The key engineering challenges facing 5G.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7249",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"3D Printing",title:"3D Printing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'This book, "3D Printing", is divided into two parts: the first part is devoted to the relationship between 3D printing and engineering, and the second part shows the impact of 3D printing on the medical sector in general. 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Thus, this book will greatly add new information for embryologists to select good-quality embryos for transfer to improve human embryo transfer pregnancy rate.",isbn:"978-953-51-3512-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3511-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4675-9",doi:"10.5772/65555",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"embryo-cleavage",numberOfPages:122,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11de486fcf8fe42d4359c65e71a8f1da",bookSignature:"Bin Wu",publishedDate:"September 6th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5817.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:8091,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 4th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 25th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 21st 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 21st 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 20th 2017",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"108807",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Bin",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"bin-wu",fullName:"Bin Wu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108807/images/system/108807.jfif",biography:"Bin Wu, Ph.D., HCLD is currently a scientific laboratory director at Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, USA. He received his training in genetics and reproductive biology at the Northwest Agricultural University in China and Cornell University, New York and post-doctor training at University of Guelph, Canada. He was promoted as a professor at the Northwest Agricultural University. As an embryologist, he later joined in the Center for Human Reproduction in Chicago. Dr. Wu has membership for many professional associations, such as American Society for Reproductive Medicine; International Embryo Transfer Society; Society for the Study of Reproduction; American Association of Bioanalysts and European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology. Also, he has obtained some significant research awards from these professional associations.",institutionString:"Arizona Center for Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"398",title:"Embryology",slug:"human-genetics-embryology"}],chapters:[{id:"55747",title:"Introductory Chapter: New Technologies for the Study of Embryo Cleavage",slug:"introductory-chapter-new-technologies-for-the-study-of-embryo-cleavage",totalDownloads:1198,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"108807",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Bin",surname:"Wu",slug:"bin-wu",fullName:"Bin Wu"}]},{id:"55771",title:"Timing of Embryo Cleavage",slug:"timing-of-embryo-cleavage",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"197262",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng Ju",surname:"Lee",slug:"meng-ju-lee",fullName:"Meng Ju Lee"}]},{id:"55580",title:"Embryo Morphokinetics Based on Time-Lapse Observation",slug:"embryo-morphokinetics-based-on-time-lapse-observation",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"199384",title:"Dr.",name:"Nasim",surname:"Tabibnejad",slug:"nasim-tabibnejad",fullName:"Nasim Tabibnejad"}]},{id:"56206",title:"Methods for Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Embryo Cleavage In Vitro",slug:"methods-for-spatio-temporal-analysis-of-embryo-cleavage-in-vitro",totalDownloads:1074,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"197496",title:"Ms.",name:"Anna",surname:"Leida",slug:"anna-leida",fullName:"Anna Leida"},{id:"204895",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"Fierro-González",slug:"juan-carlos-fierro-gonzalez",fullName:"Juan Carlos Fierro-González"},{id:"204896",title:"Dr.",name:"Aisha",surname:"Khan",slug:"aisha-khan",fullName:"Aisha Khan"}]},{id:"54686",title:"Control of Embryonic Gene Expression and Epigenetics",slug:"control-of-embryonic-gene-expression-and-epigenetics",totalDownloads:1340,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"195958",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",surname:"Tulay",slug:"pinar-tulay",fullName:"Pinar Tulay"}]},{id:"55763",title:"Non‐Invasive Assessment of the Embryo Viability via the Analysis of the Culture Media",slug:"non-invasive-assessment-of-the-embryo-viability-via-the-analysis-of-the-culture-media",totalDownloads:1019,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"197908",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabor Laszlo",surname:"Kovacs",slug:"gabor-laszlo-kovacs",fullName:"Gabor Laszlo Kovacs"},{id:"204858",title:"Dr.",name:"Gergely",surname:"Montsko",slug:"gergely-montsko",fullName:"Gergely Montsko"},{id:"204859",title:"Ms.",name:"Zita",surname:"Zrinyi",slug:"zita-zrinyi",fullName:"Zita Zrinyi"},{id:"204860",title:"Dr.",name:"Akos",surname:"Varnagy",slug:"akos-varnagy",fullName:"Akos Varnagy"},{id:"204861",title:"Prof.",name:"Jozsef",surname:"Bodis",slug:"jozsef-bodis",fullName:"Jozsef Bodis"}]},{id:"56335",title:"Improving ART Pregnancy Rate with Two Kinds of Media and Two Types of Incubators",slug:"improving-art-pregnancy-rate-with-two-kinds-of-media-and-two-types-of-incubators",totalDownloads:1336,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"108807",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Bin",surname:"Wu",slug:"bin-wu",fullName:"Bin Wu"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"192910",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Skomersic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192910/images/4743_n.jpg",email:"romina.s@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Vitiligo is a skin condition characterized by loss of pigments on normal skin with a worldwide prevalence of 0.1–2%. Due to its cosmetic impact, vitiligo can impact the quality of life in children and adults. There are multiple therapies used for repigmentation beginning from topical corticosteroids, calcineurin inhibitors, and narrowband ultraviolet B (NB-UVB) to oral systemic medications and surgery. Even though a good number of patients may achieve successful repigmentation, there may be a few in whom the progression of vitiligo may affect extensive body surface areas making repigmentation an uphill task. The aim in such patients with extensive vitiligo (more than 50% body surface area) would be to achieve a uniform skin tone by depigmenting the remaining pigmented sites [1].
Depigmentation therapy is an accomplishable alternative therapy in patients who are extensively affected by vitiligo. It can be used in all skin types. Most readily used and available depigmenting agents are monobenzyl ether of hydroquinone (MBEH), 4-methoxyphenol, and phenol. Other therapies such as lasers and cryotherapy have also been used. The depigmentation process is a gradual one and can take anywhere between 1 and 3 years. In the author’s experience, those who have undergone depigmentation are satisfied and happy with the therapeutic outcome if one achieves uniform color.
