes into rice mega varieties and have proven successful in achieving the desired level of tolerance/resistance to various abiotic stresses in diffferent crop species. Keeping the present scenario of changing climate in mind, the chapter discusses the recent past success in combining tolerance to two or more abiotic stresses in mega rice varieties applying genomics-assisted breeding and development of high-yielding climate resilient rice through stacking of multiple genes/QTLs, which can withstand in a cascade of multiple stresses occurring regularly in rainfed environments.",signatures:"Nitika Sandhu, Shailesh Yadav and Arvind Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73824",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73824",authors:[{id:"323058",title:"Dr.",name:"Arvind",surname:"Kumar",slug:"arvind-kumar",fullName:"Arvind Kumar"},{id:"329059",title:"Dr.",name:"Nitika",surname:"Sandhu",slug:"nitika-sandhu",fullName:"Nitika Sandhu"},{id:"329060",title:"Dr.",name:"Shailesh",surname:"Yadav",slug:"shailesh-yadav",fullName:"Shailesh Yadav"}],corrections:null},{id:"73168",title:"Salt Stress in Plants and Amelioration Strategies: A Critical Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93552",slug:"salt-stress-in-plants-and-amelioration-strategies-a-critical-review",totalDownloads:837,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"High salt concentration in soil is a major abiotic stress, which adversely influences the growth, overall development, and productivity of crops. More than 20% of the land of the world used for crop production is adversely affected by high salt concentration. The problem of salt stress becomes a major concern when previously fertile, productive agricultural lands are salinized more profoundly as a result of anthropogenic activities along with natural causes. Therefore, this review is focused on various aspects of salt-affected soils (SAS), their effects on plants, and different approaches for reclamation of SAS to enhance the potentiality for crop production. Salt-affected soils are categorized into saline, saline-sodic, and sodic soils based on the amount of total soluble salts as expressed by electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), and soil pH. The inhibition of plant growth in saline soils is mainly induced by osmotic stress; reduced uptake of essential macro- and micronutrients, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu); and specific toxicities of sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl). Sodic soils adversely affect the plant through high soil pH and poor physical condition resulting from an excessive amount of exchangeable Na. Different plants respond to salt stress in different extents. Salt-affected soils must be reclaimed to restore their productivity for increasing food production. The approaches for the management of SAS include leaching, incorporation of different organic and inorganic amendments, mulching, and development of salt-tolerant crops. The suitability of approaches depends on several considerations such as cost of reclamation, the time required, the extent of the salt stress, soil properties, availability of technology, and other environmental factors. Among different strategies, the incorporation of organic amendments is beneficial, cost-effective, environment friendly, and sustainable for amelioration of salt stress and enhancement of crop production due to the extensive roles of organic amendments in improving the soil’s physical (structural stability, porosity, and permeability), chemical [pH, EC, ESP, organic matter, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and Na leaching], and biological and/or biochemical (microbial abundance, microbial activity, biomass carbon, and enzymatic activities) properties.",signatures:"Sajal Roy and Nasrin Chowdhury",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73168",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73168",authors:[{id:"323311",title:"Mr.",name:"Sajal",surname:"Roy",slug:"sajal-roy",fullName:"Sajal Roy"},{id:"323313",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasrin",surname:"Chowdhury",slug:"nasrin-chowdhury",fullName:"Nasrin Chowdhury"}],corrections:null},{id:"73719",title:"TIP Aquaporins in Plants: Role in Abiotic Stress Tolerance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94165",slug:"tip-aquaporins-in-plants-role-in-abiotic-stress-tolerance",totalDownloads:379,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tonoplast Intrinsic Proteins (TIP) are one of five subfamilies of aquaporins in higher plants. Plants typically contain a large number of TIP genes, ranging from 6 to 35 compared to humans. The molecular weight of the TIP subfamily members ranges from 25 to 28 kDa. Despite their sequence diversity, all TIP monomers have the same structure, which consists of six transmembrane helices and