Scenarios used for the regression of LCOE on fuel cost and O&M cost
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7369",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Failure Analysis",title:"Failure Analysis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book, Failure Analysis, covers a broadest sense failure to a narrowest sense one. One purpose of this book is to provide the reader with an overall picture of various failures and how to deal with them. Another purpose is to present the latest scientific advancements in this field. For instance, an innovative concept of true stresses is introduced and is shown to be necessary in dealing with a composite failure micromechanically.",isbn:"978-1-83968-254-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-253-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-255-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75250",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"failure-analysis",numberOfPages:178,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6ef22a4739e8f6aa0eb6f7ee49f088c6",bookSignature:"Zheng-Ming Huang and Sayed Hemeda",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7369.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6745,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:37,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 2nd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 1st 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 20th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 19th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"196101",title:"Dr.",name:"Zheng-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"zheng-ming-huang",fullName:"Zheng-Ming Huang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196101/images/system/196101.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zheng-Ming Huang is a professor at the School of Aerospace Engineering & Applied Mechanics, Tongji University, China. He is known for his unified elastic-plastic constitutive theory and the bridging model for composites. He has found that the homogenized stresses in the constituents of a composite obtained by any micromechanics theory must be converted into true values before the effective property, specifically failure and strength behavior, can be determined from the monolithic constituent properties. He has established a systematic theory to accomplish the conversion. Challenging issues such as when the interface debonding occurs between the constituents of a composite subjected to any load have been addressed using his theories. He is the author/co-author of more than 200 papers, 4 books, 7 book chapters, and 22 patents. One of his papers has received more than 5,000 citations in Web of Science.",institutionString:"Tongji University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Tongji University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"258282",title:"Prof.",name:"Sayed",middleName:null,surname:"Hemeda",slug:"sayed-hemeda",fullName:"Sayed Hemeda",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258282/images/system/258282.jpg",biography:"Sayed Hemeda is a Doctor of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Currently, He is Professor at the Basic and Applied Science Institute (BAS). Manager of Heritage Science Program, LACC, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST). He is a Professor of Geotechnical Engineering and Architectural Preservation of Architectural Heritage, Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University, Egypt. He is also the former Manager of the historic buildings Conservation Center in Cairo University.\n Sayed Hemeda is the recipient of many awards from Cairo University including prizes for scientific excellence (2017), Prize of Scientific encourage (2014), and the best Ph.D. thesis (2009-2010). He was also awarded the General Union of Arab Archaeologists prize for academic excellence (2019). \nHe has published 85 articles, 29 International books, and has been cited 230 times. He has given more than 58 invited lectures in 16 countries. His primary interests are geotechnical engineering for architectural heritage preservation and engineering data analysis including pattern recognition as applied to primarily analytical data from various sources such as objects of cultural significance. \nHe is editor in chief for the Journal of Geological Research. He is an editorial board member for many organizations and publications including Springer Nature, IntechOpen, the Open Journal of Geology, Progress of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Geoscience Journal, and Alexandria Engineering Journals\nHe is a scientific and organization Committee member for many international Conferences.",institutionString:"Egypt Japan University of Science and Technology (E-JUST)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"712",title:"Structural Engineering",slug:"engineering-civil-engineering-structural-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"69360",title:"Introductory Chapter: Failures Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89495",slug:"introductory-chapter-failures-analysis",totalDownloads:509,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Zheng-Ming Huang and Sayed Hemeda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69360",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69360",authors:[{id:"196101",title:"Dr.",name:"Zheng-Ming",surname:"Huang",slug:"zheng-ming-huang",fullName:"Zheng-Ming Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"63284",title:"Pipeline Failure Cause Theory: A New Accident Characteristics, Quantification, and Cause Theory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80572",slug:"pipeline-failure-cause-theory-a-new-accident-characteristics-quantification-and-cause-theory",totalDownloads:915,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Based on the accident research and management practices of oil and gas pipelines, the characteristics and the quantitative description of the accident/failure are set up. Several characteristics are summarized which clearly describe the essential prosperities of the accident. Fragility, anti-fragility, and integrity are used as an index to describe the state of accident, which provides a new way of evaluating and describing accident, different from the traditional