\r\n\t2) Human sexual disorders in males and females.
\r\n\t3) Psychological aspects of the human sexual response cycle and its disorders.
\r\n\t4) The therapeutic aspects.
\r\n\tThe human sexual response cycle and human sexual behavior are interrelated. How this inter-relationship and its association to normal sexual health need to be delineated. In a world torn between sex and sexually transmitted disease, clear-cut scientific information in the form of a monograph is required to educate.
\r\n\r\n\tHuman sexuality, gender identity, and sexuo-erotic orientation play great roles in human health and disease. Sex education is the need of the hour and a reflection will be timely.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-151-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-150-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-152-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"13af09c4cf93ae89789a3db597972cf6",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11267.jpg",keywords:"Master and Johnson's Cycle, Sex Education, Premature Ejaculation, Orgasmic Disorders, Sexual Aversion Disorders, Dyspareunia, Vaginismus, Sex Hormones, Sexually Transmitted Diseases, Impotence, Low Libido, Blood Analyses",numberOfDownloads:99,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 18th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 2nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 19th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Sheriff is a life counselor, sex educationist, and researcher with over 35 years of teaching experience, five authored books, and editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology and the Journal of Royal Society of Medicine. Dr. Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction, and Early Human Development, American Association of Clinical Chemistry, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, and a member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"167875",title:"Dr.",name:"Dhastagir Sultan",middleName:null,surname:"Sheriff",slug:"dhastagir-sultan-sheriff",fullName:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/167875/images/system/167875.jpg",biography:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. Dr. Sheriff has authored five books including a textbook on medical biochemistry with additional interest in human sexology. He had editorials written in the British Journal of Sexology, Journal of Royal Society of Medicine, Postgraduate Medicine, and Scientist. He was a former Rotarian, Citizen Ambassador, and was selected for the Ford Foundation Fellowship.",institutionString:"University of Benghazi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Benghazi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Libya"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"81652",title:"Sexual Health Education for Youth with Disabilities: An Unmet Need",slug:"sexual-health-education-for-youth-with-disabilities-an-unmet-need",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81518",title:"Narrativity in Becoming Sex/Gender",slug:"narrativity-in-becoming-sex-gender",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80813",title:"The Biological Basis of Gender Incongruence",slug:"the-biological-basis-of-gender-incongruence",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"80771",title:"The Strangeness and Origins of Human Sexuality",slug:"the-strangeness-and-origins-of-human-sexuality",totalDownloads:42,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440212",firstName:"Elena",lastName:"Vracaric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440212/images/20007_n.jpg",email:"elena@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Heat, in turn, produces work, e.g., in the form of electric energy in the so-called heat engines. It is the well-known fact that the efficiency of heat engines is restricted by Carnot principle. Therefore, it is generally recognized that heat cannot be fully converted to work. The efficiency of electric energy production due to the burning of fossil fuel of various kinds varies from 30 to 50 %.
On the other hand, there are galvanic and fuel cells whose efficiency can reach theoretically unity if it implies the ratio between the electric energy produced and the value of a change in Gibbs energy during chemical reactions occurring in a cell. These devices operate at constant temperature and pressure. It is concluded then that the devices, similar to a galvanic cell, cannot work at constant and uniform temperature according to the principle of heat engine. These devices assumed to operate only due to the direct transformation of chemical reaction energy, described by a change in the Gibbs energy, into work [1]. This viewpoint causes, however, numerous contradictions. The goal of this work is to analyze in detail the mechanism of useful work and heat production in chemical systems functioning at constant temperature and pressure.
In this Section, the fundamental functions of thermodynamics will be characterized, as the fundamental functions play the important role in the description of the process of the energy transformation. This notion includes four functions, i.e., internal energy, enthalpy, Helmholtz energy, and Gibbs energy. All of them are the state functions of energy dimension. It is generally believed that the value with energy dimension describes energy but this is by no means always the case. Below, the fundamental functions will elucidate whether these are energy values or not.