The depigmentation approach is quite recent and is derived from the observations of unwanted depigmenting action of the phenol derivatives [2]. However, there are very few published studies on it. The aim of the researchers was to explain the possible mechanism of action for this class of compounds. Tyrosinase was the first suggested target. Also the potential of different phenol derivatives to act as an alternative substrate of the enzyme or as a competitive inhibitor was evaluated. Thus, it was hypothesized that this class of substances, or some of them, may be used for the treatment of skin disorders caused due to hyperpigmentation or melanocyte hyperproliferation. Further structural studies have indicated that the role of the position and type of substitutes in the phenolic ring allow the compound to be hydroxylated or oxidated by tyrosinase [3]. Considering phenol derivatives have a role in this process, hydroquinone was evaluated. Hydroquinone (HQ) belongs to the phenol/catechol class of chemical agents. Tyrosinase gets inhibited by HQ when interaction occurs with copper at the active site. This further decreases the amount of intracellular glutathione and induces the production of oxygen-reactive species. Thus, HQ acts as an alternative substrate, according to most part of phenol/catechol compounds, because it is similar to tyrosine. The enzyme can thus oxidize HQ without generating the pigment. The quinones produced are able to react with the sulfhydryl residues of the proteins, generating oxidative damage and affecting the cell growth. The depigmenting action is the result of the oxidative damage, involving both lipids and proteins of the cellular membranes. Functional studies have demonstrated that HQ and other phenolic compounds, such as tert-butylphenol, may even act through different mechanisms, including the oxidation of TRP1, and by interfering with RNA and DNA synthesis. HQ has been identified as the main depigmenting agent, whereas among the various phenolic derivatives, the monobenzyl ether of hydroquinone (MBEH) appeared as the more handful one. In this chapter, we will review and compare various established and potential depigmentation agents as well as emerging therapies that can be used in extensive and universal vitiligo.
Selection of an appropriate patient is of utmost importance in depigmentation therapy. The option of depigmentation should be made available to only those patients having extensive vitiligo. Detailed and thorough consultation sessions should be conducted with the patient and their families (preferably 2–3 sessions), explaining to them in detail that this therapeutic modality utilizes a potent depigmenting agent and should not be used for cosmetic purposes [2, 3]. They should be explained with all realistic expectations, treatment time frame, the cost involved, and side effects if any, and that once one particular type of treatment is done, they will not be a good candidate for any other type of treatment. Subjects with skin types (V and VI) with a disfiguring contrast between dark-pigmented skin and white vitiliginous areas, especially involving exposed areas (face or the hands), may be a candidate for depigmentation. Moreover, incomplete or trichrome repigmentation (e.g., when using UV light) may cause more disfigurement, thus making such individuals good candidates for depigmentation therapy. The patients should be informed that even after depigmentation, spontaneous repigmentation might occur in vitiligo lesions, warranting additional depigmenting cycles. Patients must be informed that these treatments lead to a definitive irreversible depigmentation. Younger patients with extensive involvement can be given an option of repigmentation instead of opting for depigmentation explaining that complete repigmentation may or may not be achieved. Depigmentation therapy should be avoided in children less than 12 years of age [4].
MBEH (monobenzone, p-benzyloxy-phenol) is the most common topical depigmenting agent used mainly because it is the only product approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) for depigmentation in vitiligo, if the affected body surface area is more than 50% [1]. It is a hydroquinone (HQ) derivative and was first introduced in 1930s. MBEH is the first-line agent for depigmentation therapy in vitiligo patients.
There are multiple pathways through which MBEH causes depigmentation [5]:
Reaction with tyrosinase enzyme during melanin synthesis leads to conversion of MBEH to quinones. The reactive quinone products formed bind with cysteine found in tyrosinase proteins (sulfhydryl (-SH) group) to form hapten-carrier compounds resulting in formation of neoantigens. These neoantigens stimulate a systemic, melanocyte destruction and an inflammatory reaction.
Another result of MBEH conversion by tyrosinase is production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS leads to lysosomal degradation of melanosomes. Additionally, there is interference of the melanosome structure and membranes, following which the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II routes and initiation of melanocyte Ag-specific T-cell responses cause an increase in surface expression of melanosomal antigens.
ROS also contributes to an innate immune response due to the release of exosomes.
MBEH-exposed skin presents with rapid and persistent innate immune activation. It is quoted by Gupta et al. “that MBEH is a contact-sensitizer, inducer of a type IV delayed type hypersensitivity response against the quinone hapten. However, this only occurs if there is production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1b and IL-18 by the Langerhans cells or keratinocytes” [6].
There have been reports that when MBEH therapy was combined with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA), it enhanced depigmentation process and the melanocytotoxic effects via inhibition of the enzyme glutathione S-transferase in melanocytes. This could be a possible way to avoid contact dermatitis when using high concentrations of 40% MBEH. However, combination of ATRA-MBEH did not affect hair pigmentation in animal studies [7].
After the patient has been duly consulted and informed about all the possible outcomes and consequences of the treatment, the depigmentation therapy is initiated. Application of MBEH can be done by the patient at home. Initially, the exposed areas are treated. A test spot is advised over a normal pigmented skin (usually forearm) to assess the development of contact dermatitis. If there is no adverse reaction, the patient can continue with the application of the cream on the areas of top priority and then move in stages for low priority areas. To avoid contact dermatitis, different concentrations of MBEH can be used. MBEH can be diluted to 5% for use on the neck, 10% on the face, and 20% on the arms and legs. In patients who fail to respond to 20% MBEH over a course of 3 to 4 months, the concentration of MBEH can be increased to 30% and then further to 40%. Concentrations of 30 and 40% MBEH have been used primarily on the extremities, especially the elbows and knees. Concentrations greater than this are not recommended [8].
It takes anywhere between 4 and 12 months for gradual depigmentation [8]. It is to be noted that depigmentation is mostly irreversible and histologically associated with loss of melanosomes and melanocytes [1].
Patients should always be informed and well instructed about certain precautions while using MBEH.
Application of MBEH at one site can lead to loss of pigment at distant body sites, i.e., application of MBEH to the arm may result in loss of pigment on the face [4]. Moreover, it can also reactivate a stable disease.
Application of MBEH to the eyelids is not advised [8] because of risk of ochronosis. It may lead to pigmentation of the conjunctiva if MBEH is applied on the eyelids.
Avoid skin-to-skin contact on a continuous basis with another person as it can cause a decrease in pigmentation at the site of contact in the other person.
The use of sunscreens with a high-sun protection factor (SPF) is essential. This also helps to prevent repigmentation as well as sunburn reactions [4].
Follicular repigmentation may occur spontaneously upon sun exposure [8]. This happens mainly because MBEH only destroys epidermal melanocytes keeping follicular melanocytes intact.
Irritant contact dermatitis and common allergic reactions can develop [9]. In which event, application of MBEH is stopped, and open wet dressings are applied to the affected area along with topical steroids. Once the dermatitis has subsided, MBEH can be restarted at a lower concentration of 5% [8]. Other side effects include exogenous ochronosis [10], unmasking of telangiectasias and phlebectasias on the lower extremities [8], pruritus, xerosis, erythema, rash, edema, conjunctival melanosis, and distant depigmentation [4].
Risk of carcinogenesis with MBEH has not been reported but cannot be ruled out, and hence it is banned from the European Union since 2001 in cosmetics [11].
All-trans retinoic acid (RA), which is a vitamin A derivative primarily employed in the treatment of acne, is shown to serve as a weak depigmenting agent when used for several weeks.
A combination or RA and MBEH induced significant depigmentation within 4–8 weeks. Nair et al. proposed that RA might enhance the skin penetration of depigmenting agents. Thus, RA increases the susceptibility of melanocytes to hydroquinone and 4-hydroxyanisole via the impairment of glutathione-dependent defense mechanisms of melanocytes and reducing melanogenesis activity in viable melanocytes [12, 13, 14, 15].
