Andragogical conditions of learning and principles of teaching (adapted from Knowles [11]).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6407",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Application of Titanium Dioxide",title:"Application of Titanium Dioxide",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Titanium dioxide is mainly used as a pigment and photocatalyst. It is possible to find it in food, cosmetics, building materials, electric devices, and others. This book contains chapters about application of titanium dioxide in different branches of economy such as the agriculture, the food industry, the medicine, the cosmetics, the water treatment technologies, and the semiconductors.",isbn:"978-953-51-3430-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3429-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4724-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70121",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"application-of-titanium-dioxide",numberOfPages:240,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"fdb4aecdbffe5d2f4415d8b36d71143d",bookSignature:"Magdalena Janus",publishedDate:"July 26th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6407.jpg",numberOfDownloads:19743,numberOfWosCitations:67,numberOfCrossrefCitations:61,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:134,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:7,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:262,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 7th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 5th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 3rd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 2nd 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"199458",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Janus",slug:"magdalena-janus",fullName:"Magdalena Janus",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199458/images/5900_n.png",biography:"Dr. Magdalena Janus is currently an associate professor at the Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin. She graduated from the Department of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Szczecin University of Technology (from 2009 in West Pomeranian University of Technology, Szczecin). Her research interest includes photocatalysis, water and wastewater treatment technologies, photoactive building materials, and nanomaterials. She has published more than 50 research papers in international journals; results of her studies were present in more than 60 national and international conferences. In 2014, she was awarded by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Poland for science achievements.\nShe is one of the editors of an international journal on the latest advances in the science, engineering, and application of miniature and ultraminiature structures.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"West Pomeranian University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"492",title:"Solid-State Chemistry",slug:"chemistry-inorganic-chemistry-solid-state-chemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"55345",title:"Titanium Dioxide as Food Additive",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68883",slug:"titanium-dioxide-as-food-additive",totalDownloads:2449,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:30,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Titanium dioxide is a white metal oxide used in many food categories as food additives to provide a whitening effect. If its use complies with the five specifications including synthesis pathway, crystallographic phase, purity, amount and innocuousness, all other parameters are not defined and were hardly documented. However, in the last 3 years, two studies have deeply characterized food-grade TiO2 and converged to the fact that the size distribution of food-grade TiO2 spans over the nanoparticle range (<100 nm) and the surface is not pure TiO2 but covered by phosphate and eventually silicon species or aluminium species, which modify the surface chemistry of these particles. Until now, this material was considered as safe. However, the toxicological studies later to the last re-evaluation by the European Food Safety Agency reveal some concerns due to the ability of TiO2 particles to alter the intestinal barrier. This reinforces the idea to go on reinforcing the risk assessment about food-grade TiO2.",signatures:"Marie-Hélène Ropers, Hélène Terrisse, Muriel Mercier-Bonin and\nBernard Humbert",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55345",authors:[{id:"203603",title:"Dr.",name:"Marie-Hélène",surname:"Ropers",slug:"marie-helene-ropers",fullName:"Marie-Hélène Ropers"},{id:"206434",title:"Dr.",name:"Hélène",surname:"Terrisse",slug:"helene-terrisse",fullName:"Hélène Terrisse"},{id:"206435",title:"Dr.",name:"Muriel",surname:"Mercier-Bonin",slug:"muriel-mercier-bonin",fullName:"Muriel Mercier-Bonin"},{id:"206436",title:"Prof.",name:"Bernard",surname:"Humbert",slug:"bernard-humbert",fullName:"Bernard Humbert"}],corrections:null},{id:"55258",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Agriculture: Assessment of TiO2 Nanoparticle Effects on Barley",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68710",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-agriculture-assessment-of-tio2-nanoparticle-effects-on-barley",totalDownloads:2265,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Many aspects associated with the application of nanotechnology to agricultural activities are still unknown. In particular, there is not enough information on nanotoxicology in crops and we do not know the fate of nanoparticles in crops. Multiple experiments were carried out to study the effects of titanium oxide nanoparticles (nTiO2) on barley (Hordeum vulgare). Germinating seeds were exposed to 0, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg l−1nTiO2. Seed germination percentage, mitotic index, root elongation, and Ti concentration in seedlings were observed. In a greenhouse experiment, plants of barley were grown to physiological maturity in control soil and soil enriched with 500 and 1000 mg nTiO2 mg kg−1, respectively. The duration of the growth cycle and the plant biomass was influenced by nTiO2 compared to control plants. Concentrations of Ti were not very high with the exception of roots. However, the nTiO2 soil amendment had an impact on composition and nutritional quality of barley grains. Concentrations of Ca, Mn, and Zn in kernels were increased by nTiO2 treatments. Concentration of amino acids was affected by the treatments as well. nTiO2 treatments have the potential to influence the food chain and processing and economics of barley.",signatures:"Alessandro Mattiello and Luca Marchiol",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55258",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55258",authors:[{id:"163884",title:"Prof.",name:"Luca",surname:"Marchiol",slug:"luca-marchiol",fullName:"Luca Marchiol"},{id:"202041",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",surname:"Mattiello",slug:"alessandro-mattiello",fullName:"Alessandro Mattiello"}],corrections:null},{id:"55204",title:"Composite Calcium Phosphate/Titania Scaffolds in Bone Tissue Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68867",slug:"composite-calcium-phosphate-titania-scaffolds-in-bone-tissue-engineering",totalDownloads:1676,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Titanium and its alloys have been extensively used as implantation materials due to their favorable properties such as lower modulus, good tensile strength, excellent biocompatibility, and enhanced corrosion resistance. However, their intrinsic bioinertness generally prevents a direct bond with the bone on the surface especially at an early stage of implantation. In recent years, bioactive scaffolds for bone regeneration are progressively replacing bioinert prostheses in orthopedic, maxillofacial, and neurosurgery fields. Given the need of enhanced mechanical strength, several combinations of bioactive and reinforcing phases have been studied, but still no convincing solutions have been found so far. In this context, titanium oxides are light and high-resistance bioactive materials widely employed in dental and bone application due to their capacity of forming strong bonds with bone tissue via the formation of a tightly bound apatite layer on their surface. The addition of titania particles to hydroxyapatite has attracted considerable attention based on the assumption that resulting materials can enhance osteoblast adhesion and promote cell growth while also providing high strength and fracture toughness in the final composite material, thus being adequate for load-bearing applications.",signatures:"Massimiliano Dapporto, Anna Tampieri and Simone Sprio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55204",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55204",authors:[{id:"185599",title:"Dr.",name:"Simone",surname:"Sprio",slug:"simone-sprio",fullName:"Simone Sprio"}],corrections:null},{id:"55103",title:"Titanium Dioxide in Sunscreen",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68886",slug:"titanium-dioxide-in-sunscreen",totalDownloads:2749,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:16,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Titanium dioxide has been used in various industrial and cosmetic applications due to its unique elemental properties. This substance has a refractive index higher than most other compounds (n = 2.6142, in comparison to water at 20℃ n = 1.33). This allows titanium dioxide to have an iridescent and bright quality. It has been used in the cosmetics industry for “whitening” and “thickening” in multiple make-up brands. As titanium dioxide has the ability to greatly absorb UV light, it has been used as a physical sunscreen for many years. Over time, newer formulations, including “nanoparticle” formulations, have been marketed for ease of consumer use. We aim to discuss the evolution of titanium dioxide in sunscreens over time, discuss its mechanisms of actions, and comment on the efficacy and safety of these products.",signatures:"Megha Trivedi and Jenny Murase",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55103",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55103",authors:[{id:"67211",title:"Dr.",name:"Jenny",surname:"Murase",slug:"jenny-murase",fullName:"Jenny Murase"},{id:"202835",title:"Ms.",name:"Megha",surname:"Trivedi",slug:"megha-trivedi",fullName:"Megha Trivedi"}],corrections:null},{id:"55765",title:"1D Titania Nanoarchitecture as Bioactive and Photoactive Coatings for Modern Implants: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69138",slug:"1d-titania-nanoarchitecture-as-bioactive-and-photoactive-coatings-for-modern-implants-a-review",totalDownloads:1632,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The research efforts in understanding the influence of TiO2 1D nanoarchitecture structure and morphology on its biological and photocatalytic activity absorbed a lot of attention during last few years. Nowadays, the application of TiO2 coatings in biomedical technologies (e.g., in modern implantology) requires the material of strictly defined structure and morphology, possessing both high biocompatibility, as well as antimicrobial properties. The presented review is a compilation of interdisciplinary knowledge about the application of 1D TiO2 nanostructural coatings (nanotubes, nanofibres, nanowires) in biomedical technologies. The methods and parameters of their synthesis, and the physicochemical techniques used in the characterization of their structure and morphology, are discussed. Moreover, their ability to be applied as innovative coatings for modern implants is presented.",signatures:"Aleksandra Radtke",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55765",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55765",authors:[{id:"202372",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Radtke",slug:"aleksandra-radtke",fullName:"Aleksandra Radtke"}],corrections:null},{id:"55332",title:"Anticorrosive, Antimicrobial, and Bioactive Titanium Dioxide Coating for Surface‐modified Purpose on Biomedical Material",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68854",slug:"anticorrosive-antimicrobial-and-bioactive-titanium-dioxide-coating-for-surface-modified-purpose-on-b",totalDownloads:1548,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A multifunctional titanium dioxide (TiO2) coating was used to provide anticorrosive, antimicrobial, and bioactive properties for the surface modification of biomedical materials because TiO2 has a stable bonding structure, photocatalytic characteristics, and negatively charged surfaces in nature. For successful deposition, an arc ion plating technique was adopted to deposit the TiO2 coating. The antimicrobial activity values of anatase‐TiO2‐coated