accident assessment. The understanding and the evaluation of the nature of accident become clearer. Accident cause theory is the basic theory of cognition and prevention of failure. In this chapter, based on the analysis of characteristics and limitations of some accident cause theories, and comprehension of characteristics of failure and systematic statistics, a new systematic accident cause theory is proposed, named by analogy with “tree-type.” This theory provides a systematical supplement of accident cause theories.",signatures:"Qingshan Feng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63284",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63284",authors:[{id:"250090",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Qingshan",surname:"Feng",slug:"qingshan-feng",fullName:"Qingshan Feng"}],corrections:null},{id:"63441",title:"Stress Corrosion Cracking Damages",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80826",slug:"stress-corrosion-cracking-damages",totalDownloads:1440,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the formation and growth of crack through materials subjected to tensile stress and a specific corrosive medium. It can lead to unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metals. Metal-environment combinations susceptible to cracking are specific. This means that all environments do not cause SCC on all of the alloys. Additionally, the environments that cause this kind of cracking have little corrosion effect on the alloy in normal conditions. In certain states, unwanted environmental and metallurgical changes have occurred and provide the metal-environment combination sensitive to SCC. The SCC sites on the metal surfaces may not be visible by visual inspection, while metal parts are being filled with microscopic cracks. These invisible cracks progress rapidly and lead the component and structures to catastrophic failures. In this chapter, the incidence of SCC on important industrial alloys from the chemical, metallurgical, and mechanical point of view is discussed.",signatures:"Alireza Khalifeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63441",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63441",authors:[{id:"251415",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",surname:"Khalifeh",slug:"alireza-khalifeh",fullName:"Alireza Khalifeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"63584",title:"Micromechanical Failure Analysis of Unidirectional Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80807",slug:"micromechanical-failure-analysis-of-unidirectional-composites",totalDownloads:1084,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Internal stresses in the fiber and matrix of a unidirectional (UD) composite obtained by any micromechanics model are homogenized quantities. They must be converted into true values before an effective specifically failure and strength property of the composite can be predicted in terms of the fiber and matrix properties only. As elastic property of a material does not depend on the magnitude of its stresses, the predictions of an elastic property of the composite based on the homogenized and true stresses of the constituents are the same, concealing the fact that the elastic property should be predicted based on the true stresses as well. The conversion of all of the internal stress components has been shown in this chapter. Predictability of a total number of 12 micromechanics models for the stiffness and strength of a UD composite is assessed against the experimental data of the 9 UD composites provided in three worldwide failure exercises (WWFEs). Bridging Model exhibits overall the best accuracy in both the stiffness and the strength predictions. Further, the smallest fiber volume in a RVE (representative volume element) for an FE (finite element) approach plays a much more dominant role than other issues such as a random fiber arrangement pattern to achieve the highest simulation accuracy. Finally, consistency of a micromechanics model in calculating the internal stresses of a composite is an issue that should be taken into account. Only Bridging Model is consistent. A non-consistency implies that a full three-dimensional (3D) model should be used to predict an effective property, e.g., failure behavior of a composite even though it is only subjected to a uniaxial load, and a 3D RVE geometry should be discretized if a numerical micromechanics approach is applied.",signatures:"Zheng-Ming Huang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63584",authors:[{id:"196101",title:"Dr.",name:"Zheng-Ming",surname:"Huang",slug:"zheng-ming-huang",fullName:"Zheng-Ming Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"68245",title:"Probabilistic Modeling of Failure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83461",slug:"probabilistic-modeling-of-failure",totalDownloads:672,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Failure of a system or a component of a system is and has been a major concern to systems’ operators and owners. Failure could be traced back to different causes and may take different forms and shapes. It may result from software malfunction, hardware degraded performance, human error, sabotage, environmental as well as other external factors. There are various techniques found in the literature that can assist in the analysis of failure. These techniques comprise deterministic and probabilistic techniques. Deterministic techniques ignore the variability and uncertainties of the variables in the analysis which may lead to unsatisfactory and inaccurate results. While probabilistic techniques produce accurate and an all-inclusive result because they incorporate the variabilities and uncertainties in the analysis. The focus of this chapter is to present commonly used probabilistic failure analysis techniques and their mathematical derivations. Examples to enhance the understanding of the concept of failure analysis are also presented.",signatures:"Alireda Aljaroudi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68245",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68245",authors:[{id:"226691",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Aljaroudi",slug:"ali-aljaroudi",fullName:"Ali Aljaroudi"}],corrections:null},{id:"68479",title:"NDT Methods for Evaluating FRP-Concrete