five inter-helical loops that form an hourglass shape with a central pore. Four monomers form tetramers, which are functional units in the membrane. TIPs form channels in the tonoplast that basically function as regulators of the intracellular water flow, which implies that they have a role in regulating cell turgor. TIPs are responsible for precisely regulating the movement of not only water, but also some small neutral molecules such as glycerol, urea, ammonia, hydrogen peroxide and formamide. The expression of TIPs may be affected by different environmental stresses, including drought, salinity and cold. TIPs expression is also altered by phytohormones and the appropriate cis-regulatory motifs are identified in the promotor region of the genes encoding TIPs in different plant species. It was shown that manipulating TIP-encoding genes expression in plants could have the potential to improve abiotic stress tolerance.",signatures:"Marzena Małgorzata Kurowska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73719",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73719",authors:[{id:"322201",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marzena",surname:"Kurowska",slug:"marzena-kurowska",fullName:"Marzena Kurowska"}],corrections:null},{id:"73474",title:"Drought Responses on Physiological Attributes of Zea mays in Relation to Nitrogen and Source-Sink Relationships",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93747",slug:"drought-responses-on-physiological-attributes-of-em-zea-mays-em-in-relation-to-nitrogen-and-source-s",totalDownloads:459,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Maize is the staple food crop and essential for world food security. Maize plants’ water requirement is high for proper growth and development at vegetative stage and grain formation at reproductive stage. Drought is the major abiotic stress that affects almost all the growth stages of maize crop and it has a strong impact on all the physiological process of maize plants. Similarly, N metabolism is of central importance during drought stress. Nitrogen (N) is one of the macronutrients; it is a major requirement for crop growth and grain yield of maize. Therefore, nitrogen and water separately or in combination are the two most critical factors in maize production. Drought modifies source-sink relations and weakens the source and sink strength, which disturbs plant’s growth, plant’s adaptation to stress, and consequently affects crop productivity.",signatures:"Suphia Rafique",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73474",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73474",authors:[{id:"322205",title:"Dr.",name:"Suphia",surname:"Rafique",slug:"suphia-rafique",fullName:"Suphia Rafique"}],corrections:null},{id:"73265",title:"Ecofriendly Marigold Dye as Natural Colourant for Fabric",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93823",slug:"ecofriendly-marigold-dye-as-natural-colourant-for-fabric",totalDownloads:450,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter highlights on the applications of marigold plant extracts as an antibacterial and antimicrobial best dyer for textiles. Tagetes erecta usually known as Marigold is a vital wellspring of carotenoids and lutein, developed as a nursery plant. Marigold blossoms are yellow to orange red in colour. Now a days, lutein is transforming into an unquestionably common powerful fixing, used as a part of the medicines, food industry and textile coatings. This has increased more noticeable vitality of marigold and its exceptional concealing properties. Regardless of the way that marigold blooms; its extract has been used as a measure of veterinary supports. The examination was directed to contemplate the usage of a concentrate of marigold as a trademark shading, which is antibacterial and antimicrobial. The marigold extract ability was focused on colouring of the cotton fabrics. Investigations of the dye ability, wash fastness, light fastness, antibacterial tests and antimicrobial tests can be endeavoured. Studies have exhibited that surface concealing was not impacted by washing and drying in the shadow/sunlight. These surprises reveal that the concentrate of marigold extract can be used for cotton fabrics.",signatures:"Sujata F. Harlapur, Suneeta Harlapur and Shantabasavareddi F. Harlapur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73265",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73265",authors:[{id:"251439",title:"Dr.",name:"Suneeta",surname:"Harlapur",slug:"suneeta-harlapur",fullName:"Suneeta Harlapur"},{id:"328794",title:"Prof.",name:"Sujata",surname:"Harlapur",slug:"sujata-harlapur",fullName:"Sujata Harlapur"},{id:"329410",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanthbasavareddi F.",surname:"Harlapur",slug:"shanthbasavareddi-f.-harlapur",fullName:"Shanthbasavareddi F. 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\r\n\tApplied and basic studies - Field studies and lab assays of fungicides can be discussed. We also look for examples of application methods, which may include timing of application, tools for application, fungicide compatibility, phytotoxicity, etc. Field trials have to have at least two years of data;
