The oil content (%) of 4 plants, using mechanical oil extraction and Soxhlet extraction methods.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-345-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-344-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-346-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"37f858c8b681abe60704245c7a1e89ee",bookSignature:"Prof. Hideki Nakano",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11832.jpg",keywords:"Basic Research, Fundamental Theory, Animal Study, Human Study, Applied Research, Clinical Application, Clinical Study, Translational Research, Advanced Technology, Robotics, Regenerative Medicine, Deep Learning",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 17th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 16th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 4th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Nakano is a pioneering researcher in neurorehabilitation and physical therapy. He has research training experience as a JSPS Research Fellow at Neurorehabilitation Research Center, Kio University, Japan, and Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Australia. Dr. Nakano has received 13 awards from academic organizations, has authored more than 120 journal papers and 10 book chapters, and was the editor member of 7 academic journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196461/images/system/196461.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hideki Nakano is a physical therapist and associate professor at the Neurorehabilitation Laboratory, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Kyoto Tachibana University, Japan. He received his Ph.D. in Health Science from Kio University, Japan, and has accepted research training experience as a JSPS Research Fellow at Neurorehabilitation Research Center, Kio University, Japan, and Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Australia. He specializes in neuroscience, neurophysiology, and rehabilitation science and conducts research using non-invasive brain function measurement and brain stimulation methods such as electroencephalography, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and transcranial electrical stimulation. 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Regarding its structure and infection mechanism, SARS-CoV-2 is mostly similar to familiar coronaviruses such as the SARS-CoV-1 and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) [2, 3]. Identified in Wuhan, China, it has abruptly spread all over the world with more than 164.513.450 reported cases to date [4]. The respiratory system is the most common target of infection however, various experimental studies and case reports have shown an affinity for neural tissues. Considering observational studies, SARS-CoV-2 patients were registered with complaints of headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, myalgia, hypogeusia, hyposmia, and impaired consciousness, all symptoms that indicate involvement of the nervous system [5]. Even though, the exact mechanism which SARS-CoV-2 penetrates the central nervous system has not yet been determined, prior experimental models have shown that other coronaviruses can compromise the nervous system and respiratory drive by directly targeting neurons located in cardiorespiratory centers [6], due to the preliminary observation of cases concerning the COVID-19 pandemic, suggesting a higher affinity of SARS-CoV-2 virus for CNS targets.
The aim of this chapter is to present all of the reported neurological manifestations in COVID-19 with the explanation of possible underlying pathways.
In the previous months, reports of meningitis, encephalitis, myelitis, or peripheral nerve affection in regard to COVID-19 infection were presented, implying that SARS-CoV-2 can directly infect the nervous system.
The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S) can bind to the host cellular angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) receptor because of its high binding affinity, which is of importance to cell tropism [7]. Preparing and processing of the S protein by the transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) have been demonstrated to be crucial for the synthesis of viral and host cellular membranes, furthermore entrance of SARS-CoV-2 [8]. The increased expression of the ACE-2 receptor has been found on neurons and glial cells of several brain structures including the cerebral cortex, the striatum, the posterior hypothalamic area, the substantia nigra, and brain stem. ACE-2 is strongly expressed in the ventrolateral medulla and the nucleus of tractus solitarius, both areas involved in the regulation of the respiratory cycle [9].
Arguably, several mechanisms could be taken into account as possible viral access routes, such as axonal transport and trans-synaptic transfer, and hematogenous or potentially lymphatic system routes. The infiltration of the CNS through the transcribial system describes an infection of the olfactory epithelium continuing transmission through the cribriform plate to the subarachnoid space. On the other side, the axonal and trans-synaptic transport would combine numerous peripheral nerve terminals which leads to contamination by spreading onward neurons (olfactory bulb, the trigeminal nerve, the vagus nerve, etc.) [10].
Another way of CNS infiltration could be through the circulatory system or on the other hand, the lymphatic system routes. Transfer over the brain endothelium could be accomplished through abluminal virus release into the CNS parenchyma, by direct infection of brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMEC), or via endocytosis, through virally affected leukocytes or disrupted tight junctions on BMEC-s [11].
However, direct contamination of cells is not the only way of virus transmission. Indirect neurotoxicity may be caused by immune system disorders, coagulation disorders, cardiovascular comorbidities, disorders of glucose and lipid metabolism, hypoxic encephalopathy, and/or gastrointestinal disorders.
Other than ACE-2, SARS-CoV-2 may utilize extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer also known as basigin (BSG; CD147) and transmembrane glycoprotein neuropilin-1 (NRP1) as receptors. Some enzymes that catalyze proteolysis such as TMPRSS11A/B, cathepsin B and L, and furin (FURIN), have been presented to promote viral cell entry and replication [12].
Dissemination of SARS-CoV-2, in which the virus has an effect on peripheral neurons via active transport, synaptic terminals, and retrograde transport to the neuronal body of the cell, has been hypothesized [13]. Studies have been conducted, explaining the mechanism of trans-synaptic transfer involving the hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus strain 67 N (HEV-67 N), which represents the first SARS-CoV-2 strain that was found to infect the porcine cerebrum [14]. Data from human single nuclei RNA-seq databases suggest that vascular endothelial cells may express ACE-2 in the human cerebrum at low levels, however non-canonical SARS-CoV-2 receptors (e.g., BSG/CD147) are displayed in several different brain cell types, making them exposed to the virus [15].
Provided by other viruses of the family Coronaviridae, certain possible routes of entry for SARS-CoV-2 have been established [16].