This compound is a phenol derivative and is also known as p-hydroxyanisole (HA) or mequinol [1].
Mequinol acts in the similar way as MBEH acts. This compound usually acts via a dose-dependent response manner. It can be used as monotherapy or in conjunction with a Q-switched ruby laser.
The compound is used in a 20% concentration in an oil/water cream base. As with MBEH, cream is applied on an initial test patch to observe for any allergic reactions. If there are no reactions, the patient is advised to apply cream twice daily until complete depigmentation is observed [16]. The effectiveness of 4-MP has been correlated with the duration of the use of the cream; the longer the cream was used, better the results that were obtained [1].
A combination product of 2% 4-hydroxyanisole (mequinol) and 0.01% tretinoin was tested in a double-blind multicentric study and was found to significantly improve solar lentigines and related hyperpigmented lesions of the face and hands after a twice-daily application of up to 24 weeks [1].
Phenol is an inexpensive peeling agent having medium-depth capability and used for treatment of photodamage or rhytids. The toxicity of phenol toward melanocytes is well documented. Phenol has the ability to penetrate deeper into the tissue up to the upper reticular dermis.
Phenol is involved in melanogenesis, inducing coagulation of protein in the epidermis. The melanocytes lose their capacity to synthesize melanocytes normally. This property of phenol is different than that of MBEH and hydroquinone wherein they destroy the melanocytes [17]. Hence, 88% phenol can be used as therapeutic option to eliminate residual normally pigmented lesions in patients.
The area to be treated is cleaned with spirit/alcohol. Application of phenol is done with the help of a swab soaked with phenol until cutaneous frosting occurs. There might be a burning sensation experienced by the patient for approximately 60 seconds, which gradually decreases in intensity but can last from minutes to hours. In a case study reported by Zanini and Machado Filho, they reported the use of 88% phenol on a 62-year-old female patient. Post 2 sessions, with a gap of 45 days, total elimination of residual pigmentation was achieved [17].
In general, 88% phenol does not produce any major complications when used in limited areas. However, some complications such as cardiotoxicity and other systemic toxicities have been reported in patients treated with medium and deep peeling over larger areas. Its cellular uptake is both rapid and passive because of its lipophilic character and signs of systemic toxicity develop soon after exposure. Cardiovascular shock, cardiac arrhythmias, and bradycardia, as well as metabolic acidosis, have been reported within 6 hours of skin-peeling procedures with phenol [17]. Other complications include non-esthetic scar formation, dyschromia, and development of herpetic eczema. However, the authors of this chapter have also noted a paradoxical response, wherein phenol application led to repigmentation of the skin!
Depigmentation with topicals is effective; however, they come with their share of side effects and can take up to 10 months or more for completion of the process and rarely complete depigmentation may not be achieved. Depigmentation by physical means, i.e., by cryotherapy and lasers, can be done when rapid depigmentation is desired or when patients have not responded well to topicals or have had contact dermatitis or any side effects due to the same.
Cryotherapy is nothing but cold therapy or the use of low temperatures to treat a variety of tissue lesions. With cryotherapy, it is possible to achieve rapid and permanent depigmentation via irreversible tissue damage resulting from intracellular ice formation. Liquid nitrogen is used as a cryogen for clinical use. The degree of damage depends on the rate of cooling and minimum temperature achieved. Further, inflammation develops within 24 hours of the treatment, which contributes to destruction of lesions via immunologically mediated mechanisms. In areas of koebnerization, cryotherapy is more effective.
Initially, spot testing by a single freeze-thaw cycle is done. Once the edema and erythema subside, patches are treated with cryotherapy 3–6 weeks later. Either CO2 or liquid N2 can be used. A 2-cm flat-topped and round cryoprobe is used at approximately 40 mm from the skin surface. The whole patch is frozen with a single freeze-thaw cycle from the periphery followed by forming successive rows inward. Procedure should be terminated when a narrow (<1 mm) frost rim forms around the periphery of the cryoprobe. The rim can develop within 10–20 s by a cryogun connected to a container with barometric pressure above 80 kg/cm2. For lesions around the orbits or uneven areas of the nose, cryoprobes having smaller diameters may be required. No more than one freeze-thaw cycle is advised per session. There have been cases reported which have used two freeze-thaw cycles [18]. Results are visible by the end of 4 weeks after the procedure.
Alternatively, a cryospray/cryopen or the traditional dip-stick method of application can be used following the same freeze-thaw cycle protocol.
Low cost and simple to perform.
Does not require anesthesia.
Minimal wound care with no dressing or antibiotics.
Safe and efficacious.
No scar formation if performed by an experienced dermatologist.
It can be performed only on smaller areas.
Multiple sittings may be required.
If performed aggressively, it can lead to permanent scarring.
Another faster method of depigmentation is the use of laser therapy. Lasers have been advocated more than MBEH and other bleaching agents due to their failure rate, as they have been proven to selectively destruct the melanocytes causing depigmentation. Further the risk of scar formation is minimized with laser therapies [16].
Mainly, the Q-switched ruby (QSR, 694 nm) and alexandrite (755 nm) lasers have been used in depigmentation. Both of these lasers operate in a similar manner in terms of mechanism of action. They induce photothermolysis of the pigmented lesions as they have wavelengths between 600 and 800 nm. These wavelengths are more readily and well absorbed by melanin. The frequency and pulse width is adjusted according to the skin type of the patient by a trained and experienced dermatologist. A maximum of 80 cm2 area is treated per session.
Q-switched ruby | Q-switched alexandrite |
---|---|
|
|
Some other potential Q-switched lasers that can selectively destruct melanocytes include neodymium:yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) laser (1064 nm) and the frequency-doubled Q-switched Nd:YAG laser (532 nm) [1]. In a study by Boen et al., Q-switched ruby laser (QSRL) 694 nm, Q-switched alexandrite laser (QSAL) 755 nm, and picosecond 755-nm alexandrite lasers provided the most significant pigment reduction when different recalcitrant pigmented areas of the body were treated by the abovementioned lasers over different areas in the same patient. In all the patients treated with this laser therapy, no adverse reactions apart from mild postprocedure erythema and crusting were noticed. The picosecond laser poses more advantages over the traditional Q-switch laser as it has increased photochemical action due to shorter pulse duration, requires lesser treatment sessions, and has reduced specific photothermal damage. This results in an increase in the safety profile of the laser and improves the effectiveness of this therapeutic modality [19, 24, 25, 26].
Procedure is slightly painful and may require local anesthesia.
Treatment is expensive.
Possibility of failure in removing pigmented patches even after several treatments because of Koebner’s phenomenon.