Bond Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88105",slug:"ndt-methods-for-evaluating-frp-concrete-bond-performance",totalDownloads:631,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The long-term bond performance, 15+ years, of FRP-structural systems applied to reinforced-concrete structures is largely unknown and not widely tested. FRP-structural system performance is a function of FRP-concrete bond condition and is subject to deterioration over time. The purpose of this investigation is to test and validate the non-destructive testing impulse-excitation technique to evaluate bond condition of FRP systems applied to concrete structures, in particular concrete highway bridges. The objective is to identify changes in the FRP-concrete bond state by analyzing changes in impulse excitation (impact) frequencies and sinusoid waveforms. Hammer impact tests were performed on two FRP-retrofitted highway bridges in Missouri and a bonded FRP test plate in the laboratory. Signal analysis of recorded impact acoustic emissions was performed on frequencies and waveform damping ratios of bonded and de-bonded FRP material on two bridges and in the lab. The frequencies and sinusoidal waveforms of the bonded and de-bonded FRP material on the bridges had a high degree of correlation to those of the bonded/de-bonded laboratory FRP plate. This investigation confirms the impulse excitation technique to test FRP bond on concrete structures, which provides accurate data on the bonded versus de-bonded FRP-bond condition.",signatures:"Kenneth C. Crawford",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68479",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68479",authors:[{id:"297007",title:"Mr.",name:"Kenneth",surname:"Crawford",slug:"kenneth-crawford",fullName:"Kenneth Crawford"}],corrections:null},{id:"68381",title:"Temperature Diffusivity Measurement and Nondestructive Testing Requiring No Extensive Sample Preparation and Using Stepwise Point Heating and IR Thermography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88302",slug:"temperature-diffusivity-measurement-and-nondestructive-testing-requiring-no-extensive-sample-prepara",totalDownloads:733,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes a modification to the laser flash method that allows determining temperature diffusivity and nondestructive testing of materials and constructions without cutting samples of predefined geometry. Stepwise local heating of the studied object surface at a small spot around 0.1 mm radius with simultaneous high temporary-spatial resolution infrared (IR) filming of the transient temperature distribution evolution with a thermal camera provides a wide range of possibilities for material characterization and sample testing. In case of isotropic and macroscopic homogeneous materials, the resulting transient temperature distribution is radially symmetric that renders possible to improve temperature measurement accuracy by averaging many pixels of the IR images located at the same distance from the heating spot center. The temperature diffusivity measurement can be conducted either on thin plates or on massive samples. The developed emissivity independent in plain IR thermographic method and mathematical algorithms enable thermal diffusivity measurement for both cases with accuracy around a few per cent for a wide range of materials starting from refractory ceramics to well-conducting metals. To detect defects, the differential algorithm was used. Subtracting averaged radial symmetric temperature distribution from the original one for each frame makes local inhomogeneities in the sample under study clearly discernible. When applied to crack detection in plates, the technique demonstrates good sensitivity to part-through cracks located both at the visible and invisible sides of the studied object.",signatures:"Dmitry Yu. Golovin, Alexander G. Divin, Alexander A. Samodurov, Alexander I. Tyurin and Yuri I. Golovin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68381",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68381",authors:[{id:"296450",title:"Prof.",name:"Yury",surname:"Golovin",slug:"yury-golovin",fullName:"Yury Golovin"},{id:"308480",title:"Mr.",name:"Dmitry",surname:"Golovin",slug:"dmitry-golovin",fullName:"Dmitry Golovin"},{id:"308481",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Tyurin",slug:"alexander-tyurin",fullName:"Alexander Tyurin"},{id:"308482",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Samodurov",slug:"alexander-samodurov",fullName:"Alexander Samodurov"},{id:"308483",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Divin",slug:"alexander-divin",fullName:"Alexander Divin"}],corrections:null},{id:"67493",title:"Evaluation of Steel Rebar in Concrete Using Electromagnetic Method",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86668",slug:"evaluation-of-steel-rebar-in-concrete-using-electromagnetic-method",totalDownloads:762,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The corrosion of steel reinforcing bar (rebar) is the leading cause of deterioration of concrete. In Japan, many railway bridges were built 40 years ago. It is necessary to develop easy-operation method to evaluate the corrosion of steel rebar. A project about the corrosion evaluation of steel rebar was started in 2015. In this project, we have two objectives: one is to evaluate the depth and the diameter of steel rebar in concrete; another is to evaluate the corrosion of steel rebar in concrete. We developed electromagnetic methods to do nondestructive evaluation of the steel reinforcing bar (rebar) in concrete. Using two probes and lower excitation frequencies of 3.8 and 4.2 kHz, the depth and the diameter of the steel reinforcing bar can be evaluated. Using higher excitation frequency of about 80 kHz, and the X, Y signals of the lock-in amplifier, where the X signal is the same phase signal with the AC excitation magnetic field and Y signal is the 90° phase different signal with the AC excitation magnetic field, we could evaluate the corrosion of steel rebar. A compact system with low power consumption of 0.5 W was developed, and we also did some field experiments using this system.",signatures:"Dongfeng He",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67493",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67493",authors:[{id:"202714",title:"Dr.",name:"Dongfeng",surname:"He",slug:"dongfeng-he",fullName:"Dongfeng He"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5503",title:"Wood in Civil Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fb659c92f0d45acc8f960d9a656b54e2",slug:"wood-in-civil-engineering",bookSignature:"Giovanna Concu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5503.