The olfactory nerve (CN I) is the first and shortest cranial nerve. It is a special visceral afferent nerve, which transmits information relating to smell. The sense of smell is distinguished by olfactory receptors situated within the nasal epithelium. Their axons amass into small bundles of olfactory nerves, which infiltrate small foramina in the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and enter the cranial cavity. The absence of the sense of smell is defined as anosmia. A temporary loss of smell can be caused by infection or by local disorders, in contrast, a permanent loss of smell may be caused by head injury or tumors. Infection of the olfactory system is consistent with the observation that loss of smell is a frequent neurological manifestation in COVID-19. Some evidence, demonstrate increased MRI signal in the olfactory cortex during the acute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection [17]. As represented in the case of other coronaviruses, the virus could be disguised in nerve terminals by endocytic mechanisms, transported retrogradely, and spread trans-synaptically to other regions of the cerebrum [18]. As described before, ACE-2 and TMPRSS2 have been identified in the nasal mucosa, epithelial cells (sustentacular cells), but not olfactory neurons [19]. However, there are some evidences of neuronal involvement.
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) acts as an additional boundary between circulating blood and the extracellular space of the brain. The barrier is highly selective, protecting the brain from toxins, pathogens and even circulating neurotransmitters (e.g. glutamate) that can be potentially damaging to neurons. The BBB is a typical route of entry of blood-borne viruses into the brain. In SARS-CoV-2 infection, dissemination of the virus into the blood has been reported, even though frequencies are extensively ranging (1–41%) [16]. Immunoreactivity of ACE-2 was described in brain vessels of a patient with multiple ischemic infarcts. However, the cellular localization was not resolved. Other receptors, such as NRP1 and BSG, could be another possibility of infection due to their more widely expression in the cerebral vasculature [20]. Nonetheless, SARS-CoV-2 associated cytokines – interleukins (IL-6, IL-1b, IL-17) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) can potentially damage the BBB, which is another way of virus invasion [21]. In several autopsy studies, a lack of florid cerebrovascular inflammation has been described [22]. Comorbidities, as have oftentimes been seen in COVID-19, such as cardiovascular risk factor or pre-existing neurological diseases, in combinations with activation of cytokines, increase the permeability of BBB [21].
Infected immune cells (monocytes, neutrophils, and T cells) can cause brain infestation through the vasculature, the meninges, and choroid plexus [16]. In a study conducted by Chen et al., 2020, SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein (NP) immunoreactivity was observed in CD68+ cells in lymphoid organs, while single-cell RNA seq data showed viral RNA in macrophages of COVID-19 patients [23]. However, data about virus proliferation in macrophages are limited due to the unknown mechanisms of virus propagation (phagocytic uptake of virus-infected cells or extracellular virions) [24].
Indirect effects of systemic factors of SARS-CoV-2 can lead to acute and chronic consequences, such as respiratory failure, systemic inflammation, hypercoagulable state and, lethal systemic organ failure.
SARS-CoV-2 has been predominantly detected in pneumocytes and epithelial progenitors, which can lead to potential lung damage, causing massive alveolar damage, inflammatory cell infiltration, edema, microvascular thrombosis, and hemorrhage resulting in severe hypoxia and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) [25, 26]. The most sensitive brain regions to hypoxia, such as the neocortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum have shown neuronal impairment [27].
The correlation between immunosuppression and disease severity has been established. Most COVID-19 patients have higher circulating levels of IL-6, IL-1b, and TNF, but also additionally IL-2, IL-8, IL-17, G-CSF, GM-CSF, IP10, MCP1, and MIP1a2, and serum levels of IL-6 and TNF leading to cytokine release syndrome [28, 29, 30]. After brain entry through the damaged BBB, certain molecules such as the nuclear protein high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), could act as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) [31]. This process activates an immune response in pericytes, brain macrophages, and microglia, which express toll-like receptors (TLR) which act as mediators for pro-inflammatory effects of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on human macrophages through nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB) [32]. In this way, immune response boosts the level of cytokine production which results in impairment of brain function [33].
Another vital element of COVID-19 is significant coagulopathy. The multicenter study has been conducted, suggesting that 88% of patients displayed evidence of a hypercoagulable state. The prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), and complete blood count (CBC) are in the reference range. However, fibrinogen level, and fibrin breakdown products indicative of intravascular thrombosis (D-dimer), are both increased. Coagulopathy may start in the lungs causing endothelial damage, complement activation, activation of the procoagulant effect of IL-6, and neutrophil release of extracellular traps (NETs) that leads to the formation of a clot, resulting in intravascular thrombosis [34].
There are many metabolic and pathological evidence of systematic impairment in different organs (heart, liver, gastrointestinal tract, and endocrine system) [35]. Hypoperfusion of the cerebrum could be impacted by a compromised function of the heart [36]. Many neurological symptoms, for instance, headache, confusion, agitation, can be correlated to systemic metabolic changes including electrolyte disbalance, hormonal dysfunction and accumulation of toxic metabolites [37, 38].
Although, SARS-CoV-2 is primarily causing the insufficient function of the respiratory system, there are overwhelming amounts of evidence implying that neurological complications appear as a serious problem in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In the long-term, COVID-19 could negatively affect the nervous system [39].
Among patients who tested positive on SARS-CoV-2, various neurological irregularities have been described, affecting both the central and peripheral nervous system. Clinical condition and symptoms may vary from mild to severe, regardless of patient clinical status (severe form or asymptomatic infection). According to Helms et al., neurological abnormalities have been displayed in 30% of hospitalized patients, 45% of those with severe respiratory problems, and 85% of those who developed ARDS [40]. Patients with mild or asymptomatic infection were more likely to develop nonspecific neurological irregularity including headache, dizziness, malaise, and loss of sense of smell and taste.
In the review by Leonardi M, Padovani A, McArthur JC (2020) [41], authors have classified the reported neurological findings, into three distinctive categories:
Central (headache, dizziness, impaired consciousness, acute cerebrovascular disease, seizures, and meningitis/encephalitis)
Peripheral (hypogeusia, hyposmia)
Musculoskeletal (ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke)
In general, neurological complications in COVID-19 patients occur within 1 and 14 days, in most cases on average on the 5th day of the incubation period [42].
