\r\n\tIn this book, the authors will present the highlights of basic research of biomechanical and biochemical pathways of bone homeostasis and the developing clinical methods for treatment of bone loss, either following trauma or systemic disease.
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1. Introduction
From the physician\'s viewpoint teeth and the periodontal framework are relatively ignored. How many physicians actually inspect the teeth of their patients let alone their patients\' gums? Increasingly though, awareness of integration and holistic appreciation of organ function has penetrated the formal divides that separate clinical practice according to body parts and organ function.
2. A deeper look in a clinical context
Metabolic function that is general and common to all body parts, and the inflammatory basis of disease highlight the commonality that underlies these processes. It is therefore not surprising to find that, in theory, changes in nail capillaries reflect capillary integrity in other body parts and signs of inflammatory disease that is present elsewhere may be seen in peripheral nail capillaries.
It has been proposed that periodontal disease is a factor resulting in inflammatory changes, raised C-reactive protein levels and loss of capillaries through inflammatory thrombotic events that results in increased cardiovascular risk and cognitive loss [1], as all body parts including brain become affected [2]. Thus if an association exists between capillary loss and rarefaction with cognitive decline and silent or ischaemic cardiomyopathy and ischaemic heart disease periodontal disease is a risk factor that needs to be considered. Similarly stroke occurs more commonly after an infection such as upper respiratory infection or urinary tract infection [3]. Thus inflammation resulting in stroke may also arise as a result of periodontal disease [1].
Microcirculatory changes involving capillary may be attributable to periodontal disease on the basis of inflammatory products being generated on a persistent basis [1,2]. There is also the theoretical proposition that large vessels too are or become affected. Atheroma formation may be an inflammatory process [4]. It could result from the interaction of inflammatory proteins or monocytes acting on a dysfunctional endothelial surface such as may affect the lining of major blood vessels in the presence of underlying atheromatous change. These inflammatory cytokines [interleukin [IL]-1, IL-6] may be generated by periodontal disease and be linked to atheroma formation [5].
The effect on both micro-circulation i.e. capillaries and on the large vessels could result in increasing blood pressure and aggravate hypertension or even cause it if damage sufficient to impair capillary reserve capacity occurs, on challenge with a higher sodium intake, leads to the development of hypertension [6,7]. Similarly, renal effects would lead to renal impairment and even failure, as occurs in autoimmune [8] or hypertensive disease [9,10] or result in stroke and cerebral infarction or white matter degenerative change that manifest as vascular dementia [11] and even states of confusion depending on the severity and acuteness of the microcirculatory rarefaction and /or dysfunction.
Thus periodontal disease affects microcirculation integrity as well as larger vessels predisposing to cardiovascular risk through microvascular rarefaction and atheroma formation. Microvascular changes are themselves the cause of large vessel changes. Dysfunction or loss of perivascular capillaries affect large vessel compliance [12] in much the same way that periodontal vessels have an effect on dental health and function.
3. Treatment — Preventive, prophylactic and after the fact
Treatment of risk factors and complications such as stroke or cognitive loss must address the question is periodontal disease present. Diabetic disease is also related to this.
4. Periodontal health and general health and wellbeing
Periodontal disease causes halitosis and dentition. The presentation of a person relies on the ability to smile and is enhanced by having a set of healthy teeth and healthy breath. In Jewish law, bad breadth is a sufficient reason for divorce. A smile is everything. It secures a job, makes friends, is high profile as well as high society and it ensures the willingness of others to help when behaviour is amicable and is accompanied by a smile, that, I contend, is as important a factor as incontinence or continence in either resulting in institutionalised care or willing helpers to assist in home based care if that is their preferred choice rather than institutionalisation.
Mouth breathing: upper respiratory complaints are the source. Chronic upper respiratory blockage leads to snoring and poor sleep. It causes those who cannot breathe through their nose to gulp, not chew their food and to put on weight. The answer is to clear the nose with steam inhalation and to practice “how to breathe when you eat”, Breathe in then out then insert a small amount of food into your mouth and chew, then swallow before you breathe in again, through your nose. Eat with your mouth closed and practice breathing in through your nose using the abdominal transverse muscles and diaphragm to aerate the lungs through your nose. It is not uncommon for these people to present with what appears to be an asthma attack on a cold night. The dentist, too, as well as the physician, has to be aware of this [13].
What does dental form tell you? By this I mean the effect of thumb sucking, which is a transient phase, but could persist or recur, indicates a psychological effect or emotional disturbance that could influence adult behaviour, which is notional on my part, not researched. Yet, when the individual takes steps to overcome this, to have the cosmetic treatments that correct this, they are at the same time overcoming the insecurity that led to the “buck-teeth” and building confidence to deal with situations from within. This is healthy and surely indicates the place of cosmetic dentistry in the recovery motivated by inner strength to change, i.e. the place of dental treatments in psychological and emotional wellbeing. For the same reason, treatments that overcome or help to contain periodontal disease that cause bad breath through simple oral hygiene, especially in those patients predisposed to this, whether through mouth breathing or on anti-epileptic agents that produce gum hypertrophy, such as phenytoin, is important.
Smoking habit and oral health. I believe that is not uncommon that people who mouth breathe smoke. In this situation smoking warms the air and damages the cilia on the bronchial cell lining. The reflex that responds to cold air with a cough is therefore overcome and mucus production in the bronchi remains there as the cilia of ciliated bronchial cells that are paralysed cannot move it up. Smoking also discolours the teeth, pipe smoking breaks them. When the sinuses are blocked the air cannot be warmed nor humidified. Treatment may be given for asthmatic attack or long term for asthma, that may be an incorrect assessment of events. Steroid inhalator therapy may result in fungal overgrowth in the oral mucosa without therapeutic benefit either long term or during an acute attack [13].
Too many sweets. But its not the fruit. Its the sticky stuff and sticky stuff combined with acids that corrode or vehicles such as flour that stick to one\'s teeth.
Geriatric dentistry: care of the elderly includes attention to oral health and diet. Access to clinic and to the dental chair have to be user friendly. Assistance may be needed. Lowering the dental chair to a convenient level to get onto and off, safely. Head up tilt and back support may be required. Rheumatoid arthritis does affect the neck, so neck extension is to be prevented.