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108709",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",surname:"Concu",slug:"giovanna-concu",fullName:"Giovanna Concu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2193",title:"Advances on Analysis and Control of Vibrations",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"926bac5ebecf5b70140e42105b5e2527",slug:"advances-on-analysis-and-control-of-vibrations-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Mauricio Zapateiro de la Hoz and Francesc Pozo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2193.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"148213",title:"Dr.",name:"Mauricio",surname:"Zapateiro",slug:"mauricio-zapateiro",fullName:"Mauricio Zapateiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8822",title:"Advances in Structural Health Monitoring",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"429d24d493e64821ae08df0a71d33e37",slug:"advances-in-structural-health-monitoring",bookSignature:"Maguid H.M. 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He has also completed two Ph.D. degrees in the field of Structural Engineering at the University of Sydney and in the field of Rock Mechanics at the University of New South Wales – Sydney. Currently, he is an academic at the University of Sydney – Australia. His research areas are numerical and analytical simulations in both ductile and brittle materials.",institutionString:"The University of Sydney",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"UNSW Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8355",title:"Infrastructure Management and Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65dbf9dbd943d058488488e73b6c592a",slug:"infrastructure-management-and-construction",bookSignature:"Samad M.E. 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A Cost-Effective Tactic",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tIntensive animal farming, also known as factory farming, is an advanced technique to maximize production while reducing the cost of production. Intensive animal farming is a very recent development in agribusiness which involves the high stocking of animals like cattle, poultry, and fish on a large scale and the use of advanced biotechnology to enhance production. Livestock, particularly cattle and poultry are important contributors to total food production in the world. Intensive animal farming is very important from the food security perspective as it involves a dense population of animals on small land and increases food production.
\r\n\r\n\tIntensive animal farming benefits global trade but it also has some harmful impacts on human health. To lessen the harmful effects of intensive farming, farmers should improve the health, welfare, and productivity of their animals through animal health planning and disease control measures that are less dependent on veterinary medicines without jeopardizing animal welfare.
\r\n\r\n\tIntensive animal farming is very prevalent in developed countries and the aim is to produce large quantities of milk, meat, and eggs at low cost. Intensive farming involves mass production through modernized feeding systems and improved breeding and health programs.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-102-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-101-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-103-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"c7c16a12a60f1131a1635594b98e2f11",bookSignature:"Dr. Shumaila Manzoor and Dr. Muhammad Abubakar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11625.jpg",keywords:"Livestock, Animal Husbandry, Poultry Farming, Cattle Farming, Pasture Strengthening, Rotational Grazing, Concentrated Animal Feeding, Biotechnology, Antibiotic Resistance, Zoonotic Diseases, Socio-Economics Impact, Animal Welfare",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 27th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 24th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 14th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 12th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Scientist from the National Veterinary Laboratory, Pakistan, with experience of over 10 years in various areas of veterinary disease diagnosis. 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P. Ehrlich’s visionary concept of “magic bullet” based on the use of targeted medicines to effectively attack cancer cells has provided a promising field for cancer therapy [1]. Targeted delivery to solid cancers provides more bioavailability and effective approach for cancer treatment. The characteristics of nanocarriers such as their nanoscale, high surface-to-volume ratio, favorable drug release profiles, and targeting modifications allow them to target tumor tissue in an effective manner and release drugs in a stable and controlled manner [2]. NPs can accumulate in the leaky vasculatures of tumor tissue in an enhanced permeability and retention effect (EPR). The potential of nanomedicine can be explored in the field of early detection of cancer as well as in combination therapies for treating tumor earlier and effectively. NPs effectively solve the physiological barriers such as renal, hepatic, and immune related for effective drug delivery of conventional chemotherapeutic drugs [3]. NPs may be modified to utilize passive and active targeting mechanism to reach the tumor tissue. The nanodelivery-based carriers range from natural polymeric materials to nonbiodegradable gold NP, and magnetic mesoporous silica-based, metal-based NP. The surface of the NP can be suitably modified with ligands or drugs to offer multi-modular treatment options [4]. The nanoparticle shape also plays an important role in specific and effective nanodrug delivery. Nano-based drug delivery system has enhanced pharmacokinetic parameters, such as clearance value, volume distribution, and bioavailability to cancer cells through EPR. Unfortunately, these novel drug delivery systems still face barriers when delivered