Headache is one of the most commonly reported neurological symptoms of a systemic viral infection. Although direct mechanisms of this symptom are yet to be discovered, there are some possible causes. High body temperature directly causes activation of several immunoinflammatory mediators (cytokines, glutamate, cyclooxygenase-2/prostaglandin E2 system, and nitric oxide system) and activation of substances that are capable of inducing interleukins (exogenous and endogenous pyrogens). Some of the indirect causes are dehydration, electrolyte disbalance, hypoxia, systemic inflammation, and cytokine release syndrome (CRS). One of the possibilities for developing this symptom could also be direct infection of the nervous system via ACE-2 receptors [43].
Vertigo or dizziness has been described as the most common neurological manifestation of COVID-19. Neurotropism of SARS-CoV-2 causes the virus to invade neural tissue from circulation through capillary endothelium (ACE-2 receptors). Aside from this mechanism, direct invasion, hypoxia, and systemic inflammation play the part in causing this symptom. Approximately 7.0% (2.5% to 21.4%) of the COVID-19 patients were reported to have this symptom.
Combined manifestation of dizziness and headache occurred in 12.1% as has been reported in eight studies, with a total of n=654 patients [44].
As anticipated, severe or critical patients tend to develop impaired consciousness (11.9%) due to hypoxia and cerebrum impairment. In patients with mild or asymptomatic clinical manifestations, the prevalence of this symptom is considerably lower (3.2%). The number of studies taken into account was nine, including n=2890 patients with impaired consciousness [45].
The most common display of cerebrovascular disease is an acute stroke with rapidly evolving symptoms which may include weakness of one side of the face or body, numbness, motor or sensory aphasia, ataxia, visual impairment. Those symptoms could be manifested due to compromised blood supply to the brain and which symptom will develop depends on the compromised area of the cerebrum. Regarding this clinical problem, two cohort studies were conducted. The first study by Mao et al. noted that among 214 hospitalized patients, 6 patients developed acute cerebrovascular manifestation (2.8%) [46]. The second study by Li et al. reported 11 patients with acute ischemic stroke (including a total of 221 COVID-19 patients). It has been shown that developing acute cerebrovascular events is highly correlated with the age of the patients (71.6 ± 15.7 years/52.1 ± 15.3 years) [47].
An epileptic seizure is a “transient occurrence of signs and/or symptoms due to abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain” [48]. There are few reports of acute seizures in SARS-CoV-2 positive patients. The first study regarding this clinical manifestation was noted in a COVID-19 patient, a 24-year-old male with generalized seizures, from Japan [49]. The second publication reported a COVID-19 patient, a 30-year-old female with generalized tonic–clonic seizures, from Iran. In both cases, there was no evidence of previous seizures, prior to hospitalization [50]. Even though these and similar reports may suggest that correlation between seizures and COVID-19 infection exist, there are a relatively low number of reported cases so far, therefore a seizure risk is caused by nonspecific mechanisms (hypoxia, cerebrovascular events, cytokine proliferation, etc.).
By definition, meningitis is inflammation of the meninges, in almost all cases identified by an abnormal number of leukocytes in the cerebrospinal fluid and specific symptoms. The etiology may be noninfectious and associated with a systemic disease, medication, or other pathologic factors. However, most cases of aseptic meningitis are caused by viruses. There have been interpreted few single-case reports, regarding meningitis/encephalitis in correlation with COVID-19. Anyhow, only a few of reported cases tested positive for SARS-CoV-2. The first described case was reported from China, but the amount of clinical evidence was underwhelming [51]. Another case was reported in a SARS-CoV-2 positive patient from Japan, manifested as generalized seizure and pathological cerebral MRI (right lateral ventriculitis and encephalitis mainly on the right mesial temporal lobe and hippocampus) [52]. In other reported cases, patients tested negative for SARS-CoV-2, or even were not tested at all [53].
The presence of taste and smell alterations seems to be a usual clinical manifestation going from 19.4–88% of patients [54]. The specific pathogenesis of these issues has not yet been explained. ACE-2 has been distinguished as the cell receptor for SARS-CoV-2. These receptors are expressed diffusely on the mucous membrane of the entire oral cavity, especially on the tongue and furthermore on the nasal mucosa where it takes part in respiratory inflammatory infections by regulating the level of inflammatory peptides, for example, bradykinin. There have been many reports regarding alteration of the senses of smell and taste. The one particular larger study, including a total of 417 patients with mild to moderate SARS-CoV-2 infection, described smell impairment in 85.6% and taste impairment in 88.8% [55].
Stroke is commonly defined as sudden neurological deficit as a result of infarction or hemorrhage in the central nervous system [56]. This is a traditional definition, which has been updated over time with the fact that the neurological symptoms need to last more than 24 hours or CT and MRI confirmed focal infarction or hemorrhage compatible with the symptoms [57]. The typical subdivision of stroke includes ischemic stroke (infarction of brain, retina, or spinal infarction) and hemorrhagic stroke (intracerebral or subarachnoid hemorrhage) [58]. The cause of ischemic stroke is thromboembolism from the small vessel, larger artery, or the heart [59]. Classification of the hemorrhagic stroke depends on the anatomical location, whereas the most common are supratentorial hemorrhages [60].
There are numerous studies that report acute stroke complicating COVID-19 [61, 62]. The reported incidence of acute stroke in COVID-19 varies from 0.4% to 8.1%, due to the different ethnic and geographical variations: Asia (3.1%), Europe (1.2%) and, North America (1.1%) [63]. The reported incidence of stroke in COVID-19 patients treated in the intensive care units (ICU) is 1–3% [64, 65, 66, 67, 68]. Given the extent of the COVID-19 pandemic, this reported incidence is very high. Hemorrhagic stroke has been described from 21.7% to 25.7% COVID-19 patients with stroke, while the rest were ischemic strokes [69].