Patients with active vitiligo respond better to laser treatments compared to those with stable vitiligo. Hence, patients who are Koebner negative may often relapse [16].
Also known as imatinib mesylate, it is used to treat conditions like leukemia and gastrointestinal stromal tumors. It was observed that patients treated with imatinib were reported to develop generalized depigmentation as a side effect. Imatinib is a tyrosinase kinase inhibitor, thus inhibiting the activity of the enzyme, resulting in decreased pigmentation of the skin. The side effects of imatinib include fluid retention, periorbital edema, diarrhea, and myelosuppression. Some of the dermatological side effects include erythroderma, follicular mucinosis, and lichenoid eruption [27].
Imiquimod is usually used for topical treatment of anogenital warts and basal cell carcinomas [20]. It is an imidazoquinoline and is an immune response modifier. It acts by stimulating the monocytes/macrophages and plasmacytoid dendritic cells in dermis and epidermis of the immune system to produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, mainly interferon α and other signals that activate T-cell-mediated response leading to apoptosis of tumor cells. Prolonged use of imiquimod has shown to result in depigmentation [1]. Imiquimod also stimulates CD8 cells to become cytotoxic and enhances antigen presentation [21]. Recently, it was reported that human melanocytes express toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7). When applied topically, imiquimod binds to TLR7 followed by stimulation of various cytokines, which induce the abovementioned T-lymphocytic response [22]. Imiquimod also has a direct action on melanocytes via apoptosis of melanocytes. This action is related to reduction of expression of Bcl-2 and/or an increase in the proapoptotic stimulus (cytotoxic T lymphocytes, natural cytotoxic T cells/killer cells, granzymes B, Fas, TNF, Bax, etc.) [23].
Thus, there is a strong possibility that imiquimod may cause elimination of melanocytes by direct influence on cells as well as inducing acquired immunity indirectly, which eventually induces vitiligo-like hypopigmented lesions [28]. Some common side effects include itching, pain, burning, erosions, erythema, and crusting.
DPCP is used traditionally as a treatment modality for alopecia areata. Depigmentation was found to be one of the side effects due to the use of DPCP. It has an immunomodulatory mechanism of action. As reported by Duhra and Foulds [12], in a case of alopecia totalis where topical DPCP was used, there a was marked reaction with erythema and edema on the forearm after 3 days, but the scalp manifested only slight macular erythema. The reaction on the forearm subsided after 2 weeks and was replaced by a depigmented patch over a period of 6 weeks. Upon incubating the affected skin with dopa followed by electron microscopy, an absence of melanosomes and melanocytes was revealed. It has been observed that vitiligo can develop even with DPCP concentrations as low as 0.0001% [12].
Some of the adverse effects include hyperpigmentation, regional lymphadenopathy, blistering, and eczematous reactions [20].
The science of depigmentation is still not a perfected one and that does leave many questions unanswered. Further research in this arena can help shed light on these doubts:
Aspects that cannot be controlled
Remote depigmentation.
End result (color matching or same color).
Hairs do not lose pigment (can give repigmentation especially follicular).
Repigmentation during pregnancy (at times extensive).
Resistance to MBEH.
Can patients with less than 50% involvement, willing to accept that no more repigmentation is possible, are candidates for depigmentation?
Whether depigmentation in children is a safe and viable alternative?
Vitiligo has a huge psychological impact and is also socially stigmatizing, particularly for patients with darker skin types in whom the contrast between the vitiliginous lesions and uninvolved skin can be especially apparent and disfiguring. In patients with widespread involvement covering more than 50% of their body and in cases where medical modalities including phototherapy have proved ineffective, depigmentation therapy should be considered. Patient selection, adequate counseling, and patient education are extremely important for a positive long-term outcome.
Generally, antenna unit is a requisite of any on-air radio frequency (RF) system forming its service area and bandwidth capability. At present, implementing an active phased array antenna (PAA) [1] results in remarkably increased footprint and operation flexibility thanks to electronic beam steering function, which is realized by a beamforming network (BFN). The concept of electronically beam-steered PAA was proposed for radar application more than 50 years ago [2]; and due to the limited requirements for the bandwidth, up to the first decade of this century, microwave diode- or ferrite-based phase shifters were widely used in BFN as control elements. In the course of further development of radar technology, new requirements that arose referred to the increase in the area of PAA and the sector of beam scanning, also to the expansion of operating frequency range and instantaneous bandwidth [3]. To meet all of them in BFN based on standard phase-shifter approach, a serious barrier has arisen associated with the so-called beam squint effect, which leads to beam expansion and deflection from its intended target [1]. The search for solution of the limited instantaneous bandwidth issue led to the conclusion that the most effective way for radars, both pulsed and continuous probing, is to replace phase shifters in the PAA feed network with time-delay units, which will operate as true time delay (TTD) negating the effect of the finite fill time of PAA aperture [2].
\nConceptually, the operation principles of microwave phase-shifter and TTD units are similar, since the both has to adjust a large number of antenna elements to force the electromagnetic wave to add up at a particular angle to the PAA regulating such uniquely related parameters, as phase and time delay. However, in the first case, steering is provided by changing transmission phase angle (phase of S21) of a two-port network, but in the second one, by changing the length of the set of the passive microwave delay lines controlled by pin-diode or transistor switching circuits. So when implemented in the form of microstrip or coplanar microwave lines, it is possible to provide a bandwidth of up to tens of GHz. The main disadvantages of microwave TTD-based BFN are cumbersomeness and large insertion loss, the value of which can vary significantly at each step of the delay. Other shortcoming of microwave implementation of TTD BFN includes crosstalk due to leakage in the microwave switches that results in reflections and irregularities of transmission characteristics.
\nThe progress of radar technique at the beginning of the current century has led to the emergence and development of ultra-wideband radar systems. The typical examples are radars with low probability of interception of signals in which the carrier frequency of signals is rapidly reconstructed during operation in wide ranges, or radars using ultra-wideband probing signals allowing to receive an image of the object in the microwave range and distinguish close targets [4]. In addition, a number of radio electronic systems operating in different frequency bands are installed and simultaneously function on mobile carriers, in particular, the marine ones. In such systems, the application of TTD-based BFN was the only solution, which induced the numerous researches aimed to eliminating the drawbacks noted above. One example of advanced microwave beamforming schemes became so-called Rotman lens that is compact in size and provides true time delay [2]. However, this concept suffers from various additional losses, the main mechanism among which is beam-angle-dependent scanning loss that could reduce significantly the level of the main lobe of the PAA radiation pattern. Another intriguing concept, which is widely utilizing in the modern receiving PAA, is a processing at an intermediate frequency using a digital BFN [4]. Nevertheless, in the transmission PAA, where the delay is usually introduced into the microwave path, the issue of using the digital BFN is still open.