Visits to nursing homes and now routine; medications and poly-pharmacy remain sources of notable concern. All medications cannot be listed here. The newer oral anticoagulants [NOAC\'s] used as prophylaxis against stroke in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation, e.g. Dabigatran, a direct thrombin inhibitor [DTI] and Apixaban, Rivaroxaban [Factor Xa inhibitors] are increasingly being used to replace Warfarin/Vitamin K depleting anticoagulants [14]. Since new information is becoming available at a rapid pace, an “EHRA” web site with the latest updated information accompanies the guide able to be accessed on its website [www.NOACforAF.eu]. It also contains links to the ESC AF Guidelines, a key message pocket booklet, print-ready files for a proposed universal NOAC anticoagulation card, and feedback possibilities. Side-effect hazards include anti-fungal agents and calcium channel blockers, Verapamil and Diltiazem, which increases the level and effects of NOAC\'s manifold as do “ketokonazole” and like anti-fungal medications that render unacceptable NOAC\'s risk of haemorrhage. Quinine also increases the level of drug and risk. Partial thromboplastin time may be used to check Dabigatran effects. Renal function also affects the dose and needs to be regularly checked [up to six monthly]. Refer to www.NOACforAF.eu]. Ceasing treatment for dental treatments for at least twelve hours is advised, see paragraph 10 of the guide.
It is important to hand to the elderly patient written instructions for the patient if they are able and/or to a carer or accompanying person who may also be able to supervise, assist if necessary and give to you information regarding what other medications the person is taking, to bring in the dosette box, which is pre-packed by the pharmacy or by the carer or by the patient who is able and willing – it\'s a good mental exercise, as well as non-medications or unprescribed treatments.
Nutritional intake and health; role of carer; dental replacements – inserts, implants for nutrition and comfort; the importance of nutrition and type of foods available as well as types of diet, vitamised, soft can maintain health and prevent ill-health.
Aging is the inexorable loss of functional reserve capacity. There is a functional metabolic reserve, that could apply to anaesthetic agents, number of teeth, ability to chew, ability to swallow and ability to transfer to a chair, which maintains independence as the person is able to get onto and off a toilet and to mobilise. Exercise and nutrition are central to maintaining independence.
Cosmetic dentistry in the elderly is now available but not the only reason to undertake having new implants. At ninety three years, my mother chose to have implants as her dentures bothered her so much. Painful dentures can ruin any person\'s life, spoil one\'s appreciation of food, cause ulcers as everyone knows but also determine what one can eat or not eat. Loss of weight through poor dentition or ill fitting dentures can have devastating results, leading to a fall by having a mat in the wrong place and not lifting up one\'s feet, just once. Fracture, having to recuperate and being placed is the greatest risk of being admitted to a hospital, at least in Australia, where the maxim, we have a duty of care – to maintain safety” overtakes the right of privilege and free choice. Here, the word of an expert, whom the patient only trusts, is shunned by those with agenda\'s of their own, including seeking power and feeling of self importance. With less knowledge and greater inferiority everyone has their say. The Office of the Public Advocate, the bureaucrats on Tribunals and Medical Boards, who know less and are lesser individuals because they wish to control those who have made it, live it and enjoy it. What has this got to do with oral health? The answer is nutrition, trust, and confidence and an ability to communicate positively to one\'s environment, which is more likely to happen when one has a smile and a good set of teeth and friends in support. It will determine who will be prepared to care for you and who will not. It will ensure that where you live is where you wish to live and with whom.
Inflammation and infection is not as obvious in the elderly as immune mechanisms are not as intense, or able to marshalled, but tissue turgor is also not as dense and therefore pain is less. On the other hand recovery takes time. Even after extractions one needs to be cared for. One ought to take in higher protein drinks before and to continue to do so afterwards. The advent of bisphosphonates, which inhibit osteoclast recruitment and reduces bone loss in the treatment of osteoporosis and secondary prevention in cases with fracture of the femur or vertebrae has resulted in fear of osteonecrosis of the jaw [15], which is more likely to occur in patients who are receiving chemotherapy. Pretreatment dental surgery is suggested as well as use of antibiotics and an oral antiseptic solution when the condition occurs to treat and control pain [15].
5. Social dentistry
I have likened the loss of a tooth to the social situation of an elderly person. When one loses a friend one also loses support and one\'s own position becomes more vulnerable. This leads to lack of confidence, to isolation from society and to becoming depressed. Living in a residential home is akin to having a set of dentures. They are not yours, but they are there and do provide some comfort, but not always.
Tooth extraction is a metaphor for diminution of social interaction; support and social functioning in the elderly; isolation and depression, effect of loss and deprivation, while restoration is akin to the effect of nutrition on wellbeing, psychological, physical and spiritual.
Behaviour and institutionalisation: The effect of oral health, hygiene and behaviour can ensure that you will stay longer in your own home and even die there in familiar memory clad surroundings. Nothing insures this better than behaviour characterised by appreciation, thanks and a smile.
In old age, in adults and teens; the effect is the same. Confidence, radiating happiness and achievement are related to dental pride and appearance.
6. Oral function as a driver in social evolution
Stomal drive in evolution. Food and water intake determines survival.
Setting down roots led to stomatal development; to vegetative and sessile development.
Stomal development led to cortical development and permitted mobility.
Senses in animals included two eyes and two ears. Dentition permitted there to be one mouth for fluids and solids and determined strength development on the basis of what could be eaten when caught, the consistency of foods. Eyes and ears were used as warning signs to prevent being eaten and to survey what could be eaten or caught.
Amphibian and reptilian evolutionary dichotomy occurred as amphibians developed a buccal respiration pattern, using the floor of the mouth to create air movement into and out of the lungs, whereas reptiles developed ribs and birds developed air sacks in those ribs to lighten the weight and developed beaks as the driver rather than alligator teeth, though the Cretaceous creatures, Pterosaurs, that flew such as Pterodactylus had a small number of teeth, while Pteranodon was completely toothless. This fact, combined with Pteranodon\'s vaguely albatross-like build, has led paleontologists to conclude that this pterosaur flew along the seashores of late Cretaceous North America and fed mostly on fish [16].