into the body, which can reduce the targeting efficiency as well as have increased toxic side effects. NPs have shown distinct toxicity patterns as compared with their larger counterparts [5]. As the size of NPs gets reduced for effective targeting, the number of surface molecules and surface area increase exponentially, which leads to complex bio-physiochemical interactions at the bio-nano interfaces when exposed to physiological environments. The potential paradigms of nanotoxicity can be understood possibly by understanding these bio-nano interactions. Since nanomaterials and therapeutic drug in combination work against cancer, the unfavorable toxicity of nanomaterials causes side effects and dysfunctions. Since the nanomedicines and therapeutic drugs share the same fate in the body, understanding the interconnections between nanotoxicity and drug delivery can widen our knowledge to improve the possibilities for cancer therapy. The effect of NPs can be divided into two categories, that is, primary and secondary depending upon the exposure time period [6]. The direct contact of NPs with cells results in primary effect, which involves toxicity, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and inflammation. Due to their nano-based size, the nanoparticles can translocate into the blood through tissue barriers where they can circulate and eventually accumulate in other organs, thereby, generating a secondary response of the NP. The secondary toxic effect of NPs might occur at the site of nanoparticle accumulation in organs such as the liver, spleen, or kidneys, and can stimulate systemic inflammation or can alter their systemic function [7]. The toxicity of NPs has been studied in different biological systems involving the cell lines as well as different organisms, which involve humans, rodents, zebra fish, catfish, algae, and macrophages. Carbon and metallic NPs are the most widely studied and used engineered nanomaterials. Nanometals, such as nanogold (nano-Au), nanosilver (nano-Ag), nanocopper, nanoaluminum, nanonickel, nanocobalt, and other NPs, have also been extensively studied. Toxic effect of metal oxide NPs such as nano-TiO2, nano-ZnO, nano-CuO, nano-CuZn, nano-Fe3O4, and nano-Fe2O3, with nano-TiO2 and nano-ZnO in particular, has been reported [8]. As expected, different nanomaterials exhibit different toxic potency. For example, Zhu et al. compared the toxicity of three nanometal oxides, nano-CuO, nano-CdO, and nano-TiO2. Nano-CuO was determined to be the most potent in cytotoxicity and DNA damage, leading to 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) formation, while nano-TiO2 was the least, without inducing a significant level of 8-OHdG [9]. The production of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene oxide is becoming commercially important. Under some experimental conditions, investigators have found that CNTs and graphene oxide are toxic. So, understanding the matter of safety and toxicity of nanomaterials has become an issue of interest to the public. Therefore, understanding the interactions of nanomaterials with biological systems is a particularly important scientific issue.
Toxic effect of NPs can proceed through a variety of mechanisms. Toxicity from a nanoparticle depends on its physical and chemical properties as well as the testing systems such as different cell types. The fundamental physical and chemical properties, which include molecular shape, size, oxidation status, surface area, bonded surface species, surface coating, solubility, and degree of aggregation and agglomeration of nanomaterials, majorly lead to the generation of reactive oxygen species and toxicity [10]. These intrinsic properties of nanomaterials can stimulate and generate toxic effects inside the biological system. Also, interaction with environmental factors such as light also determines how nanomaterials interact with the biological factors and lead to the mechanism of toxicity.
Their nanosize and large surface area are the unique physiochemical properties of nanomaterials that determine their toxicity. Due to their very small size, they have the ability to penetrate into cell membrane and other biological barriers into living organisms and can inhibit cellular functions [11]. The increased nanoparticle size decreases its ability for cellular uptake. Majorly due to their nanosize, nanomaterials can even target the lungs and give rise to several toxic effects. Yoshida et al. had reported that particle size plays a major role in intracellular disruption of amorphous silica and its induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, leading to DNA damage in human skin HaCaT cells [12]. Moreover, as the size of nanoparticle decreases, the toxic effects increase. Alpha-MnO2 nanowire, which is a wire-shaped nanomaterial, induces cytotoxicity, DNA oxidative damage, and apoptosis in HeLa cells [13]. In support of this statement, it was shown that long nanowires in cultured fibroblasts inhibited cell division, DNA damage, and increased ROS. Similarly, WISH cells when exposed to TiO2 induced cytotoxicity alterations in morphology, production of ROS, and DNA damage. Sohaebuddin et al. determined the effects of the chemical composition of nano-TiO2, nano-SiO2, and multiwall CNTs on their toxicity in 3T3 fibroblasts, RAW 264.7 macrophages, and telomerase-immortalized bronchiolar epithelial cells [14]. The results indicated that the composition, molecular size, and target cell type are all critical determinants of intracellular responses, degree of cytotoxicity, and potential mechanisms of toxicity. Moreover, these nanomaterials induced cell-specific responses, resulting in variable toxicity and subsequent cell damage. A study by Yin et al. showed that the smaller the particle size, the greater the cellular damage induced. He studied the photocytotoxicity of four different sized (<25, 31, <100, and 325 nm) nano-TiO2 and two different crystal forms antase and rutile in human skin keratinocytes. Upon exposure to UVA radiation, all nano-TiO2 particles induced cytotoxicity and cell membrane damage in a light- and dose-dependent manner. Similarly, in a study with different sizes of silica-titania hollow particle with uniform diameters of 25, 50, 75, 100, and 125 nm, the 50-nm silica-titania hollow NP showed the largest toxicity effect in macrophages [15].