stainless steel specimens against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were 3.0 and 2.5, respectively, which are far beyond the value designated in JIS Z2801:2000 industrial standard. TiO2 coatings on stainless steel also generate an increased (i.e., less negative) corrosion potential and decreased corrosion current in a sodium chloride solution, showing a reduced tendency and rate of substrate dissolution as well as a reduced coating of species into the electrolyte. In addition, TiO2 coatings, especially with rutile phase, satisfied the requirements for activating the biological property of a polymeric polyetheretherketone surface. Therefore, TiO2 is a promising surface modification for the biomedical materials used in surgical instruments and implants.",signatures:"Hsi‐Kai Tsou and Ping‐Yen Hsieh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55332",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55332",authors:[{id:"105857",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsi-Kai",surname:"Tsou",slug:"hsi-kai-tsou",fullName:"Hsi-Kai Tsou"},{id:"199473",title:"Dr.",name:"Ping-Yen",surname:"Hsieh",slug:"ping-yen-hsieh",fullName:"Ping-Yen Hsieh"}],corrections:null},{id:"55998",title:"Photocatalytic Treatment Techniques using Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles for Antibiotic Removal from Water",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69140",slug:"photocatalytic-treatment-techniques-using-titanium-dioxide-nanoparticles-for-antibiotic-removal-from",totalDownloads:2048,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The increasing of emerging micropollutants presence in drinking water sources has brought new challenges to existing water treatment systems (WTS), highlighting the need of innovative and low-cost technological solutions. Recent advances in nanotechnology enable highly efficient and multifunctional processes, providing sustainable alternatives to current water treatment practices. This chapter presents the results of several pilot-scale studies developed to assess the effects of TiO2 nanoparticles on antibiotic removal efficiency, using different low-cost photocatalytic reactors. The characterization of its photo-oxidation kinetics also performed considering different test scenarios in order to assess the effects of the major abiotic parameters on oxytetracycline (OTC) removal efficiency, which achieved the maximum values of 96% and 98% using the photocatalysis with TiO2 and the photocatalytic filtration, respectively. It must be highlighted the surprising regeneration ability showed by the photocatalytic porous medium, developed at a lab-scale, which can completely recover its oxidative properties after few hours of simple sun exposure.",signatures:"António Armando Lima Sampaio Duarte and Maria Teresa Pessoa\nAmorim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55998",authors:[{id:"65240",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Duarte",slug:"antonio-duarte",fullName:"Antonio Duarte"},{id:"91364",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Teresa",surname:"Pessoa Amorim",slug:"maria-teresa-pessoa-amorim",fullName:"Maria Teresa Pessoa Amorim"}],corrections:null},{id:"55301",title:"Recent Overview on the Abatement of Pesticide Residues in Water by Photocatalytic Treatment Using TiO2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68802",slug:"recent-overview-on-the-abatement-of-pesticide-residues-in-water-by-photocatalytic-treatment-using-ti",totalDownloads:1997,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:26,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The water bodies’ pollution with phytosanitary products can pose a serious threat to aquatic ecosystems and drinking water resources. The usual appearance of pesticides in surface water, waste water and groundwater has driven the search for proper methods to remove persistent pesticides. Although typical biological treatments of water offer some advantages such as low cost and operability, many investigations referring to the removal of pesticides have suggested that in many cases they have low effectiveness due to the limited biodegradability of many agrochemicals. In recent years, research for new techniques for water detoxification to avoid these disadvantages has led to processes that involve light, which are called advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Among the different semiconductor (SC) materials tested as potential photocatalysts, titanium dioxide (TiO2) is the most popular because of its photochemical stability, commercial availability, non-toxic nature and low cost, high photoactivity, ease of preparation in the laboratory, possibility of doping with metals and non-metals and coating on solid support. Thus, in the present review, we provide an overview of the recent research being developed to photodegrade pesticide residues in water using TiO2 as photocatalyst.",signatures:"Nuria Vela, Gabriel Pérez-Lucas, José Fenoll and Simón Navarro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55301",authors:[{id:"202983",title:"Dr.",name:"Simón",surname:"Navarro",slug:"simon-navarro",fullName:"Simón Navarro"},{id:"202988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nuria",surname:"Vela",slug:"nuria-vela",fullName:"Nuria Vela"},{id:"202989",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Fenoll",slug:"jose-fenoll",fullName:"José Fenoll"},{id:"206059",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",surname:"Pérez-Lucas",slug:"gabriel-perez-lucas",fullName:"Gabriel Pérez-Lucas"}],corrections:null},{id:"56447",title:"Heat Transfer Applications of TiO2 Nanofluids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68602",slug:"heat-transfer-applications-of-tio2-nanofluids",totalDownloads:1802,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:24,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To achieve acme heat transfer is our main disquiet in many heat transfer applications such as radiators, heat sinks and heat exchangers. Due to furtherance in technology, requirement for efficient systems have increased. Usually cooling medium used in these applications is liquid which carries away heat from system. Liquids have poor thermal conductivity as compared to solids. In order to improve the efficiency of system, cooling medium with high thermal conductivity should be used. Quest to improve thermal conductivity leads to usage of different methods, and one of them is addition of nanoparticles to base liquid. Application of nanofluids (a mixture of nanoparticles and base fluid) showed enhancement in heat transfer rate, which is not possible to achieve by using simple liquids. Different researchers used TiO2 nanoparticles in different heat transfer applications to observe the effects. Addition of titanium oxide nanoparticles into base fluid showed improvement in the thermal conductivity of fluid. This chapter will give an overview of usage of titanium oxide nanoparticles in numerous heat transfer applications.",signatures:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali, Muhammad Usman Sajid and Adeel Arshad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56447",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56447",authors:[{id:"187624",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Muhammad",surname:"Ali",slug:"hafiz-muhammad-ali",fullName:"Hafiz Muhammad Ali"}],corrections:null},{id:"55206",title:"TiO2: A Critical Interfacial Material for Incorporating Photosynthetic Protein Complexes and Plasmonic Nanoparticles into Biophotovoltaics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68744",slug:"tio2-a-critical-interfacial-material-for-incorporating-photosynthetic-protein-complexes-and-plasmoni",totalDownloads:1578,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"TiO2, a photosensitive semiconducting material, has been widely reported as a good photoanode material in dye-sensitized solar cells and new emerging perovskite cells. Its proper electronic band structure, surface chemistry and hydrophilic nature provide a reactive surface for interfacing with different organic and inorganic photon capturing materials in photovoltaics. Here, we review its enabling role in incorporating two special materials toward biophotovoltaics, including photosynthetic protein complexes extracted from plants and plasmonic nanoparticles (e.g., gold or silver nanoparticles), which interplay to enhance the absorption and utilization of sun light. We will first give a brief introduction to the TiO2 photoanode, including preparation, optical and electrochemical properties, and then summarize our recent research and other related literature on incorporating photosynthetic light harvest complexes and plasmonic nanoparticles onto anatase TiO2 photoanodes as a means to tap into the charge separation, electron and energy transfer, and photovoltaic enhancements in the bio-photovoltaics.",signatures:"Yiqun Yang and Jun Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55206",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55206",authors:[{id:"202682",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",surname:"Li",slug:"jun-li",fullName:"Jun Li"},{id:"206089",title:"Dr.",name:"Yiqun",surname:"Yang",slug:"yiqun-yang",fullName:"Yiqun Yang"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5985",title:"Titanium 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The Flexner report [2] in the 1920’s ushered in a new era where an emphasis on lectures and textbooks in medical schools were set aside for laboratory and clinical teaching. Medical education moved from a substantive system reliant on memorization to one which was now procedural - a focus on the process itself of acquiring scientifically sound information. Between the two world wars, undergraduate medical education was further shaped into the recognizable modern form with the first two years containing preclinical education, and the second two years with clinical rotations in the major specialties. Additionally, the concept of post-medical school training took hold with the development of internships and residency programs. Although a multitude of medical schools flourished within university systems, curricula were implemented with variable levels of success [1]. In the latter half of the 20th century, there remained an ongoing search for the ideal curriculum - as well as the methods themselves for curricular development.
\nA curriculum is defined as a sophisticated blend of educational strategies, course content, learning outcomes, educational experiences, assessment, the educational environment, and the individual students’ learning style [3]. A process known as curriculum mapping has been described by Harden as a method to organize curricular contents. Curriculum mapping can help both educators and learners by displaying the key elements of a curriculum, and the relationships between them. Learners can identify what, when, where, how, and why they will learn, while educators can visualize their role within the entire curriculum. The scope and sequence of learning is made explicit, links with assessment are clarified, and curriculum planning becomes more effective and efficient. In this way the curriculum is more transparent to all of the stakeholders including the educators, the learners, the curriculum developer, and all other important stakeholders. The windows through which the curriculum map can be explored may include: (1) the expected learning outcomes; (2) curriculum content or areas of expertise covered; (3) assessment; (4) learning opportunities; (5) learning location; (6) learning resources; (7) timetable; (8) educators; (9) curriculum management; (10) learners. The key to a really effective, integrated curriculum is to get educators to exchange information about what is being taught and to coordinate this so that it reflects the overall goal. This can be achieved through curriculum mapping, which has become an essential tool for the implementation and development of a curriculum. Faced with curricula which are becoming more centralized and less departmentally based, and with curricula including both core and optional elements, the teacher may find that the curriculum map is the glue which holds the curriculum together [4].
\nAll teaching activities, whether great or small can represent a curriculum. Beginning in the 1980’s, Harden et al. [3] proposed a model for educational strategies in curriculum planning with the mnemonic SPICES:
\nS Student-centered, with students assuming responsibility for their own learning. This requires the student to decide their own learning objectives, decide the sequence and pace of learning, and assess their own progress, all under the guidance of a teacher.
\nP Problem-based, with application of knowledge to and derivation of knowledge from problems in clinical practice, health delivery, medical science and research.