\r\n\tAdaptation of Integrated Plant Disease Management - How the IPM practice has been adapted in the field. Application of disease risk models, or use of fungicide application aids, which can be hardware or software. The introduction of a new tool for growers can also be included;
\r\n\tNovel fungicides - In addition to the traditional chemical approach, alternative materials (enzymes, oils, extracts, etc.), biological control agents, or plant defense activators can be discussed;
\r\n\tAdaptation of new technologies - Examples will be the use of unmanned vehicles, sensor technologies, advanced sprayers, or disease forecast systems for precision agriculture;
\r\n\tFungicide resistance - Unfortunately, we cannot ignore the fact that fungicide-resistant strains are widespread. Documentation of fungicide-resistant strains, the introduction of new technologies and methods can be discussed.
Universal health coverage (UHC) has been gaining a wider attention since the beginning of the 2000s, and it has become an ideological reference for health systems across the world. UHC stands for ensuring that health services, needed by people, are of sufficient quality, and that people may access them without exposing themselves to financial hardship.
\nThe historical background of UHC goes back to the period immediately after World War II. In 1948, WHO’s constitution considered health as a human right; in 1978, the Alma Ata declaration sustained the importance of primary healthcare to grant “Health for All”; in 2005, members of WHO signed a resolution aiming at the implementation of universal coverage [1]; recently, in 2018, in the Declaration of Astana governments recommitted to the importance of primary healthcare as a major pillar of UHC. Additionally, the UN has set UHC as a target for Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 3.8 [2]) to be achieved by 2030 [3].
\nFunding UHC has been one of the major challenges faced by governments. Not only funding has to be efficient to guarantee people’s access to health services when they are needed but it also has to ensure equity across people in the country.
\nToday governments have to deal with the new reality of aging societies. This demographic phenomenon is taking place all over the world, although some countries are aging more rapidly than others. For instance, in EU, it is expected that within five decades, the number of elderly aged over 80 will triple and there be only two active people (15–64 y.o.1) for each older person (+65 y.o.) [4].
\nAging implies a new constraint to funding as more people contribute less to the collection of financial revenues and more people are in need of healthcare, due to morbidity and end-of-life needs.
\nIn this chapter, we aim to present the concept of universal health coverage and LTC and also to discuss how it may be financed under the present scenario of demographic aging and increasing demand for long-term care.
\nUniversal healthcare coverage is the natural evolution of health systems since the World War II. UHC may be described as a general coverage framework where people receive health services needed with quality, without suffering financial hardship [5]. So, the two main objectives may be listed. First, all people should have access to a package of services in wide range of healthcare spectrum, including treatment, promotion, prevention, rehabilitation, long-term care, and palliative care. This objective guarantees that healthcare services may be available to everybody, with quality when they are needed. Therefore, quality and equity are core to this objective.
\nThe second objective ensures that people do not get bankruptcy because of health-care expenditures. The best way to prevent this financial hardship on people is by compulsory prepayment to a fund. The payments done by people are according to their ability to pay, which implies that there are always some people in the population who need to be subsidized because they are poor or cannot contribute to the fund.
\nUHC requires efficient management and fairness-sustainability trade-offs because UHC does not mean unlimited resources nor services provided. The general long-lasting aim of UHC is to expand coverage on a three- dimensional cube (Figure 1): breadth, depth, and height. Breadth of coverage measures the proportion of people who are covered or entitled; depth reflects the healthcare services that are included in the package of UHC; and finally, height shows the proportion of costs that are shared between people and the health system.