Snakes developed the tooth to the utmost by having a venom ejaculation mechanism in them used in forward fanged snakes such as Viperidae [vipers] to blind or poison their prey before they ate them. Ear ossicles later incorporated into the middle ear in higher vertebrates, that are part of the mandibular system in snakes enabled the snake to dislocate his mandible to swallow large prey whole, and their fangs to catch prey, as least in the forward fanged snakes, whose body lengths are shorter than constrictors, rather than masticate. The extra ossicles also permitted vibration detection in preparedness to catch their prey as well as to swallow it, indicating the economy of form in relation to function that appears to be a formula for successful evolution; the combining of survival mechanisms: energy acquisition, through ingestion and metabolism, which also requires excretion, to live, grow and mate and energy expenditure to escape or, alternatively to develop further and adapt.
In the invertebrate world helminths developed suckers and they became tapeworm parasites, while special insertion of sperm techniques used by spiders ended by self sacrifice, with the male being eaten to provide ready nourishment for the newly fertilised eggs, taking the survival pitch of stomal drive to its ultimate.
Years ago, the rabbis recognised that food which is visually tempting increases appetite [17]. Plants use colour to attract insects to feast on the nectar as the lure to pollinate inadvertently and by the design of the plant while the insects eat. The latter example has a message – when you help others eat by providing nectar and food, they share in the benefits that you reproduce, which ensures that their progeny have energy in the form of nectar to eat.
Primal instinct and stomal drive – in the 21st century. A primal instinct demands our focus. In today\'s world while success can be founded on dental presentation, it can also be one\'s undoing, when stomal drive is for one\'s own sake, rather than for survival.
Obsession with desire that may attend one who has achieved success, in detracting from the focus of what one eats and gratitude for every morsel that appreciation of survival demands, results in a change in priorities, such that desire overtakes survival. Dependency results, as does pleasure drive and desire, to hedonism, loss of survival focus and breakdown.
It is true that eating can be fashioned to ensure body health and looks. It can also induce anorexia or bulimia. We need to be in tune with our primal instincts. They are a survival mechanism. Stomal health, includes oral hygiene and cortical awareness.
The stomal society. Society has cultural values that are tied to eating patterns. Nations are distinguished by their cultural or national cuisine. Japanese food is unique to Japan. Middle Eastern food is particular to the middle east. African food to Africa. It ties us to the land. Chinese food is unique to Chinese. Is it fair to ask whether Italian culture would be what it is today if Marco Polo (1254-1324) had not brought back noodles from the Far East?
Cultures with traditions that incorporate food as symbols of significance and ethical values, as is the case with traditional Jewish customs, ensures that there is focus on survival as they are enjoyed and partaken to ensure history and moral values and ethics of daily life are transmitted to future generations. Therefore they do survive and can impart ethical values and morality to the world, for generations.
Stomal drive remains the focus during development as well as into old age. The application of implant techniques to old age in order to be able to masticate and enjoy a wholesome meal will ensure longer life and a more pleasing one. On the other hand cosmetic dentistry which forsakes nutritional and masticatory functions may shorten lifespan by changing focus and permitting distraction from survival to creep in.
7. Lips and buccal function
Although the lips have not been addressed in this chapter, lip function and the cheeks, ensures swallowing without spillage, as occurs in lower motor neurone facial palsy or paralysis. Lips have a prehensile function working with the tongue in almost mitten like clasp that enables giraffe to selectively eat the leaves they desire from the top of trees. Lips also reveal features of human emotion and desire. They also permit breath-holding and labial sounds.
Oral health and development determine both quality of life and quantity, as a survival mechanism essential for life the importance of stomal function for physical and emotional wellbeing as well as social functioning has been understated in the past. In addition stomal drive as a evolutionary mechanism has not been appreciated or previously understood in terms of both plant (stomata) and of invertebrate and vertebrate, animal, evolution and development, on land, in fresh water and the sea.
Department of Medical Science, Wellspring\'s Universal Environment P/L, Australia
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Virdi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1442.