According to IUPAC [2], "
According to IUPAC, "
According to IUPAC, "
where
If the process occurs at constant volume, the expansion work is absent and
Thus, eq. (1) is of the form in the case of reversible process
where
According to IUPAC [2], "
where
Unfortunately, the word "energy" as defined by IUPAC for a Gibbs energy (and also for a Helmholtz energy), causes great confusion. The Gibbs energy
Consider now the problem of
Let us consider another example. Let the ideal gas-phase system involves a spontaneous process of the monomolecular transformation of substance A into B. As suggested a change in enthalpy tends to zero in this reaction. Thus, the internal energy, temperature, pressure, and volume will not undergo changes in this process. However, the entropy will increase due to the entropy of the mixing, because the entropy is a function of state. The value of the
Since neither enthalpy nor
Nevertheless, the notions that the Gibbs energy is the energy and thus, obeys conservation laws, prove to be long-lived, which causes erroneous interpretation of a number of processes some of which are of paramount importance.
Let us consider now the reaction of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis in water solution which is of great concern in biochemistry
ATP + H2O = ADP + Pi.
Under the standard conditions [6]
The heat of 4 kcal mol-1 is actually released into solution due to hydrolysis. Unfortunately, it is then assumed that the Gibbs energy is conserved which makes his difference in
Thus, among the four quantities, that claims to be called energy quantity, only the internal energy deserves this name. The other functions, i.e., enthalpy
This Section is devoted to the discussion of the generally accepted theory of the direct conversion of energy [1, 8] produced by chemical reaction to useful work. For simplicity, hereafter exergonic
The useful work of the chemical reaction occurring at constant temperature and pressure in the reversible conditions can be calculated through the change in the Gibbs function (5). When the interest is the useful work performed by the system in the environment
From eq. (6) it follows formally that the useful work of the reversible system in the environment is the sum of the enthalpy member
Fromeq. (6) it follows, that for
The second case of
The third case is
In the fourth case
As mentioned in the Introduction, at present, it is generally accepted that the high efficiency of reversible devices is inconsistent with the notions that heat can be used to produce work and that such devices realize the direct conversion of chemical system energy into work. But below it will be shown that in all the cases, the useful work results from the heat of volume
In this Section, it will demonstrate the mechanism of producing useful reversible work which involves no notions of the direct conversion of reaction energy into useful work. To this end, let us consider a Van’t Hoff equilibrium box (VHEB) [9 – 11]. A thermodynamic system must provide realization of the reversible process. This means that all changes in the system are infinitely slow at infinitely minor deviation from equilibrium.
It is assumed that in the system the following reaction occurs
where
Production of useful work and heat in a closed reversible system. Ast (Bst) indicate the reagents A
Let us consider reversible chemical process in a closed system (Fig. 1). The realization of the reversible chemical process consists in reversible transformation of the reagents to products via chemical reaction. Let us consider the closed system.
The process of reversible work production includes six stages.
A small amount of substance A
Then, the change in the Gibbs function and the work are zero
Reagent A
where
The thermostat enthalpy varies as follows:
Reagent A
The useful work production and the change in thermostat enthalpy
where
The same procedure is used to bring products from the standard vessels to reactor.
An equivalent amount of product B
Product B
Product B
The change in the thermostat enthalpy upon thermal energy conversion into useful work at step 5 is
where and
The change in the thermostat enthalpy at the second and fifth steps obeys the equation
where
For the reversible process, the maximal useful work is numerically equal to
The process has resulted in the useful work of the reaction,
Thus, the mixture in the reactor is moved off balance to be restored later. As a result, the reaction heat is emitted into the thermostat. Indeed, because of the elementary chemical act in the reactor, the energy released concentrates at the degrees of freedom of the product molecules. As the reactor temperature is constant, this energy is dissipated in the reactor and transferred to the thermostat which causes a
The cycle is over. Equations (12, 13) can be used to calculate the total change in thermostat enthalpy
The change in thermostat enthalpy is controlled only by reaction entropy [11].
This consideration demonstrates the main characteristics of the reversible process of useful work production at constant temperature and pressure in closed systems:
The useful work arises from the stage of the reversible transport of reagents from reservoir to reactor and from the stage of the reversible transport of products from the reactor.