\nUHC cube. Source: Based on WHO [
Nowadays aging is a major demographic phenomenon taking placing. People are getting older, and so there is change in the age distribution pictures from a pyramidal shape to inverted pyramidal shape. The fast growing percentage of elderly in the population is expected to take place in the next decades, as shown in Figure 2, which displays the projected evolution of older age groups for Europe.
\nProjections of percentage of age group in population in Europe. Source: Based on UN data [
There are three trends that may explain the current aging phenomenon [8]. They include (i) the increased longevity of people as people they live longer, (ii) the declined fertility as women have less children, and (iii) the aging of “baby boom” generations.
\nThis demographic scenario raises the concern of how living longer is related to people’s health, in particular, in later stages in life. In fact, the relationship between aging and health has been described from three different perspectives:
a compression of morbidity, proposed by Fries [9], where morbidity is condensed in the last part of the life cycle;
an expansion of morbidity, proposed by Gruenber [10] and Kramer [11], where the increased life years are unhealthy and spent with morbidity; and
a dynamic equilibrium, proposed by Manton [12], which is something in between the two previous proposals, meaning that, there is a constant proportion of healthy life in the overall life cycle of people. According to this proposal, the gains obtained of life span without disability are balanced by losses in healthy life span. The dynamic equilibrium may also be described by the balance between the decreasing/constant proportion of life span with serious illness or disability, and the increasing proportion of life span with moderate disability or illness severity.
Depending on the country or the region, these three perspectives may be found. However, in all of them, the increasing need of long-term care (LCT) is inevitable. What may differ across each of them is the kind of LCT needed and provided.
\nLTC may be defined as the range of services and assistance for people who, as a result of mental and/or physical frailty and/or disability over an extended period of time, depend on help with daily living activities and/or are in need of some permanent nursing care” [4]. The living activities for which people may need help include both activities of daily living (ADL) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADL). The ADL include basic self-care tasks such as healthcare and personal care (e.g., help with hygiene) and also household help (e.g., shopping). IADL include activities related to independent living and include preparing meals, managing money, shopping for groceries or personal items, performing light or heavy housework, doing laundry, and using a telephone.
\nLong-term care is often under looked in the package of UHC, even though its provision has been increasing in several countries, in particular, in Northern Europe. The provision of LTC can take different forms: health or social nature, cash or in-kind benefits, and institutional/formal or home/informal care.
\nThe variability of long-term care systems across countries is so large that comparisons are difficult to perform. For instance, when comparing the long-term care expenditures (both social and health) as a share of current health expenditures across EU countries, it becomes clear that all LTC systems tend to be different (Figure 3).
\nShare of total current health expenditure (%CHE), 2016. Source: Based on Eurostat data [
Comparing different forms of LTC provided across countries becomes even harder as shown in Figure 4, when comparing expenditures in LTC per capita and the structure of expenditures in type of LTC.
\nExpenditures on different types of long-term care, 2016. Note: Includes government schemes and compulsory contributory health-care financing schemes; monetary unit: Purchasing power standard (PPS) per inhabitant. Source: Based on Eurostat data [
To overcome comparisons across countries, OECD [14] has proposed one classification of LTC systems. Two criteria are used to classify LTC coverage: one is the depth of the benefits and the other is the organization.
\nThe depth of the benefits measures the scope of the entitlement of the LTC benefits, i.e., either universal or means-tested; the organization criterion assesses how the LCT is covered, either by a single system or by a multiple benefits, services, and programs.
\nBased on these two criteria, three groups of countries are identified. The first group includes countries with a universal coverage based on a single program (e.g., Nordic countries, Belgium, and Japan). This system may be separate from the health system, or be part it, and LTC is provided to everyone eligible. This does not mean free provision because there may be means of payment such as co-payments or user charges subject to income thresholds.