\nI Integrated teaching, unifying subjects across academic subjects or departments such as anatomy, pathology, biochemistry, and clinical medicine.
\nC Community-oriented, with a goal of preparing students to ultimately work and serve in areas of health care need within the community
\nE Elective study periods, which incorporate some flexibility within the curriculum and give students the freedom to choose subjects and projects.
\nS Systematic approaches, moving away from the apprenticeship model and emphasizing learning that is not “left to chance” but rather planned and recorded.
\nIn 1998, David Kern composed a seminal work in the field of modern medical education, espousing a six-step approach to the formation and implementation of new curricula [5]. Since the initial publication of Kern’s text, the means by which medical education are delivered have remained in as much flux as the state of American healthcare itself. With the implementation of the Affordable Care Act and its emphasis on improved access and quality of healthcare, new competency-based frameworks have been the scaffolding on which a multitude of new approaches to medical education have developed [6, 7].
\nKern’s foundational Framework for Curriculum Development [5] is comprised of six steps. While these steps are discussed in sequence below, it is important to keep in mind that the steps may occur in parallel as well as out of sequence; in fact, the various steps are intertwined and dependent on one anotherFigures 1–3.
Curriculum map (adapted from Harden [
Kern’s curriculum development model (adapted from Kern [
Curriculum levels (adapted from Prideaux and Harden [
While Kern’s framework is classically described as a six-step approach, an argument can be made regarding the inclusion of a seventh step, which involves dissemination of educational materials and outcomes. While Kern mentions this in his sixth step, its importance bears a separate step. The dissemination of educational materials has innumerable advantages. By disseminating educational materials, educators can increase collaboration, while receiving external feedback and peer review of educational materials. This ensures continued improvement of the educational product delivered. Similarly, physician educators lack time to complete all of the educational innovations they desire, By sharing educational materials, educators can minimize redundant work, especially since other educators are delivering similar content. Finally, by disseminating their educational materials and curricular outcomes, curriculum developers and educators can achieve recognition and academic advancement for their efforts.
\nThe PRISMS model, proposed by Bligh [9] propagated new strategies for curriculum development including increased use of technology and problem-based learning, and emphasized the need for more clinical experience in medical school and more protected time for learning during residency. The PRISMS model can be broken down into each of its components.
P: Product-focused, as the curriculum should emphasize applications to clinical practice and be practice-based. This includes acquisition of professional behaviors, application of knowledge to the real world, and feedback from patients.
R: Relevance to communities and students, meaning that curricula should be planned around outcomes with a focus on local needs, and revised and reviewed frequently.
I: Interprofessional, in that a culture of multiprofessional and interdisciplinary learning should be promoted, with emphasis of teamwork and collaboration between all persons involved in the care of the patient (eg. nursing, physical therapy, occupational therapy) with respect to clinical care, but also to education and research.
S: Smaller class sizes and shorter courses, with units as building blocks implementing modern technology.
M: Multisite, further emphasizing the product-focused goal of the curricula allowing learners to ultimately care for patients in diverse settings including urban, rural, community sites, and academic teaching hospitals.
S: Symbiotic, in that each of the above components combine to form a cohesive and coherent philosophy and product.
The guiding philosophy of the PRISMS model includes respect for autonomy of the adult learner while emphasizing group learning and reflection. Further, content must be context-based, relevant, and meaningful.
\nIn 2003, Prideaux published an additional means to conceptualizing curriculum design [10]. In this work, a broader framework for curriculum design is described in which curricula fall under one of two models: prescriptive models, in which curriculum designers adhere to a stepwise guidebook to create curricula, and descriptive models, which describe what curriculum designers have accomplished once a curriculum has been implemented. The overarching goal for either design is that curriculum designers are agile in adapting to current environment, not continuing to teach that which is outdated. Additionally, curricula should develop in context of the community it was designed to serve in order to enhance health service provision.
\nPrideaux outlines the three sequential “levels” of a curriculum: 1) the planned curriculum, or what is intended 2) the delivered curriculum, or what is taught, and 3) the experienced curriculum, or what is actually learned by the intended audience. In this learner-centered concept, four main elements of a curriculum are identified: the content, strategies for teaching and learning, assessment of individuals, and evaluation of the program. Curriculum design is therefore organizing these four elements into a logical pattern of implementation. To communicate the implementation process to all parties, Prideaux promotes the use of a curriculum map [4], of which different versions can be created from the point of view of students, teachers, administrators, and accrediting authorities.
\nFacile adult educators continue to recognize that adults cannot be taught using traditional pedagogical approaches; in fact, adults are always voluntary learners that can disappear from learning experiences that do not satisfy or engage them. The practice of educating adults has been deviating from traditional pedagogical approaches for some time; therefore, the technology of andragogy was developed. Andragogy refers to the science of adult education. Important conditions of learning and associated principles of teaching developed by Malcolm Knowles that define andragogy are illustrated in Table 1.
\nConditions of learning | \nPrinciples of teaching | \n
---|---|
The learners feel a need to learn. The learning environment is characterized by physical comfort, mutual trust and respect, mutual helpfulness, freedom of expression, and acceptance of differences. The learners perceive the goals of a learning experience to their goals. The learners accept a share of the responsibility for planning and operating a learning experience, thus resulting in a commitment toward it. The learners participate actively in the learning process. The learning process expands on the experience of the learners. The learners have a sense of progress toward their goals. | \n(1) The teacher exposes students to new possibilities for self-fulfillment. (2) The teacher helps each student clarify aspirations for improvement. (3) The teacher helps learners diagnose the gap between aspiration and current level of performance. (4) The teacher provides comfortable physical conditions conducive to learning. (5) The teacher respects each student’s feelings and ideas. (6) The teacher seeks to build relationships of mutual trust and refraining from judgment. (7) The teacher exposes their own feelings and contributes as a learner. (8) The teacher involves students in the process of developing learning objectives. (9) The teacher provides insight regarding available educational resources and methods in which to learn collectively. (10) The teacher maintains organization among the learners in order to share responsibility in the process of mutual inquiry. (11) The teacher helps to exploit learner experiences through discussion. (12) The teacher designs a session based on the level of experience of the learners. (13) The teacher helps students apply new learning to their previous experiences in an effort to make learning meaningful and integrated. (14) The teacher involves students in developing mutually acceptable criteria and methods for measuring progress toward learning objectives. (15) The teacher helps students identify and apply procedures for self-assessment. | \n
Andragogical conditions of learning and principles of teaching (adapted from Knowles [11]).
Curricula and associated educational materials should be developed using literature-based best practices in adult learning theory. Andragogy, the science of adult learning, differs substantially from traditional pedagogical approaches. Adult learning is most clearly described using seven core principles. Adult learning builds from established learning needs, is practical and problem-centered, necessitates a positive learning climate, occurs when new ideas are integrated with existing knowledge, promoted when respected by both educators and other learners, is self-directed, and builds on previous experience [11]. Ultimately, curricula should employ educational materials that create a climate of assisting learners to acquire information and incorporating their experiences to master the content through session structure. Finally, curricula should help learners test their ideas, retain new information, and apply that information clinically [11]. Adult learning is most successful when learning is active and problem-centered, learners take ownership of the classroom and are accountable for demonstrating mastery, and feel safe, respected and successful [12].
\nMedical education continues to evolve by shifting from traditional, lecture based teaching to other educational approaches that promote higher-order learning and active learner participation [13]. The flipped classroom method, one particular learning model, has become increasingly popular in medical education. In this educational pedagogy, learning materials are consumed independently in a learner-paced manner at home, while classroom time is devoted to knowledge application, case-based learning, or active discussion and problem solving. Conversely, within a traditional classroom, foundational knowledge is often passively transferred to learners through lectures delivered by instructors. Following the teaching session, learners actively use and apply the knowledge outside of the educational setting [14, 15].
\nInfluenced by the preference of millennial learners for immediate, digital educational materials, medical educators are constantly searching for the most efficient and effective approach [16]. Active, self-directed learning, a necessary component of this learning model, is a vital skill that provides the foundation for adult learning and continuing education [15]. Additionally, this model is also supported by the educational theory of social constructivism [17, 18]. Group collaboration encourages modeling, scaffolding, and feedback that engage learner preconceptions and build upon existing understanding [19]. This model promotes a higher level of learning, defined by Bloom as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation [8, 19, 20]. As a result, increasing numbers of educators have adopted the flipped classroom strategy in both medical and more traditional educational settings [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28].
\nOne unique application of curriculum design is in the field of simulation in healthcare. Simulation has long been used in fields outside of medicine including aviation and commercial airlines, aerospace, and the military. Simulation in healthcare goes as far back as the 18th century when models of the pelvis were used by midwives for newborn delivery instruction. In the modern era, simulation in healthcare, initially pioneered by anesthesia, is now broadly adopted by many specialties including emergency medicine, critical care, trauma, obstetrics, pediatrics, and radiology [20]. Simulation is employed as early as the pre-clinical years in medical school, where applications include clinical skills, clinical medicine, physical diagnosis, anatomy and physiology. In the second half of medical school during clinical clerkships, the specialties which most commonly employ simulation are internal medicine, pediatrics, and emergency medicine. In residency, nearly 90% of programs report some use of simulation, most frequently in the fields of internal medicine, emergency medicine, general surgery, pediatrics, anesthesia, and obstetrics and gynecology [30]. This broad use of simulation has been ushered in by the modern era of healthcare delivery in which there is an expectation that practitioners are prepared to care for patients prior to encountering a pathology or procedure, with less reliance on serendipity to acquire the wide range of skills necessary for clinical practice but instead methodically structuring a curriculum within an outcomes-based framework with assessments and monitoring at regular intervals [31].