The only energy source of useful work is the thermal energy of thermostat (or environment).
The heat released by chemical reactions is dissipated to the thermostat; the reaction heat is infinitely small in comparison with the volume of the thermostat thermal energy; therefore no reaction heat is really needed to produce work.
Although the useful work is produced by the cooling of one body (thermostat), the second law of thermodynamics is not violated, because the process is followed by a change in the amount of reagents and products.
The useful work is produced by heat exchange with thermostat (environment) according to the scheme
reaction heat → thermal thermostat energy → useful work(scheme I)
The maximal useful work is equal the heat dragged by tools from thermostat.
Useful work depends on the difference in the concentrations of standard and equilibrium states of reagents and products. Therefore, the amount of extracted energy can be calculated via the change in the Gibbs function.
There is no direct conversion of the Gibbs energy into useful work. Gibbs energy is equal numerically the thermal energy dragged by systems from the environment for doing work.
Usually, the total energy which can be produced by chemical system, is
The open system is depicted in Fig. 2. As compared with the closed one (Fig. 1), the open system consists of two thermostats: the first one contains a reactor and the second one contains standard vessels with substances A and B and tools. The second thermostat can be replaced by the environment. In the process, steps 1, 2, 5, and 6 occur in the second thermostat (environment); steps 3 and 4 take place in the first one. Thus, the heat is released in the first thermostat only and the work is performed by thermal energy of the second thermostat (environment). The processes of heat and work production are spatially separated! The energy potential of the open system obeys the equation
Production of useful work and heat in the open reversible system. The designations see in the subscription to
In the case of coal burning, it is possible to obtain the double total energy [11]. Thus, understanding the mechanism of useful work production in the reversible process allows us to predict an increase in the energy potential of chemical reactions in the open system.
It is worth noting that the open system under study is not a heat pump. The heat pump consumes energy to transfer heat from a cold body to the warm one. The open system studied does not consume external energy and produces heat due to chemical reactions in one thermostat and performs work by extraction of thermal energy from the second one.
The chemical reaction heat is always released in the reversible chemical processes and passes to the environment independent of the fact whether the system produces work or not, whether it is closed or open. The discussed mechanism of useful work production in the reversible systems did not use such notions as "free energy", "bound energy", "direct Gibbs energy conversion". The useful work arises only due to the heat exchange with a thermal basin in the process, described by the scheme I. The total energy of chemical system can be high and equal to
The current theory of galvanic cells [1, 3, 8] is based on a direct transformation of the energy (
The mechanism of electric energy production in galvanic cells will be solved by analyzing the behavior of one ion. But it does not denote that thermodynamics will be applied to a real single ion: thermodynamic parameters of one ion imply the averaged parameters of many ions.
For simplicity a Daniell cell will be considered, consisting of zinc (№1) and copper (№2) electrodes (Fig. 3). The activity of salts in solutions is denoted by
where
where
which readily gives the expression for both the work performed on the first electrode and its galvanic potential [3]
The latter is the potential for a half-cell. Thus, the approach, based on the consideration of the behavior of one ion, provides a common expression for electrode potential.
Establishment of equilibrium on the electrodes
The change in electrode enthalpy involves dissolution enthalpy and thermal energy consumption upon ion transport into solution. The equation for dissolution enthalpy is readily obtained from eq. (16)
where
where
As follows from eq. (22), the change in enthalpy, related to the first electrode, is independent of the processes, occurring on the second one. Therefore, studying either release or absorption of heat on a separate electrode, one may calculate the change in entropy due to the escape of the ions of the same type into the bulk.
A corresponding expression for the second electrode is of the same form but index "1" should be substituted by index "2":
In the operation of the galvanic cell, the processes on the second electrode are oppositely directed which should be taken into account in consideration of the thermodynamic cell parameters.
Equations (20) and (26) allow to get the Nernst equation for the potential of the cell [3]
where
The electric work of the galvanic cell (
The change in thermostat enthalpy is of the form
which is in fair agreement with similar expression, described by eq. (14), for the VHEB. The detailed equation for
The sum of eqs. (31) and (33) gives the total energy (electric work + heat), produced by the galvanic cell
From eq.(34) it follows that the total energy produced by the galvanic cell is equal to the heat emitted by oxidation-reduction reaction.