The shape of the nanoparticle is one of the major determinants of nanomaterial-induced cytotoxicity. This was supported by the study done by Ray and his coworkers where they determined that a set of gold NPs with different shapes had similar cytotoxicity [16]. The shape of the nanoparticle is considered as a major determinant in the process of engineering and application. The characteristic shapes of NP are mainly spherical, ellipsoidal, sheet-like, cubic, and rod-like. Spherical NPs have shown to be more prone to endocytosis than nanotubes and nanofibers. Similarly, a study with different shapes (needle-like, plate-like, rod-like, and spherical) of hydroxyapatite NPs on cultured BEAS-2B cells showed that plant-like and needle-like NPs showed higher cell death than spherical and rod-like NPs [17]. This might be due to the fact that needle-like NPs have the capacity of damaging cells upon direct contact to the cell surface. An interesting study with graphene oxide nanosheets showed that the toxicity of these NPs was determined by their shape allowing them to physically damage the cell membrane. However, the toxicity of these NPs was reduced with increasing concentration of the fetal calf serum in the cell culture media. This phenomenon was explained on the basis that graphene oxide NPs had the capacity to adsorb the protein molecules, which covered the nanoparticle surface which changed the shape of the nanoparticle and partly prevented cell damage.
The surface charge of NPs plays an important role in determining the nanotoxicity as it largely determines the interactions of the NP with biological systems. Positively charged NPs have been reported to have high toxicity due to their easy penetration into cells rather than the negatively charged nanoparticles [18]. This is due to the electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged cell membrane and positively charged NP. A comparative study of the toxic effects of negatively and positively charged polystyrene NPs on HeLa and HIH/3T3 cells has shown that the positively charged NPs were relatively more toxic. This is due to the ability of positively charged cells to easily penetrate through the cell membrane; also, they strongly bind to the negatively charged DNA, causing its damage, and prolong the G0/G1 phase of the cells. Negatively charged NPs have not been reported to have any effect on cell cycle. Similar observations have been reported with gold NPs where positively charged NPs were highly adsorbed and showed toxic effects rather than the negatively charged gold nanoparticle. Positively charged NPs have increased capacity of opsonization, which involves the process of adsorption of proteins facilitating phagocytosis, including antibodies and complement components from blood and biological fluids [19]. The adsorbed protein to the surface of nanoparticle which is normally referred to as protein crown may affect the surface properties of the NP. The protein crown contains serum proteins such as albumin, fibrinogens, and immunoglobulin G and several other functional molecules.
Improving the optical, magnetic, and electrical properties of nanomaterials application of a shell onto the surface of NP is quite important as it also improves the biocompatibility and solubility of NPs in water and other biological fluids by decreasing their capacity to aggregate and increasing their stability. Therefore, the shell reduces the toxic effect of NPs and provides them the capacity to selectively interact with different types of cells and biological molecules [22]. In addition, the shell influences the pharmacokinetics of NP, which considerably changes the pattern of nanoparticle distribution and accumulation inside the body. Most of the nanoparticle toxicity has been reported due to the formation of free radicals inside the cells [23]. However, the shell has the capability to: reduce or eliminate these negative side effects as well as stabilize the NP, increase the resistance of NPs toward environmental factors, and enable them to acquire the capacity to selectively interact with the biological molecules. In regard to this point, Cho et al. demonstrated that polymer NPs could be modified with lectins and were able to selectively bind to the tumor cells presenting sialic acid on their surface, which made the nanoparticle suitable for specifically labeling cancer cells [24]. The surface of the NP can be modified using both organic and inorganic compounds such as polyethylene glycol, polyglycolic acid, lipids, proteins, low-molecular weight compounds and silicon. These modifiers make complex nanoparticle surface and change the nanoparticle properties for their specific transport and accumulation. The toxicity of quantum dots is significantly reduced using shells as the core of quantum dots is mostly hydrophobic and mainly consists of toxic heavy metals such as cadmium, tellurium, and mercury [25]. The shell enhances the stability of the core of quantum dots, thereby preventing its desalinization and oxidative or photolytic degradation. This ultimately prevents the leakage of heavy metal ions from the quantum core, thereby preventing nanotoxicity [26].