\nThe second group considers mixed systems (e.g., Italy, Czech Republic, Ireland, Australia, France, Greece, Spain, and Switzerland), meaning a mixture of universal with means-tested LTC programs and benefits. In these countries, there is no single LTC system but rather multiple benefits and entitlements.
\nFinally, the third group includes countries with means-tested safety net schemes (e.g., USA). Under this type of LTC coverage organization, income and/or assets are used to assess the eligibility to publicly funded care. People with means lower than some established threshold are entitled to receive such coverage.
\nThe allocation of LTC benefits varies across countries, and all countries end up facing the same trade-off between fair protection and fiscal sustainability. The allocation of resources to LTC usually does not provide full costs of LTC to all older people. Benefits are to be distributed according to the three vectors of UHC: eligibility or entitlement rules (breadth), depth of services covered, and the height of cost sharing.
\nHealth systems are expected to perform several functions, and funding is one of them. This function financially supports three aims of any health system: improving population health, responding to people expectations, and providing financial protection against the costs of ill health, including health decline due to age [15].
\nFunding health systems aims to “provide people with access to needed health services, including prevention, promotion, treatment, and rehabilitation, of sufficient quality to be effective and to ensure that the use of those services do not expose people to financial hardship” [15]. According to this definition, there are three roles that funding has to perform: (i) collecting funds, (ii) pooling funds and risk, and (iii) purchasing healthcare services.
\nCollecting funds means raising revenues, using several sources and contribution mechanisms; pooling funds and risk translates the arrangements to gather the prepaid funds and diversify the individual risk across the pool of participants; purchasing healthcare services comprises the way that the funds are transferred to providers, either by provider payment mechanisms (PPM) or by institutional structure of purchasers [16].
\nA more in-depth explanation is next presented for each of these roles of funding.
\nToday, it is widely accepted that the best way to fund healthcare systems is based on prepaid mechanism gathered from a large pool of contributing individuals. Funding mechanisms include the voluntary and the mandatory mechanisms (and some low- and medium-income countries (LMIC) may also find external sources of financing obtained from international donors).
\nVoluntary financing mechanisms account for the out-of-pocket payments and voluntary insurance. Out-of-pocket payments are the most regressive form of funding the health system, and they may contribute to catastrophic expenditures and poverty. Voluntary insurance may be a secondary layer of health insurance but it is inequitable as it does not extend to all people.
\nMandatory funding mechanisms are the most efficient mechanism to guarantee a prepaid healthcare expenditure and to finance UHC. There are, however, two basic forms of these mechanisms: social insurance and taxation, each rooted in its historical proponent. The former funding system was proposed by Otto von Bismark, who implemented the sickness funds system financed by payroll taxes in 1883, in Germany. The later funding proposal was given by William Beveridge, who suggested the national health system financed by taxes in 1948, in UK.
\nThese two approaches to finance health systems, either social insurance or tax based, are also the same financing mechanism of long-term healthcare. While the advantages of the tax-based system are the broader base of funding and greater flexibility and adaptability in providing benefits, the social insurance-based system ensures higher transparency and predictable revenues. On the other hand, the tax-based system has no link between the revenues and the provided benefits while the social insurance-based system is inflexible in the benefits awarded and ends up requiring public budget contribution for those who are not able to pay the for the social insurance contribution [17].
\nThe large majority of health systems nowadays is mainly or partially financed by taxes, either because the major financing source is taxes or because insurance funds do not cover the whole population and so complementary financial source is needed.
\nLow- and middle-income countries with high unequal income distribution face a taxing challenge: to tax the wealthy and powerful country elites to finance in an equitable way the health system of the country. Because in most cases these elites are also the political and governing ones, it ends up that equitable collecting funds for the health system do not occur.