\nWhen creating such systems, combining the demands for various components of complex radar systems and ensuring the effective implementation of the required characteristics allow the use of approaches based on microwave photonics (MWP) technologies [5, 6]. At present, for incoming communication networks of fifth generation (5G), an extremely broad instantaneous bandwidth is required too, that is why ultra-wideband phase shifting or true-time-delay techniques must be used. In addition, enlarging the operating frequency of wireless fronthaul in the millimeter range is the mainstream research topic for 5G [7], which will be addressed in detail separately. On this way, MWP approach is extremely attractive for realizing multifunction PAA’s optical BFN due to its superior instantaneous operating bandwidth, immunity to electromagnetic interference, lightweight, and reconfigurability [8].
\nRecently, we compared by NI AWRDE-based simulation, the three versions of photonics BFN arrangements using optical phase shifters, switchable optical delay lines, and the proposed arrangement based on a combination of multichannel fiber Bragg grating and switchable optical delay lines [9]. Continuing work of the direction, in this chapter, we review the worldwide progress referred to designing photonics-based BFN and highlight our last simulation results on design search of optimized photonics BFNs for next-generation ultra-wide millimeter-wave (mmWave) antenna arrays. In particular, Section 2 reviews the specialties of microwave and mmWave photonics technique in 5G wireless networks of radio-over-fiber (RoF) architecture. In addition, Section 3 presents theoretical background of array antenna beam steering using ideal models of phase shifters and TTD delay lines. There is a short analysis of updated photonics beamforming networks produced on optical fibers, Bragg gratings, or photonics integrated circuits (PIC) in Section 4. The principles and ways to optimize photonics BFN design is discussed in Section 5 based on the known photonics BFN scheme including set of optical delay lines and a novel structural and cost-efficient configuration that, following the results of the previous sections, consists of microwave photonics BFN using wavelength division multiplexing and TTD techniques. All schemes are modeled by NI AWRDE CAD tool. Finally, Section 6 concludes the chapter.
\nThe next-generation wireless communications network (usually named as 5G) promises to deliver unprecedented data volumes and services for the mobile and fixed users representing both an evolution and a revolution of mobile technologies [10, 11, 12, 13]. Some of these technologies are mainly architectural in nature—for example, moving some of the decision-making to the devices themselves (device-centric architectures and smart devices)—while others are more hardware oriented. The increasing demands for broadband services and the transmission of higher data rates have led to consideration of wireless links operating at higher carrier frequencies and extending well into the mmWave-band where total capacity of the single cell can approach some gigabits per second. Table 1 lists three interconnected engineering challenges facing 5G [10, 14]. The first one is ultradensification of service areas and users. In the result, femtocell radio-over-fiber (RoF) architecture is proposed [15]. The second one includes utilization of mmWave spectrum [7]. Following it, microwave photonics-based circuit design comes to the forefront. At last, the third one is mobile data traffic explosion. In the result, 1000-fold factor over present-day systems must be reached.
\nNo | \nFeature | \nResult | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nUltra densification | \nFemtocell RoF architecture | \n
2 | \nUtilization of mmWave spectrum | \nMicrowave photonics-based circuit design comes to the forefront | \n
3 | \nMobile data traffic explosion | \n1000-fold factor over present-day systems | \n
The key engineering challenges facing 5G.
As follows from the table, the ambitious goal to increase explosively mobile traffic is able to achieve by solving two global tasks: architectural referred to RoF and technological referred to MWP. Combining millimeter-wave band and RoF network architecture is one of the promising candidates to deliver intensive bitrate traffic with seamless convergence between optical backhaul and wireless fronthaul. In addition, RoF technique allows converting directly a lightwave spectrum to mmWave radio spectrum using a simple MWP-based up-conversion scheme [16], which is important to keep the remote cells flexible, cost effective, and power efficient. Figure 1 demonstrates an example of mmWave RoF architecture, which consists of central office (CO), a remote or base station (RS) and wireless subscriber terminals (ST). CO is interactively connected with RS through fiber-optic cable, and RS is interactively connected with ST through wireless link. A typical position of RS is in the center of the service area; that is, for omnidirectional covering, four PAAs with an azimuth of 90° would be an optimal decision.
\nAn example of mmWave RoF architecture.
As shown in a large number of studies [7, 17, 18], mmWave 5G wireless network infrastructure must be erected with a lot of small cell sites controlled by the corresponding RS. In order to avoid inter-interference in these cells, one of the promising approaches is to equip the RS with a beam-steerable PAA (as in Figure 1), as has been practiced in radars for many years (see section “Introduction”). According to the estimates, mmWave RS would use PAA with hundreds of antenna elements to form directional beams for transmission and to receive similar beams from adjacent STs and RSs.
\nTo implement effective radio communication within these cells, a number of leading countries have already developed a promising spectrum including mmWave-bands up to 100 GHz. Figure 2 exemplifies USA assignation ranged from 27.5 to 95 GHz [19]. As follows from the figure, there is a continuous operating band between 57 and 76 GHz (fractional bandwidth of 30%), which will be used by us in the following treatment.
\n5G mmWave spectrum allocation of USA assignation.
The final topic to be highlighted in this section is to design 5G RS’s equipment using microwave and mmWave photonics techniques. Microwave photonics is an interdisciplinary scientific and technological field that combines the domains of microwave engineering and photonics. This field in the last 30 years has attracted immense interest and generated many new R&Ds from both the scientific community and the commercial sector. Emerging applications for 5G networks of RoF architecture indicate that MWP is set to be a subject of increasing importance ([8, 20, 21], and refs. cited there). By common opinion, MWP technology opens the way to super-wide bandwidth transmitting characteristics at lower size, weight, and power as compared with traditional electronic approach [22]. As an example, in a typical arrangement of MWP-based microwave transmitting unit (Figure 3), a photonics circuit is inserted between two microwave electronic chains typically including digital-analog converter (DAC), intermediate frequency and power amplifiers (IFA and PA, respectively), and antenna. For forward and reverse transformations of microwave and optical signals, there are two interfacing units at their bounds: electrical-to-optical (E/O) and optical-to-electrical (O/E) converters. Between the interfaces, there are various photonics processing units for frequency up-conversion, filtering, time delaying, beamforming, and so on, of microwave signals in optical domain.
\nA typical arrangement of MWP-based microwave transmitting unit.
As noted in the Introduction, phased array antennas are now widely used in radar equipment due to the possibility of fast electron beam scanning and increased failure-resistant feature compared to continuous aperture antennas and mechanical scanning. The application of PAAs in radar allows achieving high speed of viewing the service area and tracking high-speed maneuvering objects [1]. Besides, PAAs ensure the operability of the radar system in a complicated interference situation due to the adaptive formation of a complex-shape radiation pattern [4]. In many cases, the use of array antenna let reduce the weight of the radar system and lower its total cost. In addition to radar, mmWave array antennas capable of operating in ultra-wide frequency range are considered as one of a key enabling technology for designing RS of 5G network, as noted in the previous section. There, a formation of a narrow steered beam by means of the antenna array makes it possible to increase the directive gain to compensate for the attenuation in the mmWave-band. Besides, the use of a narrow beam would reduce the interference effects from other closely spaced transmitters, and also provide the possibility of spatial multiplexing to increase throughput while simultaneously exchanging information with several STs.