Nanotechnology has been an emerging field to determine the set standards or to formulate a set of designed rules for designing safe nanomaterials. The ability of nanomaterials to accumulate in different organs has resulted in some severe side effects and has hindered their use in the field of nanomedicine. So, understanding the mechanism that underlies the toxicity of nanomaterials may provide clues for overcoming the toxic effects of NPs. A major mechanism of nanotoxicity is by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which results in the subsequent formation of oxidative stress in tissues [27]. The induction of oxidative stress simultaneously activates the pro-inflammatory mediators via the principle cascades such as the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κb), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathways [28]. The most widely used nanomaterials are mostly the carbon nanotubes and metallic nanomaterials. Radomski et al. reported that engineered carbon NPs and nanotubes induced the aggregation of platelets in vitro, and enhanced vascular thrombosis in rat carotid artery [29]. Similarly, the single-walled carbon nanotubes showed enhanced cell apoptosis and decreased cell adhesion by upregulating genes involved in cell death or downregulating genes involved in cell proliferation and survival in cellular models of human kidney and bronchi. With the application of skin lotion and creams that majorly contain nano-TiO2 and nano-ZnO, the skin is in continuous exposure to the toxic nanometals that can accumulate in the brain and can cause auxiliary toxicity resulting in the disruption of normal metabolism of neurotransmitters and ultimately leading to the cause of brain damage. While comparing the toxicity of three nanometal oxides, nano-CuO, nano-CdO, and nano-TiO2, nano-CuO was determined to be the most potent in regard to cytotoxicity and DNA damage, leading to 8-hydroxy-20-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) formation, while nano-TiO2 was the least potent, without inducing a significant level of 8-OHdG [9] (Figure 1).
Mechanism of nanotoxicity. The major mechanism of nanotoxicity is by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which results in the subsequent formation of oxidative stress in tissues. The induction of oxidative stress simultaneously activates the pro-inflammatory mediators via the principle cascades such as the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathways. The other major effects are protein oxidation and DNA damage, which leads to apoptosis or cell cycle inhibition.
The ROS generation and the subsequent production of oxidative stress are major causes of nanotoxicity, which involves DNA damage, unregulated cell signaling, changes in cell motility, cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and cancer initiation and progression. The amount and effect of ROS generation are completely dependent on the chemical nature of the nanomaterials [30]. Engineered nanomaterials have relatively small size, high specific volume-to-area ratio, and high surface reactivity, which results in higher production of ROS, simultaneously resulting in cytotoxicity and genotoxicity [31]. A variety of nanomaterials has been reported to induce nanotoxicity, that is, mediated by ROS in many biological systems such as human erythrocytes and fibroblasts. Quantum dots have been reported to have toxic effects produced by ROS-mediated oxidative stress and cell death. Akhtar et al. reported that silica NPs induced cellular stress and cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner, which is mediated by the induction of ROS and lipid peroxidation in cell membranes [32]. Nano-CuO induced cytotoxicity in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (BALB 3T3) by releasing lactate dehydrogenase, causing oxidative stress in a dose-dependent manner mediated by the induction of ROS and lipid peroxidation. Nano-ZnO has been reported to induce cytotoxicity that is mostly mediated by the induction of ROS, causing oxidative injury simultaneously releasing inflammatory mediators resulting in cell death in phagocytic RAW 264.7 cells, and transformation in human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells [17]. Nano-Ag has been reported to induce apoptosis in NIH3T3 cells, which is mainly mediated via ROS and C-Jun terminal kinase-dependent mechanism involving the mitochondrial pathway. Also, nano-Ag–induced mutation and oxidative stress in mouse lymphoma cells. Shvedova et al. reported that keratinocytes incubated with high doses of single-walled CNTs resulted in ROS production, thereby leading to cellular and mitochondrial dysfunction. Comparison of cytotoxicity of the four nanometal oxides nano-ZnO, nano-TiO2, nano-Co3O4, and nano-CuO in catfish hepatocytes and human HepG2 cells induced toxicity in the order of TiO2 < Co3O4 < ZnO < CuO and the major cause was the ROS generation leading to cell and mitochondrial damage [15, 33].
DNA is one of the major targets of ROS. Toxicity of NPs is often specified for ROS production that ultimately damages the genetic material, thereby causing cell death. NPs are responsible for a wide variety of DNA damage such as chromosomal fragmentation, DNA strand breakages, and the induction of mutation in genes [34]. Gold NPs 20 nm in size at concentration of 1 nM have been reported to exhibit DNA damage in the form of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8OHdG), adduct formation in the embryonic lung fibroblasts, having a very low expression for DNA repair and cell cycle check point genes [35]. Several reports have also confirmed that metal oxide NPs induce DNA fragmentation and formation of oxidation-induced DNA adducts. The main functional molecule that comes into play in response to DNA damage is p53. Metal oxide NPs including TiO2, ZnO, Fe3O4, Al2O3, and CrO3 of particle sizes ranging from 30 to 45 nm have been reported to induce apoptosis [36]. Cadmium telluride quantum dots were found to significantly increase p53 levels and upregulate the p53-downstream effectors Bax, Puma, and Noxa in human breast carcinoma cells [37].