It has been stated that male COVID-19 patients, the median age of 63 years, are more likely to experience a stroke than women, but it is also known that the majority of ICU COVID-19 patients are older men as well [67]. Other reported risk factors include hypertension, diabetes mellitus [66, 70]. Race/ethnicity is also an important risk factor and it was observed that the black race had shown the highest prevalence (47%) [71]. A severe type of COVID-19 infection was observed as one of the most important risk factors for stroke in these patients [72, 73, 74, 75, 76]. There is a causal relationship between COVID-19 and stroke since the infection itself is more likely to induce thrombotic vascular events [63].
Described mechanisms of stroke in COVID-19 patients are diverse and multifactorial, considering that COVID-19 could be a trigger to typical stroke mechanisms, or alternatively, there are specific pathophysiological mechanisms [63]. The mechanisms for ischemic stroke in COVID-19 include sepsis-induced coagulopathy, presence of antiphospholipid antibodies, and thromboembolism, which show activated coagulation pathway in patients with COVID-19 who ordinarily already have elevated D-dimer and fibrinogen [77, 78, 79, 80, 81]. It is well known that COVID-19 uses the ACE-2 receptor to enter the cells, which leads to increased sympathetic activity, loss of blood pressure auto-regulation, and subsequent cerebral hypoperfusion [82]. Cytokine storm has also been suggested as one of the mechanisms in stroke development in COVID-19, due to its impact on atherosclerosis and thrombosis [83]. Finally, hypoxemia in COVID-19 patients may cause cerebral hypoperfusion and increase the risk of ischemia, together with previously explained thromboembolic mechanisms [84, 85].
Hemorrhagic strokes are less prevalent than ischemic strokes, but it has been implicated that some mechanism which plays a role in ischemic stroke, could lead to intracerebral hemorrhage in COVID-19 [86]. The proposed mechanisms include viral damage of vessel wall, downregulation of RAS and hypertension, cytokine destruction of blood–brain barrier, consumption coagulopathy caused by COVID-19 and cerebral hypoxia which induces micro-hemorrhages and microbleeds [87, 88]. It has been reported that COVID-19 patients who develop stroke are distinctly susceptible to large vessel occlusion, multi-territorial involvement and engagement of else ways infrequently affected vessels such as pericallosal artery [66, 68, 89].
Neuroimaging of stroke in COVID-19 patients standardly includes CT, MRI, and CT angiography (CTA). Small vessel occlusion in acute ischemic stroke was reported in 9% of cases, while large vessel infarctions were seen in almost 65% of cases [67, 68, 71, 90]. More frequent were ischemic strokes in posterior circulation [91]. It has been demonstrated that CTA verified occlusion in anterior or medial cerebral arteries with the co-development of floating thrombi in aorta and carotid arteries in patients with high D-dimer values, which confirms the influence of hypercoagulable state [71, 92]. Apart from standardly seen ischemic lesions, a small number of the patients (two of them were children) with acute stroke had: vasculitis or wall enhancement on MRI in the arterial wall [93]. Imaging findings of the hemorrhagic stroke include extensive hemispheric hematomas or multiple hematomas [94, 95, 96, 97]. Hemorrhages may develop in severely ill patients, especially due to the failure of multiple organs or as a transformation of ischemic stroke, aneurysm rupture, or thrombosis of central venous sinus [66, 97, 98]. Some authors report a possible correlation between COVID-19 and arterial dissection, seen in the carotid artery, cervical vertebral artery or in posterior inferior cerebellar artery [99, 100].
A very small samples of patients were presented with acute stroke confirmed on neuroimaging and PCR confirmed COVID-19 [101]. Described atypical neuroimaging findings are seen in small number of COVID-19 patients with stroke and consist of: brain perfusion abnormalities, leptomeningeal enhancement [eight patients], focal cortico-pial enhancement in one patient, posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, microbleeds or leuco-encephalopathy [66, 102, 103]. Atypical findings express latent thrombotic angiopathy, vascular disruption and impairment of vascular autoregulation of the brain which happens in COVID-19 patients with stroke [103, 104].
Even though the COVID-19 virus is primarily a respiratory infection, new reported cases of neurological involvement have been presented daily all over the world [105]. In this chapter, we portrayed the neurological manifestations and possible pathophysiological mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 on nervous system [105]. Given the extent of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is important to monitor COVID-19 patients for potential neurological complications to provide them with timely diagnostics and treatment.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The global energy need has been confronting major challenges owing to population growth and industrialization [1, 2]. Green house gases and their emissions as well as developing energy safety mechanisms have perpetually turned the focus on research and technological development in this sector. The researcher community is applying renewable energy practices as an alternate to petroleum fuels with biodiesel, bioethanol, biomass, biogas, and synthetic fuels with the aim to curtail net CO2 emission, and improve air, soil, water and global warming [3]. The American Biodiesel Standard Specification (ASTM 6751) defines biodiesel (also named fatty acid methyl ester; FAMEs) as fuel comprising of monoalkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids acquired from vegetable oils or animal fats [4]. The International Energy Agency (IEA) provided the estimates about global market share of biofuels to be increased from 1% (2004) to 7% by 2030 [5]. The need for utilizing biodiesel is associated with its lower exhaust emissions (COx, SOx) and particulate matter [6]. Moreover, it possesses tremendous biodegradability [7], lubricity, storage [8], and higher flash point [6], oxygen content than diesel [9, 10, 11]. The higher oxygen content reflects the low carbon emissions, particulate emissions, CO, aromatic hydrocarbons, sulfur, smoke, and noise [12]. The major issues for biodiesel production and commercialization from vegetable oils comprise their availability and manufacturing cost [13].