\nAs described above, electronic scanning in the PAA is provided by a beamforming network, which includes phase shifters, or delay lines. The BFN supports a continuous or discrete beam movement in space due to phase control or signal time delay between the array elements. Below, a short theoretical study using ideal models will be presented pursuing the goal to define the complementary input data for the posterior design of the specific photonics-based BFNs for the ultra-wide mmWave-band PAA exploiting widespread microwave-electronic computer-aided design (CAD) environment NI AWRDE.
\nIn general, the array antenna is a collection of antenna elements connected to the transmitter/receiver through RF feeds, which includes a BFN. A typical arrangement of antenna elements is shown in Figure 4.
\nArray antenna of arbitrary geometry.
The radiation pattern of an array of identical antenna elements (Eq. (1)) is the product of the diagram of an individual element \n
where \n
The array factor has the form:
\nwhere \n
When analyzing various configurations of antenna arrays and feed networks, only specific variant of the array factor is often considered, assuming the antenna elements to be isotropic, with the radiation pattern\n
As mentioned above, for scanning PAAs, there are two main ways of designing the feed networks: based on phase shifters and delay lines. Mathematically, the difference between these techniques can be represented as follows. First, expanding \n
where \n
where \n
In addition, the important parameters of the PAA are the directive gain and the beamwidth closely related to it. In the simplest case of a linear equidistant array, the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the beam, \n
For an array of
It should be noted that the beamwidth increases with the deviation from the PAA broadside direction. For this reason, the variants of the antenna array construction are often compared along the beamwidth in the direction of the normal, taking into account the broadening effect at large deviation angles.
\nThe directive gain, which is also considered in the direction of the broadside, and for the array of N elements, the distance, between which is equal to \n
where the factor of 2 is caused by the presence of the conducting plane in the majority of PAAs, which guides (reflects) the entire radiation flux into one half-space. In the absence of such a plane, the gain is reduced accordingly.
\nIn the mmWave-band, it is sometimes not possible to arrange array elements at the intervals of \n
where \n
From Eq. (9), it follows that to ensure the absence of grating lobes when scanning in the range of \n
The phase shifters or delay lines used in BFNs can be steered continuously or in discrete steps. Because of the operation convenience, the later type is most widely exploited. Such BFNs are usually controlled by binary codes and are steered in the range from 0 to \n
The sampling error within \n
where \n
The influence of the PAA’s parameters considered above was examined for the example of a linear equidistant array of 16 isotropic elements (Figure 5) designed for operation at the frequency range of 57–76 GHz. To ensure scanning without grating lobes, the distance between the elements of 2 mm was selected in accordance with Eq. (9), starting from the minimum wavelength of 4 mm. This distance leads to beamwidth of 6.3° at highest frequency and antenna gain of 15 dB in accordance with Eqs. (6) and (7), respectively.
\nConfiguration of the PAA under test.
The beam FWHM of the PAA under test varies in accordance with Eq. (5) from 8.4° at 57 GHz to 6.3° at 76 GHz. The necessity of transmitting an ultra-wideband signal with a fractional bandwidth of up to 30% by means of this PAA will inevitably lead to significant distortion of the normalized radiation pattern (NRP) shape when using a phase-shifter based BFN. We will illustrate this with the example of a signal with a 19 GHz bandwidth and a central frequency of 66.5 GHz, for which phase shifts for a beam direction of 30° are calculated according to Eq. (4). The NRPs formed by the BFN with ideal phase shifters at 57, 66.5, and 76 GHz are shown in Figure 6. It can be seen from the figure that the deviation of the maximum of the NRP from the desired direction is 4–6°when the frequency is varied within the operating range.
\nNormalized radiation patterns formed by the BFN with ideal phase shifters at 57, 66.5, and 76 GHz in the case of transmitting a signal with a 30% fractional bandwidth.
Moreover, at the edges of the frequency band, the power radiated by the PAA in the given direction falls by 4 dB. Because of the squint effect, the different frequency components of the signal will be radiated in different directions. As the result, a receiver would experience a decrease in amplitude at the edges of the RF signal frequency spectrum up to 4 dB, which causes a distortion of the waveform and the occurrence of reception errors. Signal components emitted in undesired directions also might cause interference in the receivers, for which this signal was not intended. For comparison, Figure 7 shows the NRPs formed by the BFN with delay lines at the same frequencies. It is seen from the figure that the squint phenomenon is completely absent in the entire frequency range. This well-known benefit ensures the superiority of the use of TTD-steered BFNs in PAAs with a relative bandwidth of more than 10% [23], in spite of the fact that TTD solution in principle is more expensive, bulky, and technically complex than the BFN on phase shifters. Thus, for the BFN under consideration, TTD-steered technique is the only suitable solution that ensures operability in the frequency range from 57 to 76 GHz.
\nNormalized radiation patterns formed by the BFN with ideal delay lines at 57, 66.5, and 76 GHz in the case of transmitting a signal with a 30% fractional bandwidth.
Essential schematic simplification can be achieved if binary switchable delay lines (BSDL) are used instead of continuously tuned ones. To determine the parameters of such a BSDL providing scanning angle of ±45°, the maximum time delay calculated in accordance with Eq. (3) is 70.8 ps. Following Eq. (10), the use of 4, 5 and 6-bit BFNs makes it possible to obtain a sampling period of 4.7, 2.3, and 1.1 ps, respectively. The growth of SP leads to a corresponding increase of the variance for the phase quantization error, which contributes to distortions and directivity decay described by Eq. (11).
\nOne possible way to characterize the amount of distortion is to simulate all possible scan angles and calculate maximum sidelobe level (SLL) using the above calculated SP values [4]. Peak and average values obtained through the entire scan range can be considered as figures of merit (FoMs) that determine the performance of BSDL. Table 2 lists the results of calculations carried out by the above technique.
\nNumber of bits | \nSP (ps) | \nRelative peak SLL (dB) | \nRelative average SLL (dB) | \n
---|---|---|---|
4 | \n4.7 | \n−3.3 | \n−5.2 | \n
5 | \n2.3 | \n−8.1 | \n−10.9 | \n
6 | \n1.1 | \n−10.7 | \n−12.4 | \n
FoMs for BSDL with various number of bits.
Figure 8 exemplifies the distortions for BSDLs with different number of bits, which affect NRPs in different directions of scanning range.
\nExamples of radiation pattern distortion due to quantization errors.
When using a 4-bit BSDL, a sharp increase in the level of the sidelobes, a decay in directivity, and a deviation of the beam position from the desired one are observed. However, it is acceptable to use a 5-bit BSDL with a sampling period of 2.3 ps, for this case.