\nSimulation is broadly defined as “advanced technologies recreating the clinical experience” [31], with the goal to train healthcare practitioners to safely conduct patient care. More specifically, it is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time, with the ability to show real effects of conditions and actions, or when a real system cannot be engaged because it is either not accessible, dangerous, or does not exist [29]. Simulation encompasses cognitive and affective domains and encompasses a wide range of techniques and approaches.
\nThe types of simulation can be framed by the degree of fidelity and the means by which the simulation curriculum is delivered. The degree of fidelity, or extent to which the system mimics real life, in simulation can be gauged by how similar the simulation model is to real life with respect to equipment, environment, and physiological parameters [31]. There are many vehicles for delivery of simulation-based learning, including partial task trainers (ie a model arm for venipuncture), computer-based models, virtual reality and haptic systems (with kinaesthetic and tactile sensation such as for robotic surgery), integrated simulators which employ manikins and computer-controlled outputs such as vital signs, simulated or standardized patients, and simulated environments such as for disaster training.
\nSteps in the curriculum design in simulation include acquisition of valid source information, use of simplifying approximations and assumptions, and evaluation of the fidelity and validity of simulation outcomes [32].
\nMcGaghie [33] lists features and best practices within simulation curriculum design and implementation, which include:
feedback
deliberate practice
curriculum integration
outcome measurement
simulation fidelity
skill acquisition and maintenance
mastery learning
transfer to practice
team training
high stakes testing
instructor training
educational and professional context
These features and best practices can be applied to the principles of curriculum development laid out in Kern’s work, such as in developing a simulation-based mastery learning curriculum [34].
\nAlthough Kern’s framework for curriculum development remains foundational to medical education, new approaches and applications to this framework continue to shape its application in the 21st century. One novel approach in the context of collaborative online learning models such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), which are hailed as a paradigm for graduate medical education [13]. A course meets the definition of a MOOC when a single course has thousands enrolled (massive), and can share information through meaningful and free (open) online learning environments (online courses) [35, 36]. MOOC were originally based on curricula models in higher education but are distinct from campus courses in that they typically have discussion fora where recommended readings and short videos are discussed in online fora by diverse learners [36]. Further, assessments are all carried out online. The benefit of MOOC are that they can involve learners with a more diverse range of backgrounds, enriching courses beyond education that can be delivered by the host institution alone [37]. Based on the concept of MOOC, online courses have proliferated. MOOC have the ability to expand on known means of computer-based learning in medical education.
\nA publication by Goldberg and colleagues [35] addresses the availability of MOOC on medical topics. They are advocates for MOOC as an innovative medical education tool for many reasons. With the foundational philosophy that quality health care needs to be effective, high-quality, equitable, patient and family-centered, and delivered by an interprofessional team comprised of educators from all professional programs, the MOOC may have a unique advantage in medical education. MOOC have the inherent potential of educating consumers, students, and healthcare providers alike; the MOOC format has no constraints of time, geography, or level of education, and offers the advantage of being asynchronous. From a big picture standpoint, it has the potential to strengthen communication and foster collaboration nationally and internationally while increasing public health literacy for patients, model innovation for learners, and offer continuing medical education for providers. Although detractors may assert that MOOCs will undermine traditional methods of education, a more cohesive view would espouse that while MOOC cannot fully supplant existing curricula, they can be complementary and augment existing forms of medical education. Goldberg et al. reviewed existing offerings for MOOC on medical topics, finding that the majority of topics address education for chronic care conditions, health literacy for the general public, and evidence-based medicine for healthcare providers. Further research ranking the relevance of MOOC to post-graduate training reveals that many courses are relevant and applicable, course duration and workloads appropriate for physicians [38].
\nAs the role of MOOC in medical education is emerging and evolving, further literature has since been published which offers a prescriptive view of how to implement a MOOC [37]. Additional acknowledged roles for MOOC in medical education include integration within campus courses, increasing interprofessional collaboration, enabling the flipped classroom, and for continuing medical education. Within these areas, Pickering and colleagues introduce a framework for developing, delivering, and evaluating a MOOC, with the following stepwise advice:
Enroll in a MOOC to experience the format first-hand
Learn from other MOOC enthusiasts to understand practical implementation and time commitment; network for multi-institution MOOC or between departments
Develop a MOOC topic that you are passionate about, accounting for intended audience and MOOC length; perform a preliminary search of what is available within this topic. Pitch to intended audience to gauge enthusiasm.
Recruit a committed and enthusiastic team to support the MOOC’s development and delivery, including a lead academician to develop the curriculum, write lecture scripts, create learning objectives, and set assessment questions. Recruit colleagues to review the curriculum, and create faculty development programs addressing how to support learners on a MOOC.
Develop a curriculum map to guide content development, keeping in mind the target audience, academic level of content, and duration of the course. The map should be accessible to learners to serve as a scaffold on which they can track their own progress.
Create a clear project plan to deliver the MOOC. The authors estimate that it takes approximately one year to create the content for a single course.
Create video content based on good educational practice - short, with a conversational style, and tailored to the course.
Construct an assessment profile, keeping in mind scalability to thousands of learners who require timely and accurate feedback. The format which lends itself best to these requirements is multiple choice quizzes, but other options include peer assessments.
Promote your course with a clear message, aspiring to both a local and global audience.
Provide a supportive learning environment with which your learners can interact, including guidance to the learner on how to use the MOOC.
Devise a strategy to evaluate the course after implementation, which may include course enrollment and completion data, pre- and post-test results, and targeted questionnaires for a subset of learners.
Share the experience of creating a MOOC through discussion and publication to aid colleagues with a similar interest.
Free Open Access Medical Education (FOAM or FOAMed) is defined as “a collection of interactive online medical education resources” including blogs, podcasts, tweets, videos, and other web-based media. It is “educational social media for medicine” with open sharing and collaboration with attribution and recognition of the work of others [39]. The object of FOAM is to form an online community to share ideas and accelerate translation of research into clinical practice [40].
\nFOAM is a sphere of medical education which has expanded rapidly in recent years, led by the specialties of Emergency Medicine and Critical Care [40]. In one study examining expansion of FOAM, in the time period from 2002 to 2013 the number of FOAM resources available grew from two blogs and one podcast to 141 blogs and 42 podcasts [41]. By the most recent estimate this number has expanded to 240 [39]. While the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom lead in countries who predominantly consume FOAM, the potential for dissemination of medical knowledge via FOAM in lower resource countries has also been studied [40]. Outside of Emergency Medicine and Critical Care, the use of FOAM has been detailed in Emergency Medical Services [42, 43] and Pediatrics [44].
\nSince the inception of FOAM, some guidelines have been published from expert users on the optimal means to using FOAM and how to evaluate the quality of resources. Weingart has established a beginner’s guide to FOAM with a stepwise hierarchy in which learners can progress from novice to expert: existence (create online profile), safety (learn the rules of engagement to avoid problems), consumption (learn to effectively use resources), collaboration (engage with others), creation (of content) [45]. In another approach, a collection of four strategies to evaluate and engage in FOAM are 1. cultivate digital mentors 2. browse the most popular FOAM websites 3. use critical appraisal tools for FOAM and 4. contribute new online content.
\nA multitude of applications of FOAM have been promoted, including integration into existing graduate medical education curricula. General guidelines and suggestions for use have been proposed, including promotion of approved FOAM websites by a residency program to residents, creation of a residency Twitter account to interact with users, involving residents and faculty in creating and sharing FOAM, and application in flipped classroom and asynchronous curriculum models [46, 47]. In one training program, application of FOAM in the curricula has been accomplished via a model of team-based learning using the Academic Life in Emergency Medicine (ALiEM) Approved Instructional Resources (AIR) series, allowing faculty oversight and discussion of clinical applications [48]. The format of FOAM naturally adapts to the asynchronous component of residency education and courses such as “Asynchrony” incorporate an assignment, discussion, and quiz into the curriculum [49]. Additional attention has been paid to the use of podcasts in medical education. In comparing media, learners have been shown to improve their knowledge base equally with blogs and podcasts [50].
\nRemarkably, in a survey of trainees in Emergency Medicine, the podcast was found to the most popular means of obtaining medical knowledge, with reported use by 35% of residents surveyed compared to 33.6% of residents who report predominantly reading textbooks. Podcasts were additionally endorsed as the most beneficial means of learning [51]. The use of podcasts by learners has also been detailed in undergraduate medical education in a study examining usage conditions (most popular during driving, chores, and exercising) and knowledge retention (increased compared to the existing undergraduate curriculum alone) [52].
\nIn addition to podcasts, Twitter has emerged as another medium for exchange of information in medical education [47]. The concept of an online community of practice exists wherein an open digital space and non-hierarchical structure promote information sharing, and knowledge translation. Further, social media-based platforms such as Twitter allow for the development of a strong group identity among educators and learners who partake.
\nThe importance of critical appraisal and vetting educational content of FOAM cannot be emphasized enough. Due to the nature of FOAM, in which anyone can be a consumer or producer of online content, not all resources are of equal quality. Many FOAM articles and resources can be opinion-based and not all equally grounded in evidence-based medicine. Further, it can be hard for the user to discern whether content draws predominantly from the former or the latter. Multiple index markers have been developed to determine the quality of resources from which a learner is gaining information. These include adherence to the Health On the Net code of conduct, and application of the DISCERN score, which were developed to appraise online resources for patient use. With respect to medical education for practitioners, metrics to determine the quality of online resources such as the Quality Checklists for Blogs and Podcasts, ALiEM AIR score, and METRIQ score [53] have been newly developed and applied.
\nDespite the propagation and application of these quality markers, detractors of FOAM do list downsides of the format including little editorial oversight of material, overly rapid translation of information to patient care, and the outsize influence of figures with an eminent online presence [54]. When queried, the FOAM resources recommended by trainees and attending physicians varies widely and is also not a reliable indicator of quality [55].