The raw materials of biodiesel can be classified into three major groups including vegetable oil (edible or non-edible oil), animal fat, and edible waste oil [14]. These sources possess triglycerides [15] which carry great potential. Biodiesel obtained from vegetable oil has a viable market share in USA and European countries [16]. The scientific community is facing eminent challenge remains for suitable raw materials, their extraction and finally characterization for efficient and cost-effective biodiesel production. The transesterification [17] is a specialized method for biodiesel production from vegetable sources through conversion of one ester to another having low viscosity than the mineral diesel. The transesterification reaction involves catalyst between triglycerides, and short-chain alcohols, which produce monoesters, branched-chain, and long-chain triglyceride molecules that are further converted into glycerol and monoesters [18]. The three-step reaction forms monoglycerides and diglycerides as intermediates. As methanol contains lower charge, it is efficiently used for commercial production of biodiesel. Potassium hydroxide (KOH) as a predominate role in transesterification reaction [19]. The palm, sunflower, coconut rapeseed, soybean, and flaxseed are some of the raw materials being employed for commercialization [20]. Vegetable oil contains complex structure so it cannot be directly used in diesel engines and it will further aggravate the food supply chain through depletion of forests and wildlife destruction. Thus, impetus, toward non-edible sources, has been shifted for biodiesel production.
Feedstock has greater significance for ample availability of biodiesel [21]. The redeeming traits of non-edible sources include their toxicity, no utility in human food as it contains Erucic acid as major constituent of fatty acid; 56–66% [22], and its easy cultivation on poor soils [23], and cost-effectiveness. Moreover, it is very stable and possesses low melting point [24]. Biomass is a major energy source covering almost 10–14% of global need due to its easy combustion, less pollution and lower ash content [8]. However, it has equally low calorific value, thermal efficiency (10 to 15%), and comparatively large volume and transportation issues [8]. Chemically, biomass energy can be converted into liquid and gaseous forms [25].
Many studies have been conducted to explore the non-edible sources for biodiesel production comprising
Four novel and non-edible plant sources have been explored for bio-diesel production comprising
One of the plants,
After shelling, drying and pulverizing with a grinder (Xiantaopai XTP-10000A, Zhejiang, China) the seeds were processed for extraction. The oil extraction from
(A) Instrument for Soxhlet extraction (chemical extraction); (B) instrument for mechanical oil extraction.
The oil production was calculated by the following equation.
The comparative oil content (%) of 4 plants, obtained by using mechanical oil extraction and Soxhlet extraction methods from four plant sources is given in Table 1.
18.7 | 28–30 | 0.91 | ||
13.3 | 22 | 1.0 | ||
8.3 | 23 | 0.4 | ||
9.9 | 19–24 | 0.9 |
The oil content (%) of 4 plants, using mechanical oil extraction and Soxhlet extraction methods.
FT-IR spectroscopy data of the mid-infrared region of biodiesel samples to recognize functional groups and the bands analogous to various stretching and bending vibrations is highlighted in Table 2.
1 | 3465 | −OH | Stretching | Weak |
2 | 3006 | =C−H | Stretching | Strong |
3 | 2925 | −CH2 | Asymmetric stretching vibration | Strong |
4 | 2854 | −CH2 | Symmetric stretching vibration Stretching | Strong |
5 | 1743 | −C=O | Shear type vibration | Strong |
6 | 1641 | −CH2 | Bending vibration | Middling |
7 | 1361 | −CH3 | Symmetric stretching vibration, | Middling |
8 | 1170 | C−O−C | Anti-stretching vibrations | Middling |
9 | 1016 | C−O−C | Vibration | Weak |
10 | 723 | −CH2 | Plane rocking vibration | Weak |
FT-IR data presenting various functional groups in FAMEs.
The FAMEs NMR spectrum was acquired by (Bruker Avance III 400 NMR Spectrometer, Karlsruhe, Germany) at 400 MHz (1H-NMR) or 100 MHz (13C-NMR). Denatured chloroform was used as solvent and tetramethylsilane as the internal standard. The biodiesel 1H NMR (300 MHz) spectrum was noted with a cycle delay of 1.0 s, and eight times scans with a pulse duration of 30°, (Table 3). A carbon 13C NMR (75 MHz) spectrum was recorded with pulse duration of 30°and a cycle delay of 1.89 s, followed by scanning for 160 times (Table 4).
3 | 0.89 | Multiplet | CH3 is attached to aliphatic group. |
16 | 1.30 | Multiplet | Long aliphatic chain is present. |
2 | 1.62 | Quartet | CH2 group is attached with terminal CH3. |
3 | 2.04 | Multiplet | CH2 of long chain aliphatic (Saturated) group. |
2 | 2.30 | Triplet | CH2 group is attached with CH of long aliphatic (Unsaturated/ olefinic group). |
1 | 2.77 | Triplet | CH group is attached with electron withdrawing carbonyl group. |
3 | 3.66 | Singlet | Methoxy(OCH3)group attached with electron withdrawing carbonyl group. |
3 | 5.34 | Multiplet | Olefinic hydrogen of long chain unsaturated aliphatic group |
1H NMR spectroscopic data depicting chemical composition of various methyl esters in biodiesel (FAMES) samples.
14.07 | Terminal methyl carbon | −CH3 | |
22.55–34.09 | Methylene carbon | −CH2 | |
51.37 | Methoxy carbon | −OCH3 | |
127.91–130.19 | Olefinic carbon | C=C | |
174.24 | Carboxyl carbon of ester | −COOCH3 |
13C NMR spectroscopic data depicting the chemical shift values matching to various structural features in FAMEs.
The outcome of biodiesel in our studies was evaluated by GCMS (QP2010SE, Shimadzu, Japan), furnished with a capillary column: PEG-20 M (30 m × 0.32 mm × 1 μm film thickness). Helium gas flow rate 1.2 mL/min; split ratio 40:1; the injector temperature and injection volume were 220°C and 1 uL; Furnace heat up mode was 100°C for 1 min, then from 100°C rises to 210°C at the increase rate of 10°C/min. Sensor heat mode was 210°C, and then for 20 min, the temperature was continuing at 210°C; ion source temperature of 200°C; for electron impact 70 eV ionization mode used; mass range of 35–500 m/z. The FAMEs of all plant sources were identified with the mass spectrometry fragmentation design provided by the GCMS system software, as matched with those stored in the mass spectrometry library NIST14, and their fatty acid identity was further verified by matching with known standards and values [39, 40, 41, 42].