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"89556",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandeep",surname:"Virdi",slug:"mandeep-virdi",fullName:"Mandeep Virdi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"29333",title:"Early Childhood Caries: Parent’s Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Towards Its Prevention in Malaysia",slug:"early-childhood-caries-parent-s-knowledge-attitude-and-practice-towards-its-prevention-in-malaysia",signatures:"Shani Ann Mani, Jacob John, Wei Yen Ping and Noorliza Mastura Ismail",authors:[{id:"97650",title:"Dr.",name:"Shani Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",fullName:"Shani Ann Mani",slug:"shani-ann-mani"},{id:"98763",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacob",middleName:null,surname:"John",fullName:"Jacob John",slug:"jacob-john"}]},{id:"29334",title:"Oral Health Care in Children – A Preventive Perspective",slug:"oral-health-care-in-children-a-preventive-perspective",signatures:"Agim Begzati, Kastriot Meqa, Mehmedali Azemi, Ajtene Begzati, Teuta Kutllovci, Blerta Xhemajli and Merita Berisha",authors:[{id:"94623",title:"Prof.",name:"Agim",middleName:null,surname:"Begzati",fullName:"Agim Begzati",slug:"agim-begzati"},{id:"100619",title:"MSc.",name:"Kastriot",middleName:null,surname:"Meqa",fullName:"Kastriot Meqa",slug:"kastriot-meqa"},{id:"128197",title:"Prof.",name:"Merita",middleName:null,surname:"Berisha",fullName:"Merita Berisha",slug:"merita-berisha"},{id:"128200",title:"Prof.",name:"Mehmedali",middleName:null,surname:"Azemi",fullName:"Mehmedali Azemi",slug:"mehmedali-azemi"},{id:"128201",title:"MSc.",name:"Teuta",middleName:null,surname:"Kutllovci",fullName:"Teuta Kutllovci",slug:"teuta-kutllovci"},{id:"128202",title:"Dr.",name:"Blerta",middleName:null,surname:"Latifi",fullName:"Blerta Latifi",slug:"blerta-latifi"},{id:"130146",title:"Dr.",name:"Ajtene",middleName:null,surname:"Begzati",fullName:"Ajtene Begzati",slug:"ajtene-begzati"}]},{id:"29335",title:"Pediatric Dentistry – A Guide for General Practitioner",slug:"current-developments-in-pediatric-dentistry",signatures:"Mandeep S. Virdi",authors:[{id:"89556",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandeep",middleName:"Singh",surname:"Virdi",fullName:"Mandeep Virdi",slug:"mandeep-virdi"}]},{id:"29336",title:"Gingivitis in Children and Adolescents",slug:"gingivitis-in-children-and-adolescents",signatures:"Folakemi Oredugba and Patricia Ayanbadejo",authors:[{id:"44491",title:"Prof.",name:"Folakemi",middleName:null,surname:"Oredugba",fullName:"Folakemi Oredugba",slug:"folakemi-oredugba"},{id:"113305",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Ayanbadejo",fullName:"Patricia Ayanbadejo",slug:"patricia-ayanbadejo"}]},{id:"29337",title:"The Principles Prevention in Dentistry",slug:"the-principles-prevention-in-dentistry",signatures:"Jalaleddin Hamissi",authors:[{id:"89444",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jalaleddin",middleName:"H",surname:"Hamissi",fullName:"Jalaleddin Hamissi",slug:"jalaleddin-hamissi"}]},{id:"29338",title:"Antidepressants: Side Effects in the Mouth",slug:"antidepressants-side-effects-in-the-mouth-",signatures:"Patrícia Del Vigna de Ameida, Aline Cristina Batista Rodrigues Johann, Luciana Reis de Azevedo Alanis, Antônio Adilson Soares de Lima and Ana Maria Trindade Grégio",authors:[{id:"48532",title:"Dr.",name:"Luciana Reis",middleName:null,surname:"Azevedo-Alanis",fullName:"Luciana Reis Azevedo-Alanis",slug:"luciana-reis-azevedo-alanis"},{id:"104600",title:"Prof.",name:"Antônio Adilson",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",fullName:"Antônio Adilson Lima",slug:"antonio-adilson-lima"},{id:"113923",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:"Maria",surname:"Gregio",fullName:"Ana Gregio",slug:"ana-gregio"},{id:"117755",title:"MSc.",name:"Patrícia Del Vigna De",middleName:null,surname:"Ameida",fullName:"Patrícia Del Vigna De Ameida",slug:"patricia-del-vigna-de-ameida"},{id:"117757",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline Cristina Batista Rodrigues",middleName:null,surname:"Johann",fullName:"Aline Cristina Batista Rodrigues Johann",slug:"aline-cristina-batista-rodrigues-johann"}]},{id:"29339",title:"Classical and Modern Methods in Caries Epidemiology",slug:"classical-and-modern-methods-in-caries-epidemiology",signatures:"M. Larmas, H. Vähänikkilä, K. Leskinen and J. Päkkilä",authors:[{id:"92698",title:"Prof.",name:"Markku",middleName:null,surname:"Larmas",fullName:"Markku Larmas",slug:"markku-larmas"},{id:"99758",title:"MSc.",name:"Hannu",middleName:null,surname:"Vähänikkilä",fullName:"Hannu Vähänikkilä",slug:"hannu-vahanikkila"},{id:"99759",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaja",middleName:null,surname:"Leskinen",fullName:"Kaja Leskinen",slug:"kaja-leskinen"},{id:"99760",title:"MSc.",name:"Jari",middleName:null,surname:"Päkkilä",fullName:"Jari Päkkilä",slug:"jari-pakkila"}]},{id:"29340",title:"Epidemiology of Dental Caries in the World",slug:"epidemiology-of-dental-caries-in-the-world",signatures:"Rafael da Silveira Moreira",authors:[{id:"89468",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:"Da Silveira",surname:"Moreira",fullName:"Rafael Moreira",slug:"rafael-moreira"}]},{id:"29341",title:"The Determinants of Self–Rated Oral Health in Istanbul Adults",slug:"the-determinants-of-self-rated-oral-health-in-istanbul-adults",signatures:"Kadriye Peker",authors:[{id:"91872",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadriye",middleName:null,surname:"Peker",fullName:"Kadriye Peker",slug:"kadriye-peker"}]},{id:"29342",title:"Krill Enzymes (Krillase®) an Important Factor to Improve Oral Hygiene",slug:"krill-enzymes-krillaser-as-an-important-factor-to-improve-oral-hygiene",signatures:"Kristian Hellgren",authors:[{id:"46042",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristian",middleName:null,surname:"Hellgren",fullName:"Kristian Hellgren",slug:"kristian-hellgren"}]},{id:"29343",title:"Probiotics and Oral Health",slug:"probiotics-oral-health",signatures:"Harini Priya Vishnu",authors:[{id:"96691",title:"Dr.",name:"Harini Priya",middleName:null,surname:"M",fullName:"Harini Priya M",slug:"harini-priya-m"}]},{id:"29344",title:"Towards Oral Health Promotion",slug:"towards-oral-health-promotion",signatures:"José Roberto de Magalhães Bastos, Magali de Lourdes Caldana, Luis Marcelo Aranha Camargo, Ariadnes Nobrega Oliveira, Ricardo Pianta Rodrigues da Silva, Angela Xavier, Fábio Silva de Carvalho and Roosevelt da Silva Bastos",authors:[{id:"98572",title:"Prof.",name:"José Roberto Magalhães",middleName:null,surname:"Bastos",fullName:"José Roberto Magalhães Bastos",slug:"jose-roberto-magalhaes-bastos"},{id:"98603",title:"Prof.",name:"Magali De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Caldana",fullName:"Magali De Lourdes Caldana",slug:"magali-de-lourdes-caldana"},{id:"98640",title:"MSc.",name:"Ariadnes Nobrega De",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Ariadnes Nobrega De Oliveira",slug:"ariadnes-nobrega-de-oliveira"},{id:"98642",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo Pianta Rodrigues Da",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Ricardo Pianta Rodrigues Da Silva",slug:"ricardo-pianta-rodrigues-da-silva"},{id:"98643",title:"MSc.