Thus, the approach, based on the analysis of the behavior of one ion gives the same results as the present-day theory. However, it uses not a mysterious, direct transformation of the chemical energy (
reaction heat → thermal thermostat energy → potential energy of charged electrodes → electric energy.
Thus, in various systems with uniform temperature, useful work is produced by the same mechanism through the exchange of thermal energy with thermostat (environment). No direct conversion of chemical energy into useful work is observed. Unfortunately, in the galvanic cell, the processes of heat release and useful work production cannot be spatially separated, because both of them occur in a double layer. Therefore, galvanic cells are unpromising in production of a double amount of energy.
Consider now a concentration cell, consisting of two electrodes, e.g., the zinc ones of different solution activity. Standard changes in the Gibbs function, enthalpy, and entropy for the concentration cell tend to zero due to the same chemical nature of both of the electrodes. By definition, it has been considered that
which is a usual expression for the electric energy of the concentration cell. From eq. (34) it follows
For the system in which the activities are temperature-independent, the electric energy arises from the thermal thermostat energy (environment)
which is in fair agreement with conventional concepts.
An ideal system with concentration gradient has no potential energy because the mixing does not result in heat release and
The useful work of the system with a concentration gradient
Any non-equilibrium state can serve as an energy source. The thermostat (environment) is an active participant of the process of reversible useful work production in devices operating at constant temperature. The heat released by chemical reactions, always dissipates in the thermostat (environment). The useful work is produced by special tools that provide the extraction of the thermal energy of the thermostat (environment) and the transformation of thermal energy into work at the process of the restoration of the chemical equilibrium. The volume of the useful work is equal, in reversible conditions, to the change in Gibbs function. A spatial separation of reactor and tools can lead to a substantial increase in the energy produced. The direct conversion of the Gibbs energy into useful work does not exist. The concepts of free and bound energy become unnecessary.
Plants form an essential portion of the earth system and used by man as food, shelter, and a great source of medicine. Main threats to plant products and productivity are various human actions, biotic and abiotic stresses like soil toxicity, climate change, water stress, microbial pathogen, insects, herbivores
Plants are sessile organisms, obstinately face adverse environmental perturbations termed as abiotic stresses, most important being drought, soil salinity, extreme temperatures, and heavy metals [3]. Abiotic stresses have become a major challenge due to their widespread nature and the devastating impacts on plant growth, yields and the quality of plant produce. However, plants have developed intricate mechanisms for sensing and responding to environmental changes [4]. To turn on protective mechanisms, plants trigger a network of genetic regulations including altered expression of large proportion of genes by transcriptional and/or translational regulations [5].
miRNA is ranges from 20 to 24 nucleotide base pair in length and non-coding RNA molecule [6]. MIR gene (miRNA genes) found in intergenic area of genome but some miRNA gene also found within intronic region in both sense or antisense direction. miRNA biomolecules are grouped in the genome and transcribed collectively as long polycistronic RNAs. miRNA synthesis occurs in the nucleus (Figure 1).
Biosynthesis and mode of action of miRNA. Source: Djami-Tchatchou et al. [
MIR genes transcribed into a specific primary transcript by the RNA polymerase II [6]. These are distinctive and specific primary transcripts modified at 5′ end by capping with a modified nucleotide and polyadenylated tail at the 3′ end with some adenosines [7]. The miRNAs are further modified by DICER-LIKE (DCL1), serrate (SE) and Hyponastic leaves 1 (HYL1) into precursors miRNA (pre-miRNAs). Pre-miRNA is a hairpin like structure. miRNA: miRNA duplexes produce in nucleus by further modification of pre-miRNAs by DCL1 [7].