The comparative GC based identified FAMEs major compositions (%) of prepared biodiesel from four non-edible plant sources is given in Table 5.
9.7 | 14.0 | 6.85 | 10.598 | |
— | — | — | — | |
1.8 | 3.2 | 2.36 | 2.12 | |
25.5 | 47.2 | 12.13 | 12.030 | |
3.6 | 1.1 | 1.23 | — | |
2.4 | 0.8 | — | — | |
48.5 | 0.5 | — | — | |
— | — | — | — |
GC based identified FAMEs major compositions (%) of prepared biodiesel.
Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometer (Spectro-blue, Germany) and Elemental Analyzer (Vario EL CUBE, Germany) were used for the presence of metals in the biodiesel. For the ICP-OES test, 1 g of oil sample was taken for incinerating. The ashing process involved an increase in the oven temperature to 200°C in one hour; then the heat levels were mainatained upto 500 °C for 2 h, and finally to 800°C for 5 h. The ash was dissolved in 10 mL of 2% HNO3. The prepared sample was used for elements finding and concentration test of the biodiesel.
The account of ICP-OES comparative element concentrations of 4 non edible oil plant species is given in Table 6.
Sb | — | 5744.02 | 7845.2 | — | — |
Na | 868.3 | 5456.2 | 70.29 | 868.3 | 868.3 |
K | 213.3 | 6.14 | 213.3 | 213.3 | |
Cr | 2.5 | 1246.8 | 3.41 | — | — |
Ni | 12.4 | 658.36 | 46.98 | 12.4 | 12.4 |
Al | — | 346.87 | 55.56 | — | — |
Sn | — | 378.61 | 838.6 | — | — |
Mn | 1.5 | 92.05 | 5.58 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
Ti | — | 64.40 | −124.11 | — | — |
Li | 1.6 | 43.93 | 105.5 | 1.6 | — |
V | — | 42.79 | 15.42 | — | — |
Cu | 99.6 | 24.63 | 31.82 | — | — |
Ca | 21.4 | 14.90 | 21.4 | 21.4 | |
Mg | 35.6 | 32.10 | 32.74 | 35.6 | 35.6 |
Bi | — | 19.90 | 29.05 | — | — |
Zn | 9.5 | 13.08 | 49.89 | 9.5 | — |
Co | 21.2 | 10.69 | 7.96 | 21.2 | 21.2 |
Cd | — | — | 1.59 | — | — |
ICP-OES element concentrations of 4 non edible oil plant species.
Abbreviations:
The element analyzer (Vario EL CUBE, Germany) was used to detect the H, N, C and O concentrations of biodiesel obtained from plant sources [39, 40, 41, 42]. About 0.5 mL of biodiesel, 3 mL of concentrated HCl and 1 mL of nitric acid were taken in a tube and kept them at rest for 10–15min, to dissolve the oil in the solution. Fresh reagents can be used for sample preparation. The aqua regia amount was twice than the sample. About 1 mL of prepared solution was taken in a new tube and added deionized water making it up to 5 mL. The technique was repeated for 2–3 times until the sample appeared as clear and vivid and ready for evaluation of C, H, N, and O concentrations.
The comparative account of elemental analysis of biodiesel obtained from 4 non edible oil plant species is given in Table 7.
C% | 72.54 | 74.89 | 76.37 | 76.86 |
H% | 12.73 | 413.02 | 13.34 | 11.25 |
N% | 2.73 | 1.97 | 2.18 | 2.03 |
O% | 12 | 8.11 | 9.86 | |
HHV | 23.39 | 23.39 | 23.39 |
Elemental analysis of biodiesel from 4 non edible oil plant species.
Abbreviations:
The comparative account of physiochemical properties of biodiesel seed oil obtained from four non edible oil plant species is given in Table 8.
Oil contents (wt. %) | — | — | — | 28–30 | 20–22 | 23 | 19–24 | |
Density @ 15°C (g/cm3) | 0.86–0.90 | 0.86–0.90 | 0.809 | 0.879 | 0.879 | 0.831 | 0.842 | |
Kinematic viscosity @ 40°C (mm2/s) | 3.5–5.0 | 1.9–6.0 | 1.3–4.1 | 6.21 | 6.3 | 5.32 | 3.75 | |
Flashpoint (°C) | Min. 120 | Min. 130 | 60–80 | 147 | 168 | 158 | 160 | |
Ignition value | — | — | — | 175 | — | — | ||
Acid value (mg KOH/g−1) | Max. 0.50 | Max. 0.5 | — | 0.07 | 0.40 | |||
Saponification value (mg KOH/g−1) | — | — | — | 176.4 | 175.6 | 174.8 | 180.4 | |
Iodine value (g I2/100 mg) | Max. 120 | Max. 120 | — | 80.7 | 85 | 142.5 | 118.5 | |
Refractive index @ 20 °C | — | — | — | 1.4901 | — | — | ||
Cloud point (°C) | — | — | −15–5 | 2 | 7 | 7 | 9 | |
Pour point (°C) | — | — | −2.0 | −30 | −11 | −28 | −12 | |
Fire point (°C) | — | — | — | 198 | 189 | 190 | ||
Cetane number | Min. 51 | Min. 47 | 49.7 | 51 | — | 52 | 58 | |
Free fatty acid (%) | — | — | — | 0.91 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 0.9 | |
HHV (MJ/kg) | — | — | — | 23.39 | 23.73 | — | — | |
Ash content (g/100 g) | — | — | — | 0.002 | 0.3 | 0.002 | 0.003 | |
Specific gravity @15 (°C) | — | — | — | 0.88 | 0.855 | 0.831 | 0.842 | |
Cold filter plug point (°C) | Max.19 | Max.19 | −16 | −18 | 14 | −25 | 3 | |
Sulphated ash content (wt.%) | Max.0.02 | — | — | 0.003 | — | — | ||
Oxidation stability (110°C, h) | Min. 6 | Min. 3 | 25.8 | — | 18.3 | −1.86 | 4.71 |
Physiochemical properties of biodiesel (FAMEs) samples.