\nTo summarize, the following outcomes could be concluded:
The use of phase shifters in ultra-wideband antenna array leads to beam squint phenomenon; so only TTD-based BFN is suitable in such case.
Minimum interelement distance for an array that is operable at the frequency range of 57–76 GHz without grating lobes is 2 mm.
The maximum time delay required to ensure scanning range of ±45° is 70.8 ps for the array under consideration and 5-bit BSDL is feasible to simplify TTD-based BFN construction. They provide a sampling period of 2.3 ps and a relative average sidelobe level of −10.9 dB over the entire scanning range (see Table 2).
As follows from Section 3, the optimal way to design ultra-wideband PAAs of mmWave-band is to steer the radar beam with TTD-based photonics BFN. Below, we will briefly review the current level of MWP BFN in order to select, using the data in Table 2, the optimal principle and scheme of its construction for efficient application in RSs of incoming RoF-based 5G networks. Table 3 lists the primary requirements to a TTD-based MWP BFN from the point of view of a hardware developer for PAA.
\nNo | \nRequirement | \nResult | \n
---|---|---|
1 | \nSuppressing sidelobe level | \nPreserve the directive gain of the main beam | \n
2 | \nNull control | \nReduce the effects of interference and jamming signals | \n
3 | \nSimplifying the complexity of feed network | \nCost and power efficiency | \n
4 | \nReducing the mutual coupling between BFN elements | \nEnlarge the PAA’s figures of merit | \n
Primary requirements to optical TTD-based microwave photonics BFNs.
To meet the requirements of Table 3, a TTD-based photonics BFN should have enough bandwidth and delay range and support small level of settling time and crosstalk. Besides, it must be either continuously tunable or switchable with a sufficiently small sampling period. At present, many implementations of TTD-based photonics BFNs exist for PAA application. Such devices are often based on a set of fiber or integrated delay lines, ring resonators, spatial light modulators, semiconductor optical amplifiers, dispersive fibers, and so on. Optical channel is usually formed based on single-carrier technique using untunable laser or on multicarrier one with wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) using tunable laser source (TLS) and spectral multiplexer (MUX). RF-to-optical conversion is advantageously realized with the help of a Mach-Zehnder intensity modulator (MZM), but other types of optical modulators are also used. For reverse optical-to-RF conversion, pin-photodiodes are exclusively utilized. Table 4 lists the key results of our search using journal and conference contributions have been published.
\nNo | \nTime-delay unit | \nScheme | \nBandwidth | \nSteering method, settling time | \nDelay range | \nSource | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nSilicon waveguide | \nBinary, 2 × 2 switches, MZM | \n8–12 GHz | \nDiscrete <1 μs | \nUp to 2.5 ns | \n[24] | \n
2 | \nLinearly chirped fiber Bragg grating | \nTLS and separate pump laser | \n56 GHz | \nContinuously, optical pump power | \n200 ps | \n[25] | \n
3 | \nDispersive fiber prism | \nTLS with MUX | \n4–8 GHz | \nContinuously, hopping 1 ns | \n— | \n[26] | \n
4 | \nDispersive photonics crystal fibers | \nTLS, four fiber channels, MZM | \n8–12 GHz | \nContinuously | \n±31 ps | \n[27] | \n
5 | \nMatch in length fibers, 5 bit | \nSpatial light modulators | \n6–18 GHz | \nPolarization switched, 20 ms | \n6–178.4 ps | \n[28] | \n
6 | \nDispersion compensation fiber | \nTLS, 8 channels, MZM | \n8–12 GHz | \nContinuously | \n±43.3 ps | \n[29] | \n
7 | \nHolographic grating | \n8 × 8 2D delay matrix | \n18–26.5 GHz | \nSwitchable, binary, 6-bit | \n443.3 ps | \n[30] | \n
8 | \nIntegrated ring resonators | \nTLS, binary tree, 1 × 8, MZM | \n2.5 GHz | \nContinuously, thermooptical | \n1200 ps | \n[31] | \n
9 | \nFBG prism and fiber-optic delay lines matrix | \n2D, 2 × 2 switches | \nNarrow-band 1GHz | \nSwitchable, sampling period 120 ps | \n±200 ps 360 ps | \n[32] | \n
10 | \nIntegrated waveguide | \nBinary with 2 × 2 switches, MZM | \nNarrow-band, 42.7GHz | \nSwitchable, 4 bit, 20 ns | \n15.7 ps | \n[33] | \n
11 | \nIntegrated ring resonator-based delay lines | \nBinary with 2 × 2 switches, MZM | \n3–7 GHz | \nSwitchable, few nanoseconds | \n34 ps | \n[33] | \n
12 | \nTLS, integrated ring resonators | \nPhase modulation | \n3–7 GHz | \nContinuously | \n300 ps | \n[34] | \n
13 | \nDispersion compensation fiber | \nTLS | \n5.9–17 GHz | \nContinuously | \n±200 ps | \n[35] | \n
14 | \nLinearly chirped fiber Bragg grating | \nWavelength-dependent recirculating loop | \n11.2 GHz | \nContinuously | \n2500 ps | \n[36] | \n
15 | \nIntegrated ring resonators | \nBinary tree, MZM | \n2.05 GHz | \nSwitchable, 1 ms | \n630 ps | \n[37] | \n
Examples of TTD-based photonics BFNs.
As one can see from table, the developed MWP-based BFNs provide time delays from tens of picoseconds to units of nanoseconds in the bandwidth up to tens of GHz. The results being presented allow us to conclude that it is possible to meet requirements 1 and 2 of Table 3 by using a known approach based on the concept of weighted amplitudes and phases [38]. In particular, to precisely control loss and delay time, the optical fibers of a slightly different length (example no 5) and the dispersion effect in standard single-mode (example no 3), dispersion-compensated (examples nos 6 and 13) or photonics crystal fibers (example no 4) were in use at the early stage. Later, with the development of photonics integrated technology, which ensured a significant reduction in a device footprint and simplifying the complexity of feed network (see point 3 of Table 3), the switchable integrated silicon waveguides (example nos. 1 and 10) or the ring microresonators (example nos 8, 11, and 15) began to be exploited. In addition, if it is necessary to ensure a continuous adjustment of the delay time, a tunable TLS (example nos 2–4, 6, 8, and 12–14) is in common use. The requirement to reduce the mutual coupling (see point 4 of Table 3), usually quantified as crosstalk level, occurs in common elements of the optical channel, for example, in optical splitters or multiplexers. Its effect in photonics BFNs has been still poorly studied and will be considered in Section 5.3.