\nUser fees are one source of funding which raise some controversy. While some argue that user fees reduce utilization by poorer people, others consider that user fees cannot be ignored as an important funding source in some countries. In particular, in countries where resources are limited and institutions are weak, as happens in several LMIC. It is argued that if there is a well-designed user’s fee policy, which includes waiver mechanisms and compensating procedures to providers, and as long as those public fees are lower than private fees, then user fees may be an efficient and less inequitable source of funding.
\nFunding LTC either by taxes or by social contribution may not be enough to accommodate all the people in need of care. So other funding alternatives, which may complement taxes or social contributions, are required to be collected.
\nWouterse and Smid [18] have proposed four LTC funding mechanisms: (i) pay-as-you-go system, (ii) collective saving funds, (iii) pensioner tax, and (iv) cohort-specific savings. The differences across these alternatives are the distribution of costs along time and across age groups.
The pay-as-you-go system is described as a financing system where contributions come from actual workers to pay the current retirement benefits. So the additional spending available for LTC in some year is matched by the additional premium payments collected in that year.
The second funding mechanism is saving fund which is created by the contribution of people. Collective saving funds are a form of pooled funds which aim to generate a steady level of income without threatening the initial value. This idea is basically creating a pre-funding mechanism to be used in the future [19]. Pre-funding may be full or partial. By partial it is meant that LTC contributions are expected to cover only part of the LTC costs of the individual. This partial contribution seems to ensure some intergenerational fairness because the younger generation does not assume the complete burden of LTC costs of an older generation.
The third proposal is the pensioner tax which is a specific tax on pension incomes. This is a premium rate levied on pension income and it provides an increasing source of LTC funding as the group of pensioners is increasing. This works like tax broadening strategy for an intra-generational pooling of funds.
Finally, the idea supporting the cohort-specific savings is that each birth cohort funds its own additional LTC expenditures. This is like tying pre-funding to specific age-related costs as suggested by OECD [19].
Pooling funds are a key factor in well-functioning healthcare systems aiming to UHC. Accumulating and managing financial resources from a large pool of individuals ensures that the individual risk of paying for healthcare expenditures is in fact dispersed by all the individuals in the pool. The channel through which such dispersion happens is called cross-subsidization. This takes place by having higher income people paying for lower income people, lower risk people paying for higher illness-risk people, and active people paying for inactive people, such as children and elderly. The second advantage of large pools is the potential to obtain economies of scale and market power. Large funding pools work more efficiently with less administrative costs and with lower negotiated prices.
\nCountries with fragmented insurance system do not have pools of individuals large enough to ensure that an individual unpredictable financial risk becomes predicted and distributed among all the individuals contributing to the insurance funding pool. This is the case in several LMIC where there may coexist different health insurance. These multiple insurance pools result in increasing administrative costs, individual’s selection risk, and individual’s segmentation according to income and wealth.
\nHowever, the fragmentation of the funding pools is not bad
In aging societies such as in Europe, the group of elderly who are at risk of becoming frail and developing multi-morbidity conditions is large and increasing. So, the risk of being in need of LTC is rising and it requires large pool of funding in order to disperse this risk by all contributors.
\nPurchasing healthcare services comprises three areas of concern. The first one addresses the decision of which services are included in the package of UHC and which services are to be bought; the second concern is the choice of providers; and the third concern relates on the form to purchasing and provision the healthcare services.
\nThe decision on which services are included is not identical across countries. High-income countries may include services which in LMIC may not be in the UHC package because of strong funding restrictions. These countries may be more interested in including services more suitable for their reality such as malaria-related services, HIV antiretroviral therapy, diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine, or they may be more interested in improving the quality of the services already provided [21].
\nConsidering that the provided care must be fair and efficient, the decision on the services included in a LTC package may be difficult to decide. OECD [14] has proposed the idea of targeted universalism of LTC, that is, the target of care covered is where the need is highest. This idea grounded on the fact that universal LTC may not be attainable for all, but it should be for those in greatest need [22].