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Xavier",fullName:"Angela Xavier",slug:"angela-xavier"},{id:"98645",title:"MSc.",name:"Fábio Silva",middleName:null,surname:"de Carvalho",fullName:"Fábio Silva de Carvalho",slug:"fabio-silva-de-carvalho"},{id:"98647",title:"Dr.",name:"Roosevelt",middleName:null,surname:"Bastos",fullName:"Roosevelt Bastos",slug:"roosevelt-bastos"},{id:"132968",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis Marcelo",middleName:null,surname:"Aranha Camargo",fullName:"Luis Marcelo Aranha Camargo",slug:"luis-marcelo-aranha-camargo"}]},{id:"29345",title:"HIV/AIDS and Oral Health in Socially Disadvantaged Communities",slug:"hiv-aids-and-oral-health-in-socially-disadvantaged-communities",signatures:"Febronia Kokulengya Kahabuka and Flora Masumbuo Fabian",authors:[{id:"104286",title:"Prof.",name:"Febronia",middleName:"Kokulengya",surname:"Kahabuka",fullName:"Febronia Kahabuka",slug:"febronia-kahabuka"},{id:"105657",title:"Prof.",name:"Flora",middleName:null,surname:"Fabian",fullName:"Flora Fabian",slug:"flora-fabian"}]},{id:"29346",title:"Oral and Dental Health in Pregnancy",slug:"oral-and-dental-health-in-pregnancy",signatures:"Eftekharalsadat Hajikazemi and Fatemeh Haghdoost Osquei",authors:[{id:"55798",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Hajikazemi",fullName:"Hajikazemi",slug:"hajikazemi"}]},{id:"29347",title:"The Influence of Smoking on Dental and Periodontal Status",slug:"the-influence-of-smoking-on-dental-and-periodontal-status",signatures:"Jindra Smejkalova, Vimal Jacob, Lenka Hodacova, Zdenek Fiala, Radovan Slezak and Sajith Vellappally",authors:[{id:"95583",title:"Prof.",name:"Jindra",middleName:null,surname:"Smejkalova",fullName:"Jindra Smejkalova",slug:"jindra-smejkalova"},{id:"98913",title:"Prof.",name:"Radovan",middleName:null,surname:"Slezak",fullName:"Radovan Slezak",slug:"radovan-slezak"},{id:"98917",title:"Dr.",name:"Lenka",middleName:null,surname:"Hodacova",fullName:"Lenka Hodacova",slug:"lenka-hodacova"},{id:"98920",title:"Prof.",name:"Zdenek",middleName:null,surname:"Fiala",fullName:"Zdenek Fiala",slug:"zdenek-fiala"},{id:"99889",title:"Dr.",name:"Vimal",middleName:null,surname:"Jacob",fullName:"Vimal Jacob",slug:"vimal-jacob"},{id:"128216",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajith",middleName:null,surname:"Vellappally",fullName:"Sajith Vellappally",slug:"sajith-vellappally"}]},{id:"29348",title:"Tooth Autotransplantation",slug:"tooth-autotransplantation",signatures:"Eduardo Santiago, Germano Rocha and João F. C. Carvalho",authors:[{id:"91683",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Santiago",fullName:"Eduardo Santiago",slug:"eduardo-santiago"},{id:"129693",title:"Prof.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Carvalho",fullName:"João Carvalho",slug:"joao-carvalho"},{id:"129694",title:"Prof.",name:"Germano",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",fullName:"Germano Rocha",slug:"germano-rocha"}]},{id:"29349",title:"The Importance of Final Irrigation with Mineralolithic Effect Agents During Chemomechanical Treatment of Tooth Root Canal",slug:"the-importance-of-final-irrigation-with-mineralolithic-effect-agents-during-chemomechanical-treatmen",signatures:"Aleksandar Mitić, Nadica Mitić, Slavoljub Živković, Jelena Milašin, Jovanka Gašić, Vladimir Mitić, Tatjana Tanić and Jelena Popović",authors:[{id:"64273",title:"Dr.",name:"Jelena",middleName:null,surname:"Milašin",fullName:"Jelena Milašin",slug:"jelena-milasin"},{id:"76439",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksandar",middleName:"Dragisa",surname:"Mitić",fullName:"Aleksandar Mitić",slug:"aleksandar-mitic"},{id:"132465",title:"Prof.",name:"Nadica",middleName:null,surname:"Mitić",fullName:"Nadica Mitić",slug:"nadica-mitic"},{id:"132469",title:"Prof.",name:"Slavoljub",middleName:null,surname:"Živković",fullName:"Slavoljub Živković",slug:"slavoljub-zivkovic"},{id:"132478",title:"Prof.",name:"Jovanka",middleName:null,surname:"Gašić",fullName:"Jovanka Gašić",slug:"jovanka-gasic"},{id:"132481",title:"MSc.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Mitić",fullName:"Vladimir Mitić",slug:"vladimir-mitic"},{id:"132485",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Tanić",fullName:"Tatjana Tanić",slug:"tatjana-tanic"},{id:"132489",title:"Dr.",name:"Jelena",middleName:null,surname:"Popović",fullName:"Jelena Popović",slug:"jelena-popovic"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"63744",title:"Searching for Metabolic Pathways of Anaerobic Digestion: A Useful List of the Key Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81256",slug:"searching-for-metabolic-pathways-of-anaerobic-digestion-a-useful-list-of-the-key-enzymes",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Anaerobic digestion (AD), whose final products are methane and carbon dioxide, is a common process in natural anoxic environments such as water sediments, wetlands, or marshlands. The environments have to be rich in organic matter and poor with other electron acceptors such as nitrate, compounds containing oxidized forms of metals, and sulfate. AD is also common in landfills and wastewater treatment plants and was used by man to produce biogas from waste biomass as an alternative energy source.