\nWith respect to representation of core content for learners in FOAM, in one study of core content for Emergency Medicine trainees, FOAM related to airway management, interpretation of EKGs, propagation of new research and evidence-based medicine, resuscitation, and point-of-care ultrasound were overly represented compared to the least represented topics of cutaneous disorders, hematologic disorders, atraumatic musculoskeletal disorders, and obstetrics and gynecology [56]. Despite FOAM’s popularity in recent years, FOAM alone is not sufficient for trainees to learn all areas relevant to practice in a specialty.
\nWith respect to FOAM and MOOC as they pertain to curriculum developers, a novel approach to curriculum development implemented by Shappell et al. [57] involves crowdsourcing each step of curriculum development as it pertains to the Emergency Medicine residency curriculum. In Shappell et al.’s scoping review, an expert panel of authors searched for key terms within each step of curriculum development with inclusion of references to FOAMed. In determining the extent to which each of Kern’s six steps are referenced in FOAMed, they were able to gain an understanding that the steps of curriculum development which are underrepresented, which include (1) articulating goals and objectives and (2) tools for curricular evaluation. Ultimately, it is the authors’ goal and assertion that crowdsourcing curriculum development will diffuse the burden of creating a comprehensive online learning center and will help developers consider how their contributions will align with the work of others.
\nOne example of a successfully-implemented FOAMed curriculum is the Foundations of Emergency Medicine curriculum for emergency medicine residents [58]. Initially developed for emergency medicine interns at Northwestern University in 2014, the Foundations curriculum uses a flipped-classroom model to provide a longitudinal year-long course for understanding cardinal presentations and management strategies for “cannot miss” diagnoses. Since its inception at a single institution, the Foundations curriculum has rapidly expanded across more than a hundred institutions to encompass all levels of resident learners, accomplished through crowdsourcing from educational leaders across the field. Much of its expansion and success can be attributed to its FOAMed format, as the curriculum is readily accessible to all residency leadership in emergency medicine.
\nThe concept of curriculum development has come a long way since the inception of medical training in the United States and the formalization of medical education. As the Flexner Report ushered in a new era shifting focus from reliance on lectures and textbooks to the real-life application of medical knowledge, medical education was further shaped by the implementation of post-graduate training. In parallel, the concept of curriculum development for educators of both medical students and resident trainees took hold. Strategies for educators such as Harden’s curriculum mapping and Kern’s landmark six-step approach for curriculum design proved seminal to the field, while new understanding in adult learning theory shaped the means by which information was propagated. In the contemporary era, new advances in technology have allowed for radical models for medical education to spring forth, including the use of simulation, massive open online courses, and free open access medical education. Based on the advances of the past few decades, the future of curriculum design in medical education is hard to predict but is sure to hold even more innovation.
\nThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Dr. Li-Sauerwine wishes to thank her family for their support during the writing of this chapter.
\nDr. King wishes to thank his family for their support in all professional endeavors. He also wishes to thank Dr. Sorabh Khandelwal for introducing him to curriculum development, and providing tireless mentorship and professional development.
\nA green renewable era for novel biomass materials application is approaching due to the continuous shortage of petroleum and environmental pollution caused by non-biodegradable synthetic polymers. Biomass with inherent advantages of renewability, biodegradation, low cost, and zero carbon dioxide emissions has attracted great interest in academic and industrial fields to effectively mitigate environmental pollution, global warming, and energy crisis. Cellulose (CE), extracted from various biomass sources including wood, bamboo, cotton, flax, hemp, crop straws, bagasse, leaf, fruit, and other microorganisms [1], is the most abundant and widely distributed natural biopolymer in the world with an estimated annual production of 7.5 × 1010 tons [2]. The chains of cellulose consist of the repeating β-(1–4)-linked-D-glucose units, which assemble into microfibrils via the interactions of hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces [3]. Cellulose has been widely used in the paper, textile, and chemical industries for several centuries.
The rapid development of nanotechnology and wood industry has ushered in a new global nano era in different fields. Nanocelluloses isolated by various physical, chemical, and mechanical methods as well as their combinations facilitate the formation of nanocrystals and nanofibrils. Compared with conventional celluloses, nanocelluloses with outstanding properties including high specific surface area, excellent tensile strength and Young’s modulus, thermal stability, easy adaptability and processing, high barrier, and interesting optical properties [4], have drawn considerable attention in various cross fields of wood industry, such as construction, composite fabrication, wood adhesives, gas barrier materials, filtration systems, sensors systems, energy storage, and other environmental-friendly products. Nanocellulose has been considered as a critical renewable high-added-value bioresources for the development of novel functional bio-products in future wood industry. According to the Global Industry Analysts, the market for nanocellulose-based materials exceeded a billion dollars by 2020.
Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a long polymer chain with ringed glucose molecules and a ribbon-like conformation [5]. The unique properties of cellulose such as hydrophilicity, insolubility in aqueous solvents, infusibility, and ease of functionalization are attributed to the intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bond as well as polymer chain length [6], as shown in Figure 1.
Schematic representation of the chemical structure and intra-, intermolecular hydrogen bonds in cellulose [
Cellulose molecules are usually assembled into elementary nanofibrils (protofibrils). The protofibrils are further assembled via hydrogen bonding into microfibrils corresponding to dimensions varying from 2 to 20 nm [5]. These inter- and intra-hydrogen bonding networks enhance the durability and the axial rigidity of cellulose fibrils. There are two major domains of native cellulose corresponding to crystalline and amorphous regions. The crystallinity ranges from 40 to 70% depending on the biomass source and the extraction method with enhanced resistance to chemical, mechanical, and enzymatic effects [2]. Furthermore, cellulose can form different crystal types via molecular orientations, intramolecular and intermolecular interactions, and van der Waals forces, and they can transform into each other by different forms of isolation and treatment [7, 8]. The amorphous region exhibits a lower density and easily reacts with other chemical groups [9].
The term “nano” originates from the Greek word “nanos” or Latin word “nanus,” which generally means “dwarf.” “Nano” represents a tiny scale of one in a billion. Generally, cellulose measuring nanometers in size in at least one dimension is considered nanocellulose. The basic properties of nanocellulose are similar to common cellulose including weak water solubility and ease of chemical modification despite various micro-morphologies under different physical, chemical, and biological treatments. However, they show outstanding mechanical properties, excellent thermal stability, large specific surface area, unique rheological and optical properties. The common nanocellulose can be categorized in two major types, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) depending on their preparation methods, micro-morphology, and characteristics. The specific structures, properties, and yields of nanocellulose are closely related to the source of cellulose and isolation conditions [10].
The isolation of cellulose into nanocellulose generally entails two major stages: pretreatment of lignocellulosic feedstocks to obtain pure cellulose and transformation of cellulose to nanocellulose. Specifically, the hemicelluloses and lignin as well as extracts including fat, sugar, rosin, tannins, resin, terpenoids, terpene, flavonoids, waxes, and fatty acids in various biomass feedstocks are eliminated by different pretreatments [11]. The pure cellulose is then isolated by top-down methods such as physical, chemical, and mechanical techniques and their combinations. In addition, bacterial cellulose (BC) and cellulose nanofibers obtained by electrospinning (ECNF), which are generated by bottom-up methods, are also considered as nanocellulose. BC is self-assembled from low-molecular-weight sugars via bacterial metabolism, whereas ECNF are formed by electrospinning using different solvents of cellulose [12].
CNCs are also known as cellulose nanowhiskers or nanocrystalline celluloses. CNCs are rigid with a high modulus of elasticity (about 140 GPa) owing to their inherent crystallinity and orientation of hydrogen bonding, which is a rod-like or needle-like microstructure. The diameter and length of CNCs are less than 100 nm and around 100–400 nm, respectively. The degree of crystallinity usually changes from 54 to 84% [2]. Acid hydrolysis is a facile process used primarily. The crystallinity and size of CNCs are determined by the types of cellulose, the methods of isolation, and the corresponding parameters (hydrolysis time and temperature). The short rod-like CNCs with high degree of crystallinity originate mainly in the woody biomass and are obtained by acid hydrolysis. However, the CNCs with higher aspect ratios are typically obtained from bacteria and tunicates [13], as seen in Figure 2.
Transmission electron microscope (TEM) images of cellulose nanocrystals derived from (a) wood, (b) bamboo, (c) straw, and (d) tunicate [
Cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) with the same name, such as cellulose nanofibers, nanofibrillar cellulose, microfibrillated cellulose, and cellulose microfibrils, are long and flexible nanofibers, entangled into a mesh, which can be isolated mechanically (Figure 3). Their diameter and length range from 2 to 50 nm and 500 nm to several microns, respectively [10]. CNFs exhibit a stable configuration mainly due to their cellulosic molecular chains connected by hydrogen bonds. Typical mechanical ways including homogenization, refining, grinding, microfluidization, cryocrushing, and ultrasonication are used to defibrillate the cellulose, thus producing CNFs [12]. Some chemical pretreatments can be introduced to synergistically break the cellulose hydrogen bonds, resulting in enhanced accessibility of hydroxyl groups, which change the crystallinity and promote the reactivity of fibers. The inherent mechanical properties of CNFs are excellent corresponding to the ultimate strength of 2–6 GPa and an elastic modulus of 138 GPa in the crystalline region [18, 19]. The longer length with the higher aspect ratio and surface area as well as additional hydroxyl groups, which are easily modified on the surface of CNFs compared with CNCs. CNFs also exhibit outstanding thermal stability, optical transmittance, and gas barrier properties.