Abbreviations:
The great potential exists for using non-edible seed oil as biodiesel, which has been highlighted in this chapter. The plant sources explored were
Biodiesel can be synthesized from vegetable oils, animal fats or algae oils [51]. The Soxhlet extraction allows the sample to repeatedly bring into contact with fresh portions of extracting materials, hence facilitating the equilibrium. It remains at relatively high temperature and no filtration is required [52]. In the present study,
The biodiesel production largely depends upon the choice of appropriate, cost-effective and environment friendly catalysts [53] based on the nature of oil which greatly help in transesterification of oil. Density optimization is a vital biodiesel factor having huge impact on fuel quality as well the cost incurred [54]. The density for all plant sources ranged from 0.83–0.87 @ 15°C (g/cm3). The kinematic viscosity ranged from 3.75–6.3 (mm2/s) among all the plant sources. Our results show that densities of all plant sources were within the ASTM (D6751) and (EN14214) standards.
The 1H-NMR procedure is used to evaluate the un-saturation and “residual” fatty acid composition [55]. In our study, the biodiesel 1H NMR (300 MHz) spectrum was noted with a cycle delay of 1.0 s, and eight times scans with a pulse duration of 30°. 13C NMR spectroscopic data represented the chemical shift values matching to various structural features in FAMEs.
The metals such as Cu, Co, Fe, Mn and Ni are known to catalyze oxidative degradation reactions in vegetable oils and biodiesel [56]. The presence of some metals, such as Al, Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Pb, V and Zn, among other, in fuel is undesirable due to their release into the atmosphere upon fuel combustion [57].
Flash point of fuels is imperative to determine the prerequisites for transportation and storage temperature [59]. The flash point was highest in the biodiesel oil of
The main shortcomings of biodiesel are related to the low-temperature performance and oxidation stability. The oxidation stability (110°C, h) was recorded as 18.3
Metal-containing fuel additives and un-removed catalysts are the major contributors of sulfated ash [61]. The sulphated ash content (%) was not detected in
The physico-chemical characterizations of the biodiesel, i.e., flash point, pour point, cloud point, and density, have been found within the ASTM (D6751) and (EN14214) standards. The values of fuel properties were comparable with mineral diesel. FT
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this chapter.
Inam Ullah Khan prepared the first draft of the chapter based on his published research work and other relevant literature. Syed Aftab Hussain Shah edited, formatted the entire chapter and worked on bibliography.
This is to certify that chapter has adhered to the research ethics.
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Because of this aspect, the framework of modern forensic medicine includes a new field, that of forensic genetics, that mostly involves working with investigations that have human genotype identification as a goal.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Raluca Dumache, Veronica Ciocan, Camelia Muresan and Alexandra Enache",authors:[{id:"179199",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Dumache",slug:"raluca-dumache",fullName:"Raluca Dumache"},{id:"181860",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Enache",slug:"alexandra-enache",fullName:"Alexandra Enache"},{id:"190151",title:"Dr.",name:"Camelia",middleName:null,surname:"Muresan",slug:"camelia-muresan",fullName:"Camelia Muresan"},{id:"190153",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Ciocan",slug:"veronica-ciocan",fullName:"Veronica Ciocan"}]},{id:"50158",doi:"10.5772/62501",title:"Parasitic Hymenoptera as Forensic Indicator Species",slug:"parasitic-hymenoptera-as-forensic-indicator-species",totalDownloads:1676,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Necrophagous insects are the most important ecological evidence associated with a decomposing corpse. 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Foraging behavior of adults can be used to locate concealed bodies and potentially aid in combating entomological terrorism agents. Presently, the full potential of parasitic Hymenoptera as alternate forensic indicator species has not been explored. This chapter relates the life history characteristics of parasitic wasps to their potential usefulness in forensic applications.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"David B. Rivers",authors:[{id:"181407",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Rivers",slug:"david-rivers",fullName:"David Rivers"}]},{id:"52013",doi:"10.5772/64616",title:"Forensic Hydrology",slug:"forensic-hydrology",totalDownloads:1437,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter is intended to call the attention towards a relatively new topic in engineering forensics: forensic analysis in hydrology. This type of analysis can be seen as a useful tool through which it is possible, in a fully objective way, to determine the real causes, natural or human induced that made a natural phenomenon a disaster. This branch of forensic analysis and particularly of engineering forensics can be applied directly to the case of floods and droughts but is not limited to those extremes phenomena. In particular, the application of these concepts to case of floods looks immediate, but other applications such as drought analysis can be addressed too. In the case of flooding events causing material damages and even loss of human lives, forensic analysis can provide results that help to clarify responsibilities but specially to prevent that future disasters happen again. This chapter will provide important information for the new forensic hydrologists, a discipline with great future, especially in the context of climate change, which will increase the magnitude, and frequency of extremes.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Aldo I. 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Elements of routine activity theory such as motivated offender, attractive targets and absence of capable guardianship is used to analyse each case to signpost and underscore the importance and centrality of active capable guardianship to dislodge and neutralise rape offenders’ routine mastery around attractive targets. The paper recommends mounting capable guardianship to checking growing menace of rape in Nigeria. Attractive target should eliminate risky routines and poisonous relationship which could enhance their chances of sexual violation.",book:{id:"7821",slug:"criminology-and-post-mortem-studies-analyzing-criminal-behaviour-and-making-medical-decisions",title:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies",fullTitle:"Criminology and Post-Mortem Studies - Analyzing Criminal Behaviour and Making Medical Decisions"},signatures:"Oludayo Tade",authors:[{id:"316697",title:"Dr.",name:"Oludayo",middleName:null,surname:"Tade",slug:"oludayo-tade",fullName:"Oludayo Tade"}]},{id:"50323",doi:"10.5772/62773",title:"Usage of Infrared-Based Technologies in Forensic Sciences",slug:"usage-of-infrared-based-technologies-in-forensic-sciences",totalDownloads:2571,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Infrared (IR) radiation comprises a beam located in the electromagnetic radiation family; it arises from the thermal vibrations of radiation that have longer wavelengths than visible light, but shorter wavelengths than microwave radiation. Its wavelength is between 750 nm and 1 mm. The amount of thermal IR radiation emitted by an object is associated with the temperature of the object, the surface area of the object and the spreading of light. IR-based technologies have been demonstrated as a method of evidence identification in forensic sciences in addition to many daily uses.