\nThe choice of providers may be passive by just assigning a predetermined budget or paying bills or it may be done strategically, meaning that it is a process that aims to maximize performance [15]. Concerning this choice of providers in LTC care, it is diverse, including health or social sector and from institutional/formal care or home/informal care. Informal care may be funded by public subsidization since this form of care has been accepted as cost-effectiveness [23].
\nThe decision concerning the form of purchasing is highly dominated by the choice of the provider payment mechanisms (PPM) and contractual arrangements (discussed in more detail in Chapter 3 of this book). This choice is fundamental to ensure efficiency and transparency of the system. Provider payment mechanisms have a particular role in providing the correct incentives to providers to guarantee access, quality, and efficiency. The PPM comprises several possible arrangements such as global budget, fee for service, capitation,
The organization of the purchasers in the health system depends on the competition established among them. There are different forms of organization of the providers purchasing market as described by Kutzin [16]. The simplest form is the single payer system, where there is only one national institution which is responsible for the payments to providers (e.g., in Japan). When there are multiple payers, meaning multiples insurers, there is a distinction between the case when the population covered is in one area, or in different geographical areas. When it covers different geographical areas, more than one regional body is responsible for purchasing and it is a subset of the simple payer system (e.g., in Canada). If the population covered is in the same geographical area, then there may be, or not, competition for the people covered by the insurers. In this way, there are multiple noncompeting insurers (e.g., in France) or there are multiple competing insurers (e.g., in Germany) [16].
\nUniversal long-term healthcare is a difficult concept to achieve and to compare internationally. Several difficulties arise related to the decisions over the three dimensions of UHC: (i) eligibility, (ii) package of services, and (iii) cost sharing.
\nEligibility is defined by the high-care needs felt among the oldest cohort. This group of people not only has severe functional limitations but also has run-down most of their savings and assets. The package of services included in LTC needs to balance the cost and effectiveness of different modes of providing services. This may not be easy to assess. Some questions may then be raised, e.g., “how to decide what support is given to IADL?” or “how to decide to support in cash or in services?” Cost sharing is supposed to be based on the ability to pay; however, it may not be easy to define the fair share between public and individual responsibilities of pay. On the other hand, using saving and assets may be unfair as those individuals did not spend their money in past while others did.
\nThe EU Commission [25] has suggested a typology of LTC provision for the EU members, enabling some international comparisons. This typology is built based on three criteria concerning the features of formal care. The first criterion is the organization of LTC which can be public, private, or non-for-profit. The second criterion corresponds to funding classified in general taxation, compulsory social insurance, voluntary private insurance, or out-of-pocket. Finally, the third criterion is provision which may take place at home or in an institution. Applying these criteria, it is possible to group the EU countries into five clusters, also presented in Figure 5.
Cluster A (in yellow) includes countries with public provision of LTC financed by general taxes, low informal care, high informal care support, and modest cash-for-care benefits (Denmark, Netherlands, and Sweden).
Cluster B (in orange) includes countries with medium public (mainly financed by compulsory social insurance) and low private formal care, high informal care and high informal care support, and modest cash-for-care benefits (Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany, Slovakia, and Luxembourg).
Cluster C (in green) accounts for countries with medium public and private formal care (financed social insurance and general revenue), high informal care use and high informal care support, and high cash-for-care benefits (Austria, England, Finland, France, Spain, and Ireland).
Cluster D (in blue) includes countries with modest social insurance against LTC risks; low public and high private LTC funding, high use of informal care but low informal care support, and low cash-for-care benefits (Hungary, Italy, Greece, Poland, Portugal, and Slovenia).
Cluster E (in pink) group includes countries with little social insurance against LTC risks; very low public spending, very high informal care use but no support of it, and no or very low cash-for-care benefits (Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, and Romania).
Classification of LTC provision in EU. Legend: Yellow—Cluster A; Orange—Cluster B; Green—Cluster C; Blue—Cluster D; Pink—Cluster E.