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of cellulose nanofibrils from hardwood kraft pulp [
Electrospinning is a novel, facile, and efficient way to fabricate continuous submicron or nanocellulose fiber. They have great potential for various applications due to their unique interwoven porous structure, low carbon footprint, and green synthesis. Electrospinning can be also used for the orientation and assembly of nanofibers to decrease the Gibbs free energy. During the electrospinning process, the cellulose solution is in a high voltage electric field. The droplets overcome the surface tension and then jet in a filament to the collection device through the air during solvent evaporation. The electrospinning process is influenced by the source of cellulose, concentration, viscosity, and surface tension of cellulose solution as well as electric field intensity, the receiving distance, and air temperature and humidity. In recent decades, the ECNFs and their derivatives have attracted great interest. The selection and development of the appropriate solvent system are the most important prerequisite and guarantee for the preparation of high-quality cellulose nanofibers by electrospinning.
Bacterial cellulose (BC) is synthesized by specific microorganisms in the sugar source. Its chemical structure contains linear glucan molecules connected via hydrogen bonds, similar to the plant cellulose, and is free of lignin, hemicelluloses, and pectin. BC is assembled by twisting ribbons with cross-sectional area of 210–420 nm2 and length of 1–9 μm. The degree of polymerization and crystallinity of BC are about 3000–9000 and 80–90%, respectively [20, 21]. Approximately 200,000 glucose molecules are formed via polymerization by a single
See Figure 4.
Preparation method of nanocellulose.
Mechanical isolation of CNF is usually performed after chemical pretreatment of cellulose. An appropriate pretreatment changes the crystallinity of cellulose and increases its reactivity. Cellulosic nanofibers are usually prepared under high-speed shear force and friction to dissociate the raw material into microfilament bundles with nanometer width and micron length. The main processing equipment utilizes high-pressure homogenization (HPH), microfluidization, grinding, ball milling, and cryocrushing. The first three techniques are the most common methods of mechanical isolation, as shown in Figure 5.
The most common mechanical method for preparing CNF: (a) homogenization, (b) microfluidization, (c) grinding [
HPH is the most widely utilized method for preparing CNFs. It was first used to prepare CNFs from wood pulp in 1983 [26]. HPH is performed by sending the fiber slurry suspension into the container through a small nozzle, which generates high shear in the suspension under high speed, high pressure, and fluid impact, thereby reducing the fiber size to the nanometer scale [27]. HPH is a highly efficient isolation technique for refining cellulose fiber sheets owing to its simplicity and lack of organic solvents. Many researchers have attempted to use various feedstocks in HPH. Sugar beet was successfully isolated at 30 MPa for 10–15 cycles by Leitner et al. [28]. Habibi et al. [29] used bleached cellulose residues to extract about 2–5 nm wide CNFs through HPH of 15 times at 50 MPa. Clogging is one of the most significant limitations of HPH. Due to uneven particle distribution, small orifice size, and high homogenization pressure, homogenization often leads to pipe clogging and pump wear. In addition, the homogenization time is prolonged and the energy consumption is increased. To overcome the disadvantages of clogging and wearing, the size is usually reduced prior to HPH. Therefore, a series of experiments were carried out using kenaf bast fibers to produce nanofibers [30]. Kenaf bast fibers were pretreated by refining and low-temperature crushing to obtain 10–90 nm wide nanofibers. CNFs with a width of 20–25 nm and 15–80 nm were obtained by pretreatment of kenaf core and stem by grinding. Zimmermann et al. [31] used milling pretreatment of wheat straw and wood fiber prior to homogenization of 150 MPa to obtain the nanofibrous cellulose.
Microfluidization is also a common method used to produce CNFs from pretreated cellulose based on a principle similar to HPH. Microfluidization is mainly conducted in a homogeneous cavity under a pressurizing mechanism, with usually “N” and “Y” types inside the homogeneous chamber. The microfluidizer combines the advantages of microfluidization and ultrahigh pressure (>300 MPa). Cellulose is passed through an N-shaped or Y-shaped channel at Mach speed in a pressurized chamber. It is simultaneously subjected to shear force, high-frequency oscillation, cavitation, and shocking, resulting in the breakdown of intermolecular hydrogen bonds of cellulose and the fibrillation [32].
Grinding is a facile and low energy consumption method. It facilitates the possibility of industrial manufacture of CNFs. Generally, slurry is passed through static and rotating grinding stones in the instrument. The process of fibrillation in the shredder disrupts the hydrogen bonds and destroys the cell wall structures using shear forces to turn cellulose raw materials into nanoscale fibers [33]. Compared with HPH, traditional disc grinding has a lower efficiency due to the difficulty in tuning the gap of the two disks after gradually reducing the cellulose size. Meanwhile, the improper adjustment of the two grinding disks at a high speed of rotation results in collision and friction with the metal or inorganic fragments. In addition, the cellulose is easily embedded in the grooves of grinding discs during the grinding process, resulting in uneven scale. New grinding methods such as supermasscolloider and planetary ball milling have been shown to overcome the disadvantage of low efficiency. Furthermore, due to the presence of holes inside the chamber, it is easy to incorporate cellulose during the grinding process. The grinding procedure, however, is difficult to clog, and a large quantity of raw materials can be treated simultaneously. However, heat is easily generated by high-speed rotating disc grinding and cannot be dissipated rapidly (Figure 6).
Schematic diagram of the preparation of CNF by ball milling [
The cryocrushing technique is used to obtain CNFs at low temperature via mechanical fibrillation. Cryocrushing of fibers is generally preceded after chemical pretreatment. The celluloses are rapidly frozen under liquid nitrogen, followed by treatment with high shear force, resulting in longitudinal decomposition and formation of CNFs [12]. The width of the CNFs extracted by cryocrushing is between 5 and 80 nm, and the length is several thousands of nanometers [35]. This technique is rarely used in commercial applications due to its limited ability to produce CNFs.
Oxidation via 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) is used for surface modification of native cellulose, which results in the oxidation of hydroxyl groups into carboxyl groups in mild aqueous systems. This method preserves the fibrous morphology of native cellulose, and the oxidation reaction only occurs on the cellulose surface. The surface negative charges lead to mutual repulsion between fibers, which facilitates the disintegration of fine fiber bundles and nanofibrillation. The most common oxidation method used is TEMPO/NaBr/NaClO in the aqueous system at pH = 9–11, TEMPO and NaBr play a catalytic role, and NaClO oxidizes the fiber surface [36]. Saito et al. used TEMPO for carboxylation of cellulose surface and successfully obtained fibers with a width of 3–4 nm and a length of several micrometers with a mechanical method involving pure nanofibrils [37]. To prevent side reactions, such as the degradation or discoloration of oxidized cellulose due to aldehyde groups, Hirota et al. utilized a TEMPO/NaClO/NaClO2 oxidation system in neutral or slightly acidic conditions at pH 4.8–6.8 and a reaction temperature of 60°C, the carboxyl content can reach 1.87 mmol g-1 [38]. Further, the TEMPO/NaClO/NaClO2 oxidation system can maintain the original polymerization of cellulose with uniform diameter and basically no aldehyde groups. Although the TEMPO oxidation method introduces a large number of carboxyl groups, which may reduce the degree of cellulose molecule polymerization, the crystal structure and crystallinity of cellulose are basically unchanged. The nanofibrils are uniformly dispersed in water, and the aspect ratio of the fibers is larger possibly due to many functional groups such as carboxyl groups on the surface.
Acid hydrolysis is used as a facile process for the isolation of cellulose nanocrystals. This process involves acid-induced decomposition with the diffusion of acid molecules into cellulose microfibrils. The preparation of CNC via acid hydrolysis is mainly based on the difference in hydrolysis kinetics between the amorphous and the crystalline regions. It disrupts the glycosidic bonds in the cellulose molecular chain along the amorphous domains of the cellulose fibers, resulting in fracture of the hierarchical structure of cellulose bundles into CNCs. Acid hydrolysis decreases the degree of polymerization of CNCs. When the cellulose is partially hydrolyzed, a large amount of water is added for dilution, and the residual acid and impurities are removed by centrifugal dialysis.
Historically, sulfonated cellulose nanocrystals (SCNCs) were successfully prepared for the first time in 1947 via sulfuric acid hydrolysis by Nickerson [39]. The concentration, temperature, and time of sulfuric acid hydrolysis play an important role in particle size, morphology, and physicochemical properties of CNCs [40]. Therefore, the reaction parameters and cellulose raw materials should be considered. Nagarajan et al. [41] reported incomplete hydrolysis when sulfuric acid concentration is less than 63 wt%. In this process, particles with low crystallinity are produced and small amounts of amorphous and aromatic polymers are dissolved. The productivity is enhanced when the sulfuric acid concentration ranges between 63% and 64% and the temperature is between 45°C and 60°C for 30–120 min [40, 42]. Similarly, when the concentration of sulfuric acid is greater than 65 wt%, there is a possibility of swelling of the crystalline region [43]. Sulfuric acid hydrolysis occurs between sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxyl groups on the surface of the crystal sulfate of electric charge. When the sulfate group is introduced into the surface of nano crystal, its dispersibility in water is improved, but its thermal stability is reduced.
Hydrochloric acid hydrolysis is another available method for preparing CNCs. The efficiency of hydrochloric acid hydrolysis of CNCs is enhanced at an acid concentration of 2.5–6.0 N and a temperature of 60–105°C for 2–4 h [44, 45]. Compared with sulfuric acid hydrolysis, CNCs hydrolyzed by hydrochloric acid carry no charged groups on the surface, so the dispersibility of the product in water is limited, resulting in easy aggregation and flocculation. The rheological properties of the two acid-hydrolyzed cellulose nanocrystals are different. The viscosity of nanocrystal suspensions obtained by hydrolysis of sulfuric acid is not correlated with time. However, the nanocrystal suspension hydrolyzed by hydrochloric acid exhibits thixotropy when the mass fraction is above 0.5 wt%, and anti-thixotropy when the mass fraction is below 0.3 wt% [45]. The nanocrystals obtained by blending sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid have the same size as the nanocrystals hydrolyzed by sulfuric acid. However, the surface charge of the nanocrystals can be adjusted by changing the ratio of the two components.