\n
AD is a complex process that requires the metabolic interaction of many groups of microorganisms responsible for four closely related major steps. The first one is hydrolysis of complex organic polymers (e.g., polysaccharides, lipids, proteins) to monomers (sugars, fatty acids, amino acids). The second step is acidogenesis that results in formation of hydrogen and carbon dioxide as well as nongaseous fermentation products, that is, low-molecular-weight organic acids and alcohols. These products are further oxidized to hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and acetate in acetogenic step that involves mainly syntrophic degradation of nongaseous fermentation products. The fourth step is methanogenesis. Three groups of substrates for methane production and three types of methanogenic pathways are known: splitting of acetate (aceticlastic/acetotrophic methanogenesis); reduction of CO2 with H2 or formate and rarely ethanol or secondary alcohols as electron donors (hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis); and reduction of methyl groups of methylated compounds such as methanol, methylated amines, or methylated sulfides (hydrogen-dependent and hydrogen-independent methylotrophic methanogenesis). The two last steps, acetogenesis and methanogenesis, are closely related and involve syntrophic associations between hydrogen-producing acetogenic bacteria and hydrogenotrophic methanogens (Figure 1) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
\n
Figure 1.
A scheme of anaerobic digestion of organic matter. Enzymes catalysing specific reactions of AD are presented in Tables 1–4. Thus in Figure 1 there are the links to Tables 1–4. Furthermore, background colours in the Figure correspond to the background colours of the title rows in the Tables 1–4: hydrolysis is indicated in green, acidogenesis in orange, acetogenesis in blue and methanogenesis in yellow. A, B, C, D, E refer to the title rows in Table 2; F, G refer to the title rows in Table 3.
\n
Recently, there has been a rapid development in culture-independent techniques (meta-omics approaches such as metagenomics, metatranscriptomics, metaproteomics, metabolomics) for exploring microbial communities, which have led to a new insight into their structure and function in both natural environments and anaerobic digesters. The current trends involve the combined use of meta-omic approaches and detailed reactor performance data as well as isotope labeling techniques that allow us to develop a fundamental understanding of the processes occurring in AD. Those activities are aimed to improve biogas production and increase the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption [6, 7, 8, 9].
\n
Analysis of many studies on metagenomes of microbial communities from anaerobic digesters shows that (i) contribution of methanogens in the methane-yielding microbial communities is relatively small, below 20%; (ii) the most abundant phyla of bacteria are usually Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria; (iii) methanogenic archaea are dominated by acetotrophs or hydrogenotrophs with a certain contribution of methylotrophs; (iv) substrate, operational conditions such as temperature, pH, ammonia concentration, etc. shape the structure, percentage distribution of specific taxons, and functioning of the community of microorganisms; (v) it is important to describe interactions within microbial communities and assign functions in AD steps to specific groups of microbes; and (vi) the majority of sequences are not classified at the genus level confirming that most of the microorganisms are still unrecognized [6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
\n
In this contribution, the purpose of the study was to prepare a list of the selected enzymes and their catalyzed reactions, being a specific enzymatic road map of AD metabolic pathways, useful in molecular studies. The available metabolic pathway databases such as KEGG PATHWAY Database [16, 17, 18], MetaCyc Metabolic Pathway Database, BioCyc Database Collection [19], and BRENDA—The Comprehensive Enzyme Information System [20] were used to select metabolic pathways dedicated only to AD from hydrolysis to methanogenic steps exerted by microbes.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Hydrolytic enzyme
\n
Reaction/process
\n
EC number
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Esterases
\n
Acting on ester bonds
\n
EC 3.1
\n
\n
\n
Glycosidases
\n
Acting on glycoside bonds
\n
EC 3.2
\n
\n
\n
Acting on cellulose
\n
\n
\n
Cellulase; endo-1,4-beta-d-glucanase
\n
Endohydrolysis of (1 → 4)-beta-d-glucosidic linkages in cellulose, lichenin, and cereal beta-d-glucans
Hydrolysis of (1 → 4)-beta-d-glucosidic linkages in cellulose and cellotetraose, releasing cellobiose from the nonreducing ends of the chains
\n
EC 3.2.1.91
\n
\n
\n
Beta-glucosidase
\n
Hydrolysis of terminal, nonreducing beta-d-glucosyl residues with release of beta-d-glucose
\n
EC 3.2.1.21
\n
\n
\n
Acting on hemicellulose
\n
\n
\n
Endo-1,4-beta-xylanase
\n
Endohydrolysis of (1 → 4)-beta-d-xylosidic linkages in xylans
\n
EC 3.2.1.8
\n
\n
\n
Xylan 1,4-beta-xylosidase
\n
Hydrolysis of (1 → 4)-beta-d-xylans, to remove successive D-xylose residues from the nonreducing termini
\n
EC 3.2.1.37
\n
\n
\n
Mannan endo-1,4-beta-mannosidase
\n
Random hydrolysis of (1 → 4)-beta-d-mannosidic linkages in mannans, galactomannans, and glucomannans
\n
EC 3.2.1.78
\n
\n
\n
Beta-mannosidase
\n
Hydrolysis of terminal, nonreducing beta-d-mannose residues in beta-d-mannosides
\n
EC 3.2.1.25
\n
\n
\n
Alpha-galactosidase
\n
Hydrolysis of terminal, nonreducing alpha-d-galactose residues in alpha-d-galactosides, including galactose oligosaccharides, galactomannans,and galactolipids
\n
EC 3.2.1.22
\n
\n
\n
Alpha-glucuronidase
\n
An alpha-d-glucuronoside + H2O → an alcohol + d-glucuronate
\n
EC 3.2.1.139
\n
\n
\n
Peptidases
\n
Acting on peptide bonds
\n
EC 3.4
\n
\n
\n
Other hydrolases
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on carbon-nitrogen bonds, other than peptide bonds
\n
EC 3.5
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on ether bonds
\n
EC 3.3
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on carbon-carbon bonds
\n
EC 3.7
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on halide bonds
\n
EC 3.8
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on phosphorus-nitrogen bonds
\n
EC 3.9
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on sulfur-nitrogen bonds
\n
EC 3.10
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on carbon-phosphorus bonds
\n
EC 3.11
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on sulfur-sulfur bonds
\n
EC 3.12
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on carbon-sulfur bonds
\n
EC 3.13
\n
\n
\n
Hydrolases acting on acid anhydrides
\n
EC 3.6
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
The selected enzymes of hydrolytic step of anaerobic digestion [21, 22].
Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl coenzyme A, which is further routed to acetate and butyrate with hydrogen release. See Part B: Further transformations of pyruvate—glycolytic fermentations
\n
\n
\n
Transformation of ethanol and acetate to butyrate and hydrogen in Clostridium kluyveri [29]
\n
\n
\n
Acetate kinase
\n
See Part B. Further transformations of pyruvate—glycolytic fermentations
\n
EC 2.7.2.1
\n
\n
\n
Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase
\n
EC 2.3.1.9
\n
\n
\n
3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase
\n
EC 1.1.1.157
\n
\n
\n
3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydratase
\n
EC 4.2.1.55
\n
\n
\n
Butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase/Etf complex
\n
EC 1.3.1.109
\n
\n
\n
Acetate CoA-transferase
\n
Acyl-CoA + acetate ↔ a fatty acid anion + acetyl-CoA
Syntrophy with H2-scavenging microorganism: amino acid degradation involves NAD(P)- or FAD-dependent deamination of amino acids to the corresponding α-keto acids by amino acid dehydrogenases (EC 1.4.1.X): RCH(NH4+)COO− + H2O → RCOCOO− + NH4+ + H2 and further conversion of α-keto acids via oxidative decarboxylation to fatty acids: RCOCOO− + H2O → RCOO− + CO2 + H2 [33]
\n
\n
\n
Without syntrophy with H2-scavenging microorganism: Stickland Reaction—coupled oxidation-reduction reactions between suitable amino acids (coupled deamination of amino acids); one member of the pair is oxidized (dehydrogenated) and the other is reduced (hydrogenated) [34], for example, Alanine and glycine: alanine + 2 glycine + 3H2O → 3 acetate− + 3NH4+ + HCO3− + H+ Valine and glycine: valine + 2 glycine + 3H2O → isobutyrate− + 2 acetate− + 3NH4+ + HCO3− + H+ Leucine and glycine: leucine + 2 glycine + 3H2O → isovalerate− + 2 acetate− + 3NH4+ + HCO3− + H+
\n
\n
\n
Examples of amino acid dehydrogenases catalyzing deamination of amino acids to the corresponding α-keto acids [33]
5-Methyltetrahydrofolate:corrinoid/iron-sulfur protein Co-methyltransferase
\n
\n
\n
Carbon monoxide dehydrogenase
\n
\n
\n
CO-methylating acetyl-CoA synthase
\n
\n
\n
Reverse electron transfer during acetate oxidation has yet to be confirmed. Direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET) is not excluded (Westerholm et al., 2016)
\n
\n
\n
\nAcetate oxidation by Geobacter sulfurreducens:\n Acetate oxidation coupled to reduction of fumarate to succinate (∆G°′ = −249 kJ per mol acetate), acetate metabolism proceeds via reactions of the citric acid cycle [39]
Butyrate oxidation coupled with a reverse electron transfer that involves electron transfer flavoprotein EtfAB, membrane-anchored electron carrier DUF224 protein, the menaquinone pool in the membrane, a membrane-bound cytochrome, NADH:hydrogenase/formate-dehydrogenase complex (NDH/HYD1/FDH-1 complex), Rnf (proton-translocating ferredoxin:NAD+ oxidoreductase) [40]
Propionate oxidation coupled with a reverse electron transfer that involves menaquinone, proteins encoded by cytochrome c homologous genes, cytochrome b:quinone oxidoreductases, formate dehydrogenases, hydrogenases including confurcating [FeFe]-hydrogenases [41]
\n
\n
\n
Six syntrophy-specific functional domains found in the genomes of the butyrate- or propionate-oxidizing syntrophs [42]
CapA—a membrane-bound complex, a protein involved in capsule or biofilm formation that may facilitate syntrophic growth (also present in acetate-oxidizers)
\n
IPR019079
\n
\n
\n
FtsW, RodA, SpoVE—membrane-integrated proteins involved in membrane integration, cell division, sporulation, and shape determination
\n
IPR018365
\n
\n
\n
Ribonuclease P involved in tRNA maturation
\n
IPR020539
\n
\n
\n
Functional domains involved in electron transfer identified by [42]
Lactate oxidation coupled with a reverse electron transfer that involves the membrane-bound Qmo complex, cytochromes, hydrogenases (Coo, Hyn, Hyd, Hys), formate dehydrogenases, menaquinone, membrane-bound Qrc complex [43, 44]
\n
\n
\n
\nEthanol oxidation by Pelobacter carbinolicus\n Ethanol + H2O → acetate− + H+ + 2H2, ΔG0’ = + 9.6 kJ/mol with the H2 consuming methanogen, ΔG0’ = − 56 kJ/mol [4]
Ethanol oxidation coupled with a reverse electron transfer that involves membrane-bound ion-translocating ferredoxin:NAD+ oxidoreductase, formate dehydrogenases, and confurcating hydrogenases [1, 45]
\n
\n
\n
G. Acetogenesis independent on syntrophic relations between microorganisms
Lactate + 2 NAD+ + 2 reduced Fd ↔ pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 oxidized Fd The enzyme uses flavin-based electron confurcation to drive endergonic lactate oxidation with NAD+ as oxidant at the expense of simultaneous exergonic electron flow from reduced ferredoxin to NAD+
\n
EC 1.3.1.110
\n
\n
\n
Pyruvate is transformed to acetyl-CoA and further to acetate with the release of ATP
Trimethylamine:corrinoid protein Co-methyltransferase
\n
Trimethylamine + a [Co(I) trimethylamine-specific corrinoid protein] ↔ a [methyl-Co(III) trimethylamine-specific corrinoid protein] + dimethylamine
\n
EC 2.1.1.249
\n
\n
\n
[Methyl-Co(III) methylamine-specific corrinoid protein]:coenzyme M methyltransferase
\n
[Methyl-Co(III) methylamine-specific corrinoid protein] + CoM ↔ methyl-CoM + a [Co(I) methylamine-specific corrinoid protein]
\n
EC 2.1.1.247
\n
\n
\n
Methyl-CoM reductase
\n
CH3-S-CoM + H-S-CoB ↔ CoM-S-S-CoB + CH4
\n
EC 2.8.4.1
\n
\n
\n
Heterodisulfide reductase
\n
CoM-S-S-CoB + dihydromethanophenazine ↔ CoB + CoM + methanophenazine
\n
EC 1.8.98.1
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
The selected enzymes of methanogenic step of anaerobic digestion [48, 49].