Despite the funding criterion, clusters of countries include different mechanisms of funding LTC, both tax and social contribution based. So, clustering of LTC provision across countries in Europe may contribute to meaningful international comparisons of LTC policies, as well as the efficiency and fairness of funding strategies.
\nAging is expected to double public spending in LTC in the period 2010–2060. The current scenario of aging population and increasing of the LTC costs raises several challenges, including the question, “how to finance equitable and high quality LTC in fair manner?”
\nTo assess this question, two overall challenges appear related to the sustainability of LTC under the UHC umbrella: first the financial sustainability and second the political and social sustainability.
\nThe financial sustainability implies that there is some resource collection mechanism allowing a balance between the decreasing number of active people and the increasing number of elderly. Some countries have an underdeveloped LTC provision which makes financial sustainability a major concern given the increasing demand for LTC.
\nOn the other hand, funding needs to be economic sustainable so that the share of GDP resources is collected and applied on LTC do not risk the country in a debt crisis. The funding mechanisms of health systems adapting to an aging society need to be carefully thought, in particular in countries where public debt is already a problem [18].
\nSecond, political and social sustainability means that people in a country have decided and support how much they are willing to pay to finance LTC within UHC, in particular, to finance healthcare to those who are in need and cannot afford to pay for it [26]. Since complete universalism of LTC may not be feasible and trade-offs must be done, target universalism may be the most fair and efficient path to be chosen. The fairness of funding has to be not only intra-generational but also inter-generational. For target universalism to be successful, it has to be socially accepted and supported. This implies that the relative importance of social values is not dominated by economic values.
\nInformal care is a cornerstone of sustainable LTC provision, and it contributes to the financial sustainability. But informal care itself faces challenges related to care and attendance allowances, as well as opportunity costs for predominantly female informal care workers. These women need to be carefully considered in the system in order to make informal care possible to families [27]. On the other hand, informal care contributes to the closing gap between the fast increasing demand of LTC and the slow increase of its supply. The political support and the social sustainability of informal care are steps toward the implementation of the (target) universal LTC.
\nThe aim of this chapter was to present the concept of universal health coverage and of long-term care and to discuss how it may be financed under the current scenario of demographic aging and increasing demand for long-term care.
\nUniversal health coverage is the main aim of health systems all over the world. The achieved universalism is measured along three dimensions—breath, depth, and height of a UHC cube. Long-term care is one of the services provided by UHC, which needs rules of eligibility, of services provided, and of cost- sharing.
\nIn a fast aging society, the importance of LTC is increasing. This means that funding should register a corresponding increasing funds collection. The difficult of LTC funding emerges because there are less and less people active contributing to the collective funds and more and more older people in need of LTC. This implies, first, the use of alternative forms of funding, which should be based on a large pool of individuals, and, second, the use of strategic purchasing and provider payment mechanisms.
\nThe variety of LTC systems across countries makes comparisons difficult, so a possible classification proposed by the EU Commission is described in the chapter. Funding criterion does not dominate the clustering of countries. There are equally important features (organization and provision), which contribute to the characteristics of the LTC system.
\nUHC and LTC are expected to be sustainable and fair, and target universalism is a possible answer. The implementation of the desired health system needs to respond to sustainability challenges, either financial or socio-political. The response to these challenges will guarantee people access to LTC when needed in an equitable way, without suffering hardship late in their life years. So, not only a more active and socially focused leadership is needed across countries but also better governance is expected so that social values are considered with comparable weight as economic values.
\nHealth systems being very complex in terms of demographic, economic, legal and regulatory, epidemiological, socio-cultural and political, and technological aspects, an improvement in one of these areas necessarily has an impact on a global improvement of the universality of coverage. Therefore, it is expected that governments strengthen these components of the health system to make it possible to achieve its goals and provide a high-quality healthcare. In economic terms, not to defend the universality of access, more than an ideological act, would be a serious economic error.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. 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