Phosphoric acid hydrolysis is a mild method. The CNCs prepared via phosphoric acid hydrolysis were thermally stable than those obtained by sulfuric acid [46]. Nevertheless, the colloidal stability of the suspension obtained after hydrolysis is not comparable to that of sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Acid concentration of 70–75 wt%, duration between 80 and 120 min, and temperatures from 100 to 120°C resulted in higher efficiency of phosphoric acid hydrolysis [47]. In addition, the phosphoric-acid-hydrolyzed CNCs exhibited better dispersibility in polar solvents than sulfuric-acid-hydrolyzed CNCs, and it can also be used as flame retardants and bio-bone scaffold materials [48].
Organic acids are recyclable, milder, and environmentally friendlier than other classical inorganic acids. Xie et al. [49] reported that 91 ± 2% of oxalic acid was recycled when sulfuric acid/oxalic acid mixture was used to prepare CNCs. Further, these organic acids are less corrosive to the processing equipment. Therefore, organic acid hydrolysis will be increasingly utilized in industrial manufacture of CNCs. Li et al. [50] reported a method of CNC synthesis from formic acid under mild conditions. Initially, the amorphous domains of cellulose are destroyed by formic acid (FA), releasing CNCs. Further oxidation using TEMPO increased the charge density on the CNC surface. The CNCs hydrolyzed by formic acid and modified by TEMPO exhibit higher crystallinity and surface charge density. The hydrolytic efficiency was further improved by Du et al. using FeCl3 addition to the formic acid hydrolysis system [51]. The results indicated that the particle size of the synthesized CNCs was decreased with increasing ferric chloride dosage in the formic acid hydrolysis.
Although most reports of the preparation of nanocellulose crystals entail inorganic acid hydrolysis, the method has disadvantages such as easy corrosion of equipment, environmental pollution, difficult to control the degree of hydrolysis, and low yield. The strong acid cation exchange resin in the solid acid catalyst can be used to replace the homogeneous acid catalysts such as sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid. The preparation of CNCs via solid acid hydrolysis is environmentally friendly and increases the recoverable yield. Tang et al. [52] used solid acid hydrolysis to prepare CNC from MCC by mixing the strong acid cation exchange resin with water in a ratio of 1:12 with continuous stirring. The crystallinity of the CNCs is higher than that of the CNCs prepared by sulfuric acid. However, the reaction time is long and the reaction efficiency is low due to the limited contact area between solid acid and cellulose. Therefore, it is still in the stage of laboratory research.
Enzymatic hydrolysis of CNCs is a cheaper alternative to acid hydrolysis, which eliminates harsh chemicals and requires less energy consumption for fibrillation. Cellulose can be selectively degraded by the enzyme in the amorphous or crystalline regions. Cellulase is a multicomponent enzyme system with synergistic actions. It comprises endoglucanases (EGs), cellobiohydrolases (CBHs), and β-glucosidase (GBs) depending on the different catalytic reactions. EGs randomly cleave the amorphous regions within the cellulose polysaccharide chain, producing oligosaccharides of different lengths and new chain ends [53]. CBH acts on the ends of cellulosic polysaccharide chains to release glucose or cellobiose. GB hydrolyzes cellobiose to yield two molecules of glucose [12]. Under the action of cellulase, not only the amorphous region is cleaved by EG but also the crystalline region is destroyed by CBHs. Therefore, the degradation of CBHs to the cellulose crystal region should be avoided during enzymatic hydrolysis. The three components of cellulase are separated from each other by pretreatment. Amorphous regions of cellulose are maintained for EG hydrolysis, while additional crystalline regions are preserved during enzymatic hydrolysis.
Wood adhesive is the one of the most important components in the manufacture of wood-based composites such as medium-density fiberboards (MDF), particle boards (PB), and plywoods, which directly determines the comprehensive properties of panels. Urea-formaldehyde (UF), phenolic-formaldehyde (PF), and melamine-urea-formaldehyde (MUF) adhesives are widely used in the wood industry. Several studies reported chemical modification of wood adhesive but few described modifications of nanocellulose [54]. Surface morphology, chemistry, and adhesive properties affect the interfacial bonding and sufficient cross-linking reaction between wood and adhesives during the curing process. Nanocellulose with an inherent advantage of high stiffness and specific surface area at an appropriate amount improves the viscosity and stiffness of the wood adhesives. Nanocellulose can also fill the rough surface and hole in wood-unit surface, resulting in decreased porosity [55]. Nanocelluloses generated via various methods of isolation and modification exhibit differential effects on the bonding between wood and adhesive. The entangled microfibrillated cellulose (MFC) was prepared by a strong mechanical shearing resulted in high viscosity of adhesive [56]. TEMPO-CNF with long fibrillated morphology and negatively charged surface improves the CNF dispersion in the polar adhesive. Surface wettability of wood adhesive can be altered by various levels of energy dissipation with the addition of the modified nanocellulose. Aminopropyltriethoxysilane modification effectively reduced the surface energy of CNC, leading to a remarkable increase in the contact angle of CNC and urea formaldehyde resin [57].
Stress concentration at the bonding interface of wood and brittle adhesives (UF, PF, and MUF) is high corresponding to the density of cross-linked methylene and the degree of crystallinity. The reaction of hydroxyl groups and methylol groups in nanocellulose and UF promotes the ductility of adhesives. The crystalline regions improve the hydrolytic stability, resulting in reduced release of formaldehyde. The formaldehyde emission can be reduced by 13% by adding the modified CNCs at optimum levels (1 wt%) [57]. The major challenge for the adhesive modification by nanocellulose is the suspension of nanocellulose during the synthesis [58]. The higher the content of nanocellulose suspension incorporated, the higher the content of water in the adhesive, which reduces the solid content, resulting in slow curing process. The UF resin can be synthesized in various reaction conditions including weak acid, alkaline, and strong acids. Therefore, positively charged or uncharged nanocellulose under strong acid environment is essential due to the easy agglomeration of TEMPO-CNF at pKa = 3.50 via hydrogen bonding. The addition of nanocellulose or other cross-linkers such as poly(vinyl alcohol) effectively promotes the adhesive properties [59]. This provides a novel way to produce eco-friendly wood adhesives and reduce the use of petroleum-based polymers in wood adhesives in the future.
Nanocellulose for novel energy storage application has received considerable attention due to its inherent structure and properties. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with excellent properties including high energy density, non-memory effect, long-life cycles and low self-discharge rates, are key contributors to green energy storage [60]. Carbonaceous materials pyrolyzed by various precursors are the most utilized anodes industrially in lithium-ion batteries, resulting in low cost and various allotropic forms and morphologies [61]. Most anodes derived from natural cellulose are based on modified or synthetic porous carbon using chemical solvents or metals.
Nevertheless, directly pyrolyzed natural cellulose is an alternative candidate with acceptable electrochemical performance. The CNF carbon as anode in LIBs exhibited higher capacity but a weaker rate compared with CNC carbon. The disordered carbons used as LIB anodes were obtained by pyrolysis of microcrystalline cellulose in the temperature range of 950–1100°C [62]. Natural bacterial cellulose-based carbon treated by freeze-drying and carbonization showed good properties because of low charge transfer resistance and high specific surface area. To effectively promote the electronic conductivity of carbonaceous materials, nitrogen (N) doping in carbonaceous materials with similar atomic radii leads to desirable lattice mismatch, improves interfacial characteristics of the electrolyte and electrode, which facilitate electrical conductivity [63]. Unlike the traditional petroleum-based precursors from melamine or polyacrylonitrile for synthesizing N-doped carbons, novel chitosan (CS) contains 40% carbon and 8% nitrogen [64]. The N-doped porous carbon anodes derived from chitosan for the supercapacitance were successfully prepared by fine-tuning the hydrothermal carbonization parameters [65].
The natural nitrogen-doped porous carbon anode in LIBs was prepared by CS/CNC biocomposites using a facile procedure [60]. The N-doping content, the interfacial compatibility, and the pyrolysis temperature have a synergistic effect on the electrochemical performance of anodes. The outstanding cycling stability and coulombic efficiency of anodes are found at a pyrolyzed temperature of 1200°C. The addition of CNC has a positive effect on the rate retention and cycling performance. The CS/CNC anodes at the ratio of 10 wt% have high porosity, C/N ratio, and the multiscale pore distribution, resulting in an average specific capacity of 333 mAh g−1 at 100 mA g−1, retention capacity of 251 mAh g−1 at 2000 mA g−1, and almost constant capacity of 327 mAh g−1 after cycling. The CE/CS composite nanofibrous mats were obtained by single-nozzle and coaxial-nozzle electrospinning and then pyrolyzed at 900°C. The porous structure of carbon nanofibrous mats releases partial mechanical stress generated by the insertion and extraction of lithium ions. Their rough surface was conductive to the formation of solid electrolyte film, reducing the co-intercalation of solvent molecules and improving the cycling stability. The conventional carbon nanofibrous mats with a CE/CS ratio of 5:5 showed optimum electrochemical performance including a good rate performance (399 mAh g−1 at 30 mA g−1), a high specific capacity (327 mAh g−1 at 100 mA g−1), and an excellent cycling stability after 300 cycles. The carbon nanofibrous mats with the core-shell structure (CE as core and CS as shell) and the same ratio of CE/CS had higher pyridinic-N and pyrrolic-N content but a lower degree of graphitization and specific surface area in comparison with the common one. The N was more uniformly doped into the carbon nanofibrous mats via single-nozzle electrospinning compared with the coaxial technique, leading to a promotion for comprehensive electrochemical performance [66].