\n
\n
\n
2. Selected enzymes of anaerobic digestion
\n
Figure 1 shows a scheme of AD and Tables 1–4 present a summary of the selected enzymes and enzymatic reactions involved in decomposition of organic matter to methane and carbon dioxide. Tables 1–4 are an extension of Figure 1, and in Figure 1, there are the links to Tables 1–4.
\n
The key groups of hydrolases involved in the process of degradation of organic matter are esterases, glycosidases, and peptidases, which catalyze the cleavage of ester bonds, glycoside bonds, and peptide bonds, respectively (Table 1). Table 1 also includes other classes of hydrolases such as acting on carbon-nitrogen bonds, other than peptide bonds.
\n
In the acidogenic stage of AD, the key step is pyruvate formation from carbohydrates (Table 2, Part A) or other compounds and further pyruvate transformations toward short-chain fatty acids and ethanol (Table 2, Part B). The Part C of the Table 2 also considers transformation of gaseous and nongaseous products of acidic fermentations, resulting from nonsyntrophic nutritional interaction between bacteria. The Parts D and E present the enzymes of glycerol and amino acid transformations, respectively. The latter requires syntrophic cooperation between microorganisms.
\n
The enzymes catalyzing oxidation of nongaseous products of acidogenesis mainly butyrate, propionate, acetate, lactate, ethanol including the enzymes of reverse electron transfer (process responsible for energy conservation in syntrophically growing acetogens) are shown in Table 3.
\n
The enzymes of the three recognized pathways of methanogenesis such as acetotrophic, hydrogenotrophic, and methylotrophic are listed in Table 4.
\n
The data were prepared on the basis of detailed analysis of AD research. The enzyme nomenclature comes from the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database resource.
\n
\n
\n
3. Conclusion
\n
Biomass conversion to methane and carbon dioxide is the effect of complex interactions between microorganisms. These processes occur due to the microbial enzymatic machinery involved in specific metabolic pathways. Meta-omic analyses of microbial communities involved in AD reveal (i) dependence of microbial communities on the type of feedstock and operational conditions and (ii) describe interactions within microbial communities and ecophysiological functions of the specific taxa. Searching for the gene presence, gene expression, and protein expression, as well as linking structure and function of microbial communities, allows to develop a fundamental understanding of AD. This chapter is believed to contribute to the studies on the enzymatic road map of anaerobic digestion. However, it is only the tip of the iceberg of processes occurring in the microbial cells/microbial communities.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
We acknowledge the support of The National Science Centre, Poland, through grant UMO-2015/17/B/NZ9/01718 and The National Centre for Research and Development, Poland, through grant BIOSTRATEG2/297310/13/NCBiR/2016.
\n
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
\n',keywords:"anaerobic digestion, enzymes, hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, methanogenesis, syntrophy, metabolic pathways",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/63744.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/63744.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63744",totalDownloads:437,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 29th 2018",dateReviewed:"September 1st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The general scheme of anaerobic digestion is well known. It is a complex process promoted by the interaction of many groups of microorganisms and has four major steps: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis. The aim of the study was to prepare a systematized list of the selected enzymes responsible for the key pathways of anaerobic digestion based on the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database resource. The list contains (i) key groups of hydrolases involved in the process of degradation of organic matter; (ii) the enzymes catalyzing reactions leading to pyruvate formation; (iii) the enzymes of metabolic pathways of further pyruvate transformations; (iv) the enzymes of glycerol transformations; (v) the enzymes involved in transformation of gaseous or nongaseous products of acidic fermentations resulting from nonsyntrophic nutritional interactions between microbes; (vi) the enzymes of amino acid fermentations; (vii) the enzymes involved in acetogenesis; and (viii) the enzymes of the recognized pathways of methanogenesis. Searching for the presence and activity of the enzymes as well as linking structure and function of microbial communities allows to develop a fundamental understanding of the processes, leading to methane production. In this contribution, the present study is believed to be a piece to the enzymatic road map of anaerobic digestion research.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/63744",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/63744",signatures:"Anna Sikora, Anna Detman, Damian Mielecki, Aleksandra Chojnacka and Mieczysław Błaszczyk",book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"146985",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Sikora",fullName:"Anna Sikora",slug:"anna-sikora",email:"annaw@ibb.waw.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"162424",title:"Prof.",name:"Mieczysław",middleName:null,surname:"Błaszczyk",fullName:"Mieczysław Błaszczyk",slug:"mieczyslaw-blaszczyk",email:"mjkb111@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269433",title:"MSc.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Detman",fullName:"Anna Detman",slug:"anna-detman",email:"annad@ibb.waw.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269435",title:"Dr.",name:"Damian",middleName:null,surname:"Mielecki",fullName:"Damian Mielecki",slug:"damian-mielecki",email:"damian@ibb.waw.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269436",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",middleName:null,surname:"Chojnacka",fullName:"Aleksandra Chojnacka",slug:"aleksandra-chojnacka",email:"achojnacka@ibb.waw.pl",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Selected enzymes of anaerobic digestion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Sieber JR, McInerney MJ, Gunsalus RP. Genomic insights into syntrophy: The paradigm for anaerobic metabolic cooperation. Annual Review Microbiology. 2012;66:429-452. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-090110-102844\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Mao CL, Feng YZ, Wang XJ, Ren GX. Review on research achievements of biogas from anaerobic digestion. Renewable and Sustinable Energy Reviews. 2015;45:540-555. DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.032\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Sikora A, Detman A, Chojnacka A, Błaszczyk MK. Anaerobic digestion: I. A common process ensuring energy flow and the circulation of matter in ecosystems. II. A tool for the production of gaseous biofuels. In: Jozala AF, editor. Fermentation Processes. 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Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics—Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland
Faculty of Agriculture and Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland
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