S-adenosyl-L-methionine dependent RNA methyltransferase enzyme responsible for duplex methylation and HUA enhancer 1 at their 3′ end (HEN1) [8]. Plant homologous of EXPORTIN 5 and HASTY transport this modified duplex into cytoplasm [9]. After transportation duplex separated by RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) along with ARGONAUTE (AGO) protein [10, 11]. One strand of the miRNA is inserted into AGO protein comprised RISC complex, while other stand degraded by exosome along with small-RNA degrading nuclease [8]. This miRNA promotes the RISC loading to complementary mRNAs targets. Mature miRNAs showed resemblance with the target mRNA encourages site-specific cleavage of target mRNA while miRNAs along with some damaged base pairing with target mRNA leads inhibition of translation [8].
Some previous studies have shown that few miRNA bio-molecules are evolutionarily conserved among all significant plant lineages, including bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms [12, 13]. miRNA families further divided into two different classes on the basis of miRNA diversification and conservation. The young miRNAs are expressed only in specific condition and at very low level although old miRNA is more evolutionarily conserved and highly expressed. In
For controlling various function of plant biology, specifically process control by transcription actors, miRNA diversity is significant [15]. miRNAs act as a significant controllers of gene expression and investigation on this aspect increasing now a days [2, 13]. Gene expression regulated by miRNA through high sequence similarity at the post-transcriptional level. Proper pairing between miRNA and targeted mRNA promotes the corresponding mRNA degradation and improper pairing between miRNA and target mRNA leads translation inhibition [13]. Poly(A) tail removal induced by mRNA which further promotes the destabilization and degradation of the target mRNAs [16]. Along with post-transcriptional gene expression regulation, miRNAs also decrease arbitrary fluctuation in transcript copy number and promote different metabolic pathways by transcription inhibition. miRNA of different length produces by different gene, as well as varied length miRNAs originated from the same gene. DCL1 enzyme mainly processed plant pre-miRNAs and produce 21 nucleotide base pair long mature miRNAs, but few other DCLs
For miRNA identification first crucial step is to recognize their roles. Direct cloning, sequencing, genetic screening and some bioinformatic approaches commonly used for miRNAs identification [19]. In
Direct cloning and genetic screening are experimentally old methods used for identification and functional characterization of miRNAs [20]. Sanger sequencing technique used after direct cloning for identification of sequence of base pair. But now a days next generation sequencing technology evolved as a powerful tool for discovery of novel miRNA and target identification in crop plants [9, 28]. Real time PCR and Northern bloting technique used for validation of identified miRNAs expression [29, 30]. Along with this, miRNA identification at protein level possible by using some other methods like mass spectrometry, proteins chromatography, protein foot printing, Western blotting,
Several bioinformatics approaches and tools used for identification of miRNA target gene [33]. Sequence similarity scoring and secondary structure investigation are main bioinformatics criteria used for miRNA and target identification are: miRTarBase, miRTour (http://mirnablog.com/mirtour-plantmirna-and-target-prediction-tool/, psRNATarget (http://plantgrn. noble.org/psRNATarget/) and TAPIR (http://bioinformatics.psb.ugent.be/webtools/tapir/) [30]. Relationship between microRNA and its target confirmed by micRTarBase database (http://mirtarbase.mbc.nctu.edu.tw/) [34]. While the target mRNA expression levels can be observed by real-time PCR, for mapping the target site 5′-Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends (RACE) used. Now a days, the degradome sequencing technique was developed for identification of comparative profusion of cleaved targets [30].
Several previous studies on model plants like
miRNA functional analysis confirmed their essential role in different biological and metabolic pathways in economically important plants [37]. Several studies indicated that miRNAs are act as a riboregulatory which control gene expression during plant growth and development, and response to biotic and abiotic stress. Consequently, miRNA-based genetic engineering technology is one of the most important tools which can play an essential role to enhance agricultural production in order to generate superior crop cultivars [38]. miRNA-based regulation of gene expression manipulated by several transgenic methods like overexpression of miRNA resistant gene, the production of artificial targets [37] is used. When miRNA of interest possesses a negative control on stress factors that miRNA will be an outstanding way for crop improvement, in which transgenic plants overexpressing the semi RNAs are susceptible to stresses [39].