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Mahmut Asirdizer, Yavuz Hekimoglu and Orhan Gumus",authors:[{id:"21312",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Asirdizer",slug:"mahmut-asirdizer",fullName:"Mahmut Asirdizer"},{id:"185671",title:"Dr.",name:"Yavuz",middleName:null,surname:"Hekimoglu",slug:"yavuz-hekimoglu",fullName:"Yavuz Hekimoglu"},{id:"185672",title:"Dr.",name:"Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Gumus",slug:"orhan-gumus",fullName:"Orhan Gumus"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50789",title:"Molecular Genetics and its Applications in Forensic Sciences",slug:"molecular-genetics-and-its-applications-in-forensic-sciences",totalDownloads:4585,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The way to medico legal identification was open at the end of the twenty‐first century by the “digital fingerprinting” represented by the multifactorial phenotypical trait, determined by both polygenic and environmental factors, followed by group‐specific antigens, or with specificity for blood and tissue, and ending with the DNA molecule in use today. Because of this aspect, the framework of modern forensic medicine includes a new field, that of forensic genetics, that mostly involves working with investigations that have human genotype identification as a goal.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Raluca Dumache, Veronica Ciocan, Camelia Muresan and Alexandra Enache",authors:[{id:"179199",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Dumache",slug:"raluca-dumache",fullName:"Raluca Dumache"},{id:"181860",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Enache",slug:"alexandra-enache",fullName:"Alexandra Enache"},{id:"190151",title:"Dr.",name:"Camelia",middleName:null,surname:"Muresan",slug:"camelia-muresan",fullName:"Camelia Muresan"},{id:"190153",title:"Dr.",name:"Veronica",middleName:null,surname:"Ciocan",slug:"veronica-ciocan",fullName:"Veronica Ciocan"}]},{id:"50757",title:"Forensic Analysis of the Wakayama Arsenic Murder Case",slug:"forensic-analysis-of-the-wakayama-arsenic-murder-case",totalDownloads:2521,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This is a review paper of forensic analysis of a murder case of Wakayama arsenic poisoning incident. The influence of this case on scientific research was not small in such a way that papers related to PTSD, disaster medical, copycats, chemical analysis, unwanted chemicals in food, terrorism, and so on were published. The forensic analyses on Wakayama arsenic poisoning incidence have characteristic that SPring-8, a largest synchrotron radiation facility, was used, as well as many other analytical techniques, but now most of the forensic analyses submitted from the prosecutor have been revealed to be fabrication, hiding the truth by logarithmic calculations, and therefore not scientific. Most of the testimonies at the court by the analysts were also lies. Examples of such false analyses are explained.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Jun Kawai",authors:[{id:"180878",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Kawai",slug:"jun-kawai",fullName:"Jun Kawai"}]},{id:"50528",title:"Geomatics and Forensic: Progress and Challenges",slug:"geomatics-and-forensic-progress-and-challenges",totalDownloads:1744,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Since graphics hold qualitative and quantitative information of complex crime scenes, it becomes a basic key to develop hypothesis in police investigations and also to prove these hypotheses in court. Forensic analysis involves tasks of scene information mining as well as its reconstruction in order to extract elements for explanatory police test or to show forensic evidence in legal proceedings. Currently, the combination of sensors and technologies allows the integration of spatial data and the generation of virtual infographic products (orthoimages, solid images, point clouds, cross‐sections, etc.) which are extremely attractive. These products, which successfully retain accurate 3D metric information, are revolutionizing dimensional reconstruction of objects and crime scenes. Thus, it can be said that the reconstruction and 3D visualization of complex scenes are one of the main challenges for the international scientific community. To overcome this challenge, techniques related with computer vision, computer graphics and geomatics work closely. This chapter reviews a set of geomatic techniques, applied to improve infographic forensic products, and its evolution. The integration of data from different sensors whose final purpose is 3D accurate modelling is also described. As we move into a highly active research area, where there are still many uncertainties to be resolved, the final section addresses these challenges and outlines future perspectives.",book:{id:"5259",slug:"forensic-analysis-from-death-to-justice",title:"Forensic Analysis",fullTitle:"Forensic Analysis - From Death to Justice"},signatures:"Pablo Rodríguez‐Gonzálvez, Ángel Luis Muñoz‐Nieto, Sandra Zancajo‐Blázquez and Diego González‐Aguilera",authors:[{id:"11086",title:"Prof.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez-Aguilera",slug:"diego-gonzalez-aguilera",fullName:"Diego Gonzalez-Aguilera"},{id:"11099",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Gonzalvez",slug:"pablo-rodriguez-gonzalvez",fullName:"Pablo Rodriguez-Gonzalvez"},{id:"21157",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz-Nieto",slug:"angel-munoz-nieto",fullName:"Angel Muñoz-Nieto"},{id:"185892",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Zancajo-Blazquez",slug:"sandra-zancajo-blazquez",fullName:"Sandra Zancajo-Blazquez"}]},{id:"72362",title:"Autopsy in Foetal Infant Deaths",slug:"autopsy-in-foetal-infant-deaths",totalDownloads:759,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Child autopsies are not more difficult than adult autopsies, but do require a number of extra techniques to be performed routinely. This chapter aims to cover the basic techniques required for foetal, perinatal, and infant post mortems. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. 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He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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