\nIn the process of design, a developer of new MWP-based RF apparatuses is facing a problem of choosing an appropriate software. As of today, the existing optical and optoelectronic CAD tools (OE-CAD) are not developed like being perfected for three decades CAD tools intended for modeling of RF circuits (E-CAD). On the contrary, operating at symbolic level modern high-power microwave E-CAD tool solves this problem enough simply and with high precision, but there are no models of specific active and passive photonics components in its library. To overcome this problem, we have proposed and validated experimentally a new approach to model a broad class of promising analog microwave radio-electronics systems based on microwave photonics technology. Guided by them, the electrical equivalent circuit models for the different types of semiconductor laser, photodetector, optical modulator, and so on were proposed and verified [39 and refs. cited there]. Using these components, a simple PAA’s BFN was proposed and initially studied using NI AWRDE software [9]. Below, continuing work of the direction, we model a typical photonics BFN scheme including a set of switchable optical delay lines (see examples of Table 4), and a novel structural and cost-efficient configuration that, following the results of the previous sections, consists of microwave photonics BFN combining wavelength division multiplexing and TTD techniques.
\nFigure 9 shows first photonics BFN schematic for comparison that is a part of 16-element PAA’s feed network.
\n16-element RF photonics BFN based on switchable optical delay lines.
In this case, 16 unmodulated untunable lasers of different wavelengths λ1–λ16 are used. Using the same RF signal, each transmission channel is converted by the corresponding Mach-Zehnder modulator (MZM) to optical range and shared into 16 branches by optical splitter (OS). Each branch consists of a switchable optical delay lines (ODL). Then, the delayed optical signals are summarized, converted into RF band by a photodiode (PD), and emitted by an ideal isotropic antenna element.
\nImportant drawback of this scheme is the need to use a large number of lasers and MZMs (16 lasers and the same MZMs for a 16-element array), which makes it impractical due to the cumbersomeness and large energy consumption, even for such a relatively small PAA. In addition, according to the results of Section 3, each ODL must provide total delay of at least 71 ps and of digit capacity of at least 5 bits. That is, even when this BFN is implemented in the integrated version (see Table 4) using the waveguide material with the lowest losses [40], the difference in losses at the minimum and maximum step will be more than 30 times, which, according to Section 3, will lead to unacceptable distortions of the radiation pattern.
\nTo overcome the above issues, Figure 10 demonstrates an advanced photonics BFN scheme that is a part of the same 16-element PAA’s feed network. In this case, only four unmodulated untunable lasers of different wavelengths λ1–λ4 in accordance to 200 GHz ITU WDM grid are used. Laser emissions are summarized in a spectral multiplexer (MUX), modulated in the common MZM by RF signal, and, through optical circulator, are input to four-channel reflected Bragg grating (RBG). The levels of corresponding delayed signals are recovered by an optical amplifier (OA) with an optical bandpass filter (OBF) after it, and shared into 16 branches by OS. Each branch consists of a 3-bit switchable ODL unit delayed once more optical signals for 2.3, 4.6, and 9.2 ps (see results of Section 3), a spectral demultiplexer (DMUX), 1 × 4 optical switch (OSW), a PD, and a PAA’s antenna element. In addition, the schematic of 3-bit binary delay line is shown in Figure 11.
\n16-element RF photonics BFN based on a combination of multichannel fiber Bragg grating and switchable optical delay lines.
The schematic of 3-bit binary delay line.
Figures 12, 13 demonstrate the equivalent models of the BFN schemes discussed above that are developed using the NI AWRDE microwave electronic CAD tool. The proposed scheme of Figure 13 contains two units that can be implemented based on PICs: 3-bit optical delay line and a four-channel reflected Bragg grating module. The equivalent model of the first unit is shown in Figure 14. The NI AWRDE equivalent model of the second one was proposed and studied in detail elsewhere [41].
\nNI AWRDE model of 16-element RF photonics BFN based on switchable optical delay lines.
NI AWRDE model of 16-element RF photonics BFN combining four-channel optical source, four-channel reflected Bragg grating, and 3-bit switchable optical delay lines.
NI AWRDE model of 3-bit optical delay line.
With the help of the developed models, a number of simulation experiments were carried out, the main task of which was to check the stability of the proposed scheme for the nonideality of the transmission characteristics of the modules and units that make up its composition in according with the primary requirements to a TTD-based MWP BFN (see Table 3). The key parameter providing the requirements of point 4 of this table is a crosstalk interference, the permissible level of which in the TTD-based photonics BFN is still poorly studied. For example, in the scheme of Figure 10, there are a number of sources of crosstalk interference, including insufficient isolation of the arms of an optical circulator, an OS, and a DMUX. Experiments were carried out on the basis of specific input data received and substantiated in Sections 2 and 3. First, the known and the proposed schemes containing ideally isolated arms were modeled. A comparison of their NRPs showed their complete identity. Figure 15 exemplifies the calculation results of NRP characteristics for the both schemes under testing at the lower, middle, and upper frequencies of the PAA’s operating range for beam deflection angles of 45° (a) and 30° (b). Comparison with the results of formal calculations given in Section 3 allows us to draw a conclusion about the correctness of the developed models.
\nNormalized radiation patterns of the both TTD-steered 16-element photonics BFNs.
Investigation of the effect of crosstalk interference showed the overall stability of the proposed scheme. Figure 16 exemplifies the NRPs for the case of a joint effect of crosstalk (CS) in an optical circulator and amplitude asymmetry of the levels at the output of the optical splitter (AiOS). As on can see, their effect causes a phase shift of sidelobes, which leads to an increase in their level. However, their suppression meets the standard requirements for phased arrays.
\nNormalized radiation patterns of 16-element BFN combining 4-channel optical source, four-channel Bragg grating, and 3-bit switchable optical delay lines.
In the chapter, we explored and demonstrated the availability of using the phased array antennas, which were known for a long time in the radar technique, in the incoming fifth-generation wireless communication systems. The study was carried out using a specific example of designing a photonics-steered beamforming network (BFN) of a transmitting-phased array antenna for a remote station operating in the V-band with a 30% fractional bandwidth allocated in the USA as a promising one for future 5G systems. For this goal, we first reviewed the specialties of microwave and millimeter-wave photonics technique in 5G wireless networks of radio-over-fiber architecture. Then, to determine the input data for subsequent design, a theoretical background of array antenna beam steering using ideal models of phase shifters and true-time-delay lines was presented. A brief analysis of updated optical beamforming networks produced on optical fibers, Bragg gratings or photonics integrated circuits, showed the possibility and efficiency of constructing the delay elements required for the device being developed, on the basis of photonics integrated circuits. The developed models and executed simulation of two versions of photonics BFN based on known scheme including set of optical delay lines and a novel structurally and cost-efficient configuration using wavelength division multiplexing and TTD techniques demonstrated the advantages of the proposed scheme from the point of view of the simplicity, key figures of merit, size, weight, and power features.
\nThis work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, Grant No. 17-57-10002.
\nThe authors declare the lack of the conflict of interest.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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