The separator of LIBs has two major functions: (1) preventing the direct contact of two electrodes; (2) enabling lithium-ion transportation by the electrolyte reservoir. It plays a significant role in LIB performance, such as cycle life, safety, and power density. The CNF film as a separator for LIBs exhibits high mechanical strength, thermal stability, and electrolytic property. Further, the CNF separator effectively promotes electrolyte wettability, ionic conductivity, and dimensional stability compared with commercialized separators fabricated from polypropylene/polyethylene/polypropylene. The CNF separators derived from
The role of nanocellulose in reinforcing polylactic acid (PLA)-based composites has been studied in recent decades. Most studies report that the mechanical strength and elastic modulus are improved after the incorporation of appropriate levels of nanocellulose. The poor interfacial compatibility between the nanocellulose with hydrophilic groups and the thermoplastic resins with hydrophobic groups limits the addition of nanocellulose in PLA. The ideal addition level of nanocellulose required to reinforce polymers is only 0.5–2 wt%. The surface properties of nanocellulose are generally modified by chemical or physical methods, which improved their dispersion and compatibility in PLA matrix. The CNC-graft-PLA/PLA nanocomposites modified by dicumyl peroxide were fabricated via reactive extrusion with a high grafting efficiency of 66% [69], which effectively promoted the interfacial bonding between CNCs and the PLA matrix, as well as the thermal stability of composites. The tensile strength of the composites increased by 40%, and its Young’s modulus significantly rose by 490%.
Compared with the rigid CNCs, CNFs with flexible long chains exhibit possible entanglement with the resin matrix. A novel micro encapsulation-mixing and melt-compression technique to obtain CNF-reinforced PLA composites with uniform dispersion was reported by Wang and Drzal [70]. The PLA microparticles were obtained via solvent evaporation and mixed with CNFs generated by HPH. The dense PLA/CNFs composite sheets were prepared by membrane filtration and compression molding. This approach prompted the dispersion of the CNFs in the matrix even at high levels (32 wt%), which increased the modulus by 58% and the strength by 210%, respectively. The introduction of CNFs alters the crystallization of the PLA. Homogeneous and stable crystals can be obtained by increasing CNF loading, where CNFs act as the nucleating agents to accelerate crystallization of PLA particles and reduce the cold crystallization temperature [71]. An electrospinning technique incorporating CNCs with PLA improved the dispersion of CNCs in the composites [72]. A CNC loading of 2–3 wt% can effectively increase the elastic modulus by 17% and tensile strength by 14%, as well as contribute to stable ductility of the CNC/PLA composites.
Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin is a typical and widely used thermosetting polymer. The mechanical properties of micro- and nanocellulose fibers as reinforcements for PF composites were compared [73]. The nanocomposite showed better mechanical properties than the micro-composites. The CNFs facilitate stress transfer in composites. The hydrophilicity of CNF enhanced the interfacial compatibility between CNF and PF. The CNFs immersed and dispersed in PF before polymerization, resulting in strong bonding in the outer layer of CNFs corresponding to strong fiber-matrix adhesion, which explains the higher strength of the CNF-reinforced PF composites compared with cellulose microfibril-reinforced PF composites. The commercial glass fibers with addition amount of 20 wt% promote the mechanical strengths of PF. However, the incorporation of natural CNF into the PF significantly elevated the tensile strength, flexural strength, and impact strength of CNF/PF composites by 142, 280, and 133%, respectively, at low CNF loading [73, 74]. The TEMPO-CNF/PF composites were prepared by a three-step procedure including mixing of CNFs and resin, ultrafiltration, and hot molding. The special processes of ultrafiltration and drying effectively adsorbed the moisture and then released the residual stress of the composite films. The obtained films were flexible with an average elongation at break of 13–17%. The neutral pH, the high polymerization of CNF, and the special composite method may contribute to the excellent mechanical strength of the TEMPO-CNF/PF composites. The TEMPO-CNF/PF composite flexible films were obtained via impregnation of TEMPO-CNF with aqueous PF resin, which yielded a tensile stress and toughness of 248 MPa and 26 MJ m-3, respectively [75].
The traditional activated carbon and zeolites are two most widely used adsorbents for the wasted water and air treatment. Nanocellulose, as a potential bio-adsorbent with the advantages of sustainability, nontoxicity, biodegradation, tiny size, large specific surface area, and the numerous choices to surface functionalization, has attracted tremendous interests in environmental remediation including metal ions, anionic and cationic dyes, and air pollutants.
The CNFs modified by carboxylate groups have been proved to be an effective adsorbent to several metal ions such as Pb2+, Cd2+, and Ni2+, even the radioactive UO22+ [76], which is attributed to the attraction of negative charges [77]. The maximum adsorption capacity (167 mg g−1) for UO22+ can be achieved with a three times higher than other popular adsorbents including montmorillonite, silica, and hydrogels. The CNFs modified by 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane showed a positive effect on adsorbing Ni2+, Cu2+, and Cd2+ in solutions [78]. The adsorption performance depends on the pH range. The mercerized nanocellulose modified by succinic anhydride can quickly adsorb Zn2+, Cd2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, and Co2+ above 50% within 5 min. The maximum adsorption capacities correspond to 1.6, 2, 2, 0.8, and 1.3 mmol g−1 [79]. CNC is also proved to be available for adsorption of Cd2+, Ni2+, and Pb2+ but corresponding to a low adsorption capacity of 8.55, 9.42, and 9.7 mg g−1 in 25 mg L−1 aqueous solutions [80]. The adsorption capacities of Ag+, Cu2+, and Fe3+ by CNC are 56, 20, and 6.5 mg g−1. The modification of CNC using phosphate groups effectively improved the adsorption capacity for several metal ions, corresponding to 136, 117, and 115 mg g−1, respectively [81]. The modification effect of CNC by succinic anhydride on the adsorption of Pb2+ and Cd2+ was investigated. There was a about 10-fold adsorption capacity higher for modified CNC than the control one. The CNC adsorbent can regenerate using a saturated sodium chloride solution without any loss of adsorption capacity after two recycles [82].
CNF and CNC were also investigated in the adsorption of anionic and cationic dyes. CNF obtained from kenaf by a combination of acidified-chlorite pretreatment, which was proved to have a good adsorption capacity on methylene blue (MB). The parameters for maximum adsorption capacity (123 mg g−1) are at 20°C and pH of 9 within 1 min. CNF can be regenerated by an acidic medium and has a six adsorption-desorption available cycles [83]. CNCs can also remove the MB from aqueous solutions. The maximum adsorption equilibrium capacity fitted by Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models was 118 mg dye g-1 when the temperature and pH were set at 25°C and 9. The TEMPO-oxidized CNC corresponds to a higher adsorption capacity (769 mg dye g-1) [84]. Sodium-periodate-oxidized CNC modified by ethylenediamine has an effective adsorption capacity for acid red, light yellow K-4G, and Congo red 4BS anionic dyes corresponding to the adsorption capacities of 135, 183, and 200 mg g−1, respectively [85].
In addition, the toxic hydrogen sulfide (H2S) adsorption performance was also studied by modified microfibrillated cellulose, such as aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APS) and hydroxycarbonated apatite (HAP) [86]. The H2S adsorption capacity corresponding to 103.95 and 13.38 mg g−1 for APS/MFC and HAP/MFC can be achieved when the initial concentration was 80 mg L−1. Compared with activated carbons, montmorillonites, silica-aluminas, and mixed zinc/cobalt hydroxides with the maximum adsorption capacities of 2–70, 0.5–12, 117–207, and 24–228 mg g−1 [79], APS/MFC is considered a promising bio-adsorbent.
Nanocellulose shows a great potential and brilliant prospect to be a novel functional bio-product with many inherent advantages including excellent mechanical properties and thermal stability, high specific surface area, available tailorability, and other special properties in the future of wood industry and its industrial cross fields, such as wood construction, wood adhesives, fabrication and reinforcement of composites, green energy storage and adsorption system. The nanocellulose-based composites with the functional polymers, inorganics, and metals are also a promising direction for the developing green novel bio-products with the low or even zero carbon footprint in the future. However, the most important issue on nanocelluloses is its manufacture on a large scale due to the limited transition technology from lab-scale products to industrial production. Future works should focus on optimizing the industrial process and continuously developing new or combining methods to produce nanocellulose with the low energy consumption and high efficiency. Also, the life cycle assessment, regulation, and standardization of nanocellulose for safety and environmental properties will be necessary for next commercialization.
This work is supported by the following grants and programs: 1. Yunnan Provincial Applied and Basic Research Grants (202201AT070058, 2019FB067); 2. National Natural Science Foundation of China (32060381); 3. the High Level Innovative One-Ten-Thousand Youth Talents of Yunnan Province (YNWR-QNBJ-2020-203); 4. 111 Project (D21027).
There is no conflict of interest in this field.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Usually, SLE symptoms include high fever, hair loss, mouth ulcers, chest pain, swollen lymph nodes, painful and swollen joints, increased fatigue, and appearance of red rash more often on the face. The exact reason of SLE appearance is not really clear. Detection of catalytic Abs (abzymes) was shown to be the earliest indicator of different AI disease development. Some abzymes are cytotoxic and can play a dangerous negative role in the pathogenesis of AI diseases. SLE is characterized by the appearance of abzymes with several different catalytic functions including hydrolysis of peptides and proteins, DNA, RNA, and oligosaccharides. 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Endochondral ossification will form the center of primary ossification, and the cartilage extends by proliferation of chondrocytes and deposition of cartilage matrix. After this formation, chondrocytes in the central region of the cartilage start to proceed with maturation into hypertrophic chondrocytes. After the primary ossification center is formed, the marrow cavity begins to expand toward the epiphysis. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. 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He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. 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Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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