Additional approach in which artificial miRNAs (amiRNAs) designed and used to suppress protein-coding mRNA expression. This is an advance gene silencing technique at post-transcriptional level which has been used efficiently in different plant species [40]. The artificial miRNAs technology was used to suppress the expression of the cucumber mosaic virus suppressor 2b [18]. After efficiently inhibiting 2b expression it also enhances resistance to transgenic tobacco plants against this virus [41]. This method was found an essential way to generate advance transgenic plants with high yield and improving crop tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses [42].
Plant through molecular pathway replies to abiotic stresses involve interaction and interlinkage of different biosynthetic pathways involving gene expression regulation by miRNA and miRNA regulation [43]. Therefore, novel plant varieties produced with better environmental stress tolerance is essential for increasing crop productivity and quality. Previous studies proved that in tomato, the overexpression of miR169 increased water stress tolerance by inhibiting stomatal opening, which decreasing transpiration rate and water loss [44]. Salt stress tolerance in rice improved by decreasing expression of osa-MIR396c [45]. Similarly, transgenic rice lines produce by increasing the expression of miR398-resistant miRNA, due to this transgenic rice with more Cu- or Zn superoxide dismutases enzyme exhibited more tolerance to high water and salinity stress [46]. Induced expression of miR319 improve cold stress tolerance and also modify leaf morphology in rice [47].
Modernisation and advancement in miRNA research have also contributed in biotic stress tolerance in several plant species. Some previous research investigated that the Osa-miR7696 miRNA overexpression produce blast resistance transgenic rice [48]. In several plant species it was studied that the overexpression of miR393 effectively hinders the microbial growth and providing a disease resistant tool [3]. Few investigations showed that the miR160a overexpression positively regulate callose deposition induced by MAMP, while miR773 and miR398b negatively control MAMP-induced callose deposition and provide specific protection to bacterial infection [49]. Numerous studies conducted on model plants like Arabidopsis to investigate the miRNA role in plants [30], but till now only few researches were done on the significant role of miRNAs. Therefore, it is concluded after detailed analysis of old literature that miRNAs and its regulation play a crucial role in stress tolerance in plants.
miRNAs play a crucial role in plant growth and development pathways such as leaf morphogenesis, apical dominance and plant biomass. Several miRNAs based new method used for production of transgenic plants for improving growth and development like plant morphology, fruit quality improvement, grain yield and more shelf life [50]. Overexpression of miR319 caused continuous growth of leaf margins and larger leaflets in tomato [51]. Previous studies in
Overexpression of OsmiR397 microRNA enhance rice productivity by increasing number of panicle branching and grain size [55]. Overexpression of miR319 in rice also increases the number of small and longitudinal veins [47]. In rice overstimulation of miR390 miRNA increasing the lateral root formation [56] by decreasing the gene expression of several lateral root growth repressors such as ARF2, ARF3, and ARF4. In
To access the diverse roles of miRNAs in crops, a number of investigations conducted on miRNAs [45]. Although, due to small size of miRNA, the effectiveness of the well-known approaches for functional loss and inhibiting miRNA expression are comparatively less strong. Mainly, two genome editing techniques with modified nuclease enzyme are significant for selecting appropriate genome alteration [60]. These techniques mainly depend on the production of double-stranded breaks at target sequences by TALENs (Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases) and CRISPR (Clustered, Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) DNA modification methods [61]. CRISPR-Cas9 technology developed as an advance RNA-dependent gene and genome editing tool due to its suitability to a variety of organisms [62]. A previous study on rice demonstrated that Cas9 also guided by modified gRNA for appropriate cut and genome editing of some selected crops [63]. One more study in soybean showed that the CRISPR/Cas9 system is very effective for removing a green fluorescent tagged protein transgene and modifying nine different endogenous loci [64].
CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technology specifically and strongly decreases the 96% expression of miRNAs [62]. This method has transformed gene editing abilities and has been useful in several model plants such as
Above mentions exemplified case studies indicated that currently miRNAs viewed as a most essential gene regulator tool. This chapter also focused on the studies that describe the multipurpose role of miRNAs in plants. Recent advancement in biological science made to access and characterize miRNAs in crop plants, with a growing number of researches on the significant function of miRNAs [49]. As described, in plants few important processes like homeostasis, growth and development, vegetative to reproductive phase transition and signal transduction and response to various stress are regulated by miRNA [13]. Few recent studies also showed that in plants miRNAs biomolecule act as plant defense and organizers of immune responses [67]. In this regard, the supervision of miRNA expression levels would recognize a crucial way for enhancing the plant growth and development as well as various biotic and abiotic stresses tolerance.
Various transgenic approaches, focused on miRNA role and its importance and identification on corresponding target genes. These includes miRNA overexpression, tissue-specific expression of the targets or miRNAs or stress induce, artificial miRNA, expression of miRNA resistant target gene and artificial target mimic [68]. In cases where the natural target gene has a harmful effect on plant, the overexpression of the regulatory miRNA decreasing the corresponding mRNA expression [47]. Where the target gene has a positive effect, approaches tracked can involve the artificial target mimics or selection of miRNA resistant target gene and the overexpression of the target genes [37]. Although this approach generally successful, the applied agricultural application of the miRNA methods is interesting since the modification and alteration in complicated multi-genic traits such as productivity may require alteration in expression of different genes during different developmental stages of plant. However, for improving crop stress tolerance several new strategies used for improving miRNA bases gene regulation in model plants [69].
It is also possible that few miRNAs affect expression of target gene only in some specific cell, and exclusively under specific environmental conditions as several miRNAs may have complicated expression pattern. In this circumstance, analysis of effect of miRNA on expression in whole organs would uncertain; therefore, the experiment should be specifically and carefully designed for improved results. Several artificial miRNAs designed and used to suppress expression of a target gene and protein-coding mRNA of interest is one of the among valuable and suitable approach for plant improvement [70]. Due to insufficient concentration and expression the effect of some crucial miRNAs may not visible in living tissue. For producing plants with desirable characters, it would be essential to execute some quantitative analysis of the natural miRNA(s) of the cells, before designing the artificial miRNAs.
Although, old artificial miRNA approach used as important tool for genetic modification [70], but still there is some more knowledge required for its appropriate use in the differentiation and translational inhibition by miRNA. Single miRNA produced by artificial nucleic acid with the ability to inhibit target loci, avoid and predict all the unnecessary genes for experiment design [52]. By modifying miRNA regulatory pathways, miRNA activity also altered for attaining a desired trait [71]. miRNA action negatively controlled by endogenous RNAs, it is a more flexible and fast way to understand the miRNA function, as well as for manipulation of target gene in plants [72]. This technique offers the way to attenuated miRNA inactivation by significant regulation of native miRNA targets and produce a wide range of phenotypes by change the miRNA decoy site sequence. However, for appropriate crop improvement and proper utilization of this approach, miRNA inactivation at appropriate level and to avoid off-site effects of miRNA which generate some false positive results [73]. Also, the interaction between miRNA and miRNA decoy, as well as the several complex produce by this interaction, is not well known and can causes the miRNA destabilization in organisms. Consequently, for the practical uses of this method in plants, some new and advance modification is needed on the procedure basic decoy-associated regulation of gene expression and miRNA turnover. miRNA and miRNA variants act as important tool in plant improvement, it is also nullifying the side effect produced accidently by genetic engineering technology [73]. If the targeted gene and expression of miRNA is modified, it can produce some pleiotropic alteration in plant development and morphogenesis. Therefore, it is very essential to recognize the miRNA regulation method for plant development, growth and plant responses to different biotic and abiotic stresses. This will simplify the plan of appropriate strategies resulting in the desired traits but with minimum trade-offs in the modified crops.
The Internet has irrevocably changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing. Consequently, we find it necessary to indicate, unambiguously, our definition of what we consider to be a published scientific work.
",metaTitle:"Prior Publication Policy",metaDescription:"Prior Publication Policy",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/prior-publication-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\\n\\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\\n\\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\\n\\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\\n\\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\\n\\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\\n\\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\\n\\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\\n\\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
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\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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