Oxidative stress induction is relatively linked to inflammation through the release of pro-inflammatory mediators through the cascade such as the NF-κB (nuclear factor-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathways [38]. Inflammation is majorly a type of defense mechanism of the body that involves several immune regulatory molecules followed by the infiltration of phagocytic cells. The induction of inflammation in several cell types such as the alveolar and bronchial epithelial cells, epidermal keratinocytes, and cultured monocyte-macrophage cells has been reported with single and multi-walled carbon nanotubes and fullerene derivatives. A recent study has been able to provide a mechanistic explanation for immune and inflammatory responses initiated upon exposure to carbon NPs [39]. This observation reported that the immune system receptors like toll-like receptors recognize carbon nanotubes and C60 fullerenes as pathogens and thereby trigger the inflammatory responses by secreting inflammatory protein mediators such as interleukins and chemokines. Similarly, exposure of liposomes and other lipid-based NPs trigger the activation of the complementary cascade leading to hypersensitivity reactions and anaphylaxis [40]. However, the exact mechanism through which these complement proteins mediate nanotoxicity has not been elucidated. In the absence of a stimulus, NF-κB is degraded in the cytoplasm by the Inhibitor of κB (IκB) family of inhibitors. The reactive oxygen species play a major role in the induction of the NF-κB, resulting in the inflammatory responses. Both
The MAP-kinase pathway regulates critical cellular processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation, mitosis, cell survival, and apoptosis. Treatment of human bronchial epithelial cell lines with titanium dioxide NPs showed interleukin (IL)-8 production via p38 MAPK and/or ERK pathway and mediated toxicity in the cell lines [43]. The model organism
Nanoparticles can easily penetrate the tissue system and damage body organs because of their smaller size and high specificity to the tissue system. It has been observed that nanoparticles can move fast in the blood stream and easily cross the blood-brain barrier, this may induce toxicity, which can be harmful for the human organ system (e.g., pulmonary system, reticuloendothelial systems, cardiovascular systems, central nervous system, skin, and embryonic cells) (Figure 2).
Tissue- and organ-specific nanotoxicity. The toxic accumulation of nanoparticles can affect any of the tissue types in the body. The small-sized nanoparticles have the ability to penetrate easily through the lungs and can cause lung injuries and have an ability to generate ROS that lead to toxic effects in lungs. The reticuloendothelial system in the liver is the main source of biological system where all the nanoparticles get absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract into the cardiovascular systems, as all blood exiting from the gastrointestinal tract transport from the hepatic portal vein that directly diffuses to the liver. Increased exposure to nanoparticles majorly happens through the process of inhalation, which results in altered heart rate. The inhalation of nanoparticles acquires the ability to reach the brain system mainly through the route of olfactory epithelium by the mechanism of transsynaptic transport or through their uptake via the blood-brain barrier. Nanoparticles acquire the ability to penetrate inside the skin and cause toxic effects such as dermatitis and auto immune disorders.
The small-sized NPs have the ability to penetrate easily through the lungs and can cause lung injuries and generate ROS [47]. The pulmonary toxicity studies in rats with ultrafine and fine NPs such as carbon black, nickel, and TiO2 particles have shown enhanced pulmonary inflammation by the ultrafine NPs [48]. It is being reported that the toxic effects of NPs on lungs show characteristics such as development of exaggerated lung responses, high rate of pulmonary inflammation, failed clearance, cellular proliferation, fibroproliferative effects, and inflammatory-derived mutagenesis, ultimately leading to chronic effects like tumor development in lungs. Factors that mainly influence nanotoxicity in lungs are the particulate characteristics of NPs, such as particle size, number, surface area, surface dose, surface modifications, degree of aggregation, and method of particle synthesis [49, 50].
The reticuloendothelial system in the liver is the main source of biological system where all the NPs get absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract into the cardiovascular systems, as all blood exiting from the gastrointestinal tract transport from the hepatic portal vein that directly diffuses to the liver. Carbon black and polystyrene NPs being less toxic NPs stimulate macrophages by the generation of ROS and activation of calcium signaling to release pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha [51]. Pro-inflammatory cytokines are also associated with pathology of liver disease where the generation of ROS molecule inhibits the hepatocyte function and bile formation.
The positively charged NPs such as gold and polystyrene have been reported to cause hemolysis and clotting of blood, while the negatively charged NPs are reported to be nontoxic in nature. Increased exposure to diesel-exposed particles (DEP) in hypertensive rats through the process of inhalation resulted in altered heart rate in rats as interpreted through the pacemaker that determines the activity of the heart [52]. Exposure to single-walled NPs also showed altered cardiovascular effects [53]. The injection of ultrafine carbon black NPs into the blood of normal rats caused platelet accumulation in the hepatic microvasculature of the rats and also caused prothrombotic changes on the endothelial surface of the hepatic microvessels [54].
NPs on inhalation of acquire the ability to reach the brain system mainly through the route of olfactory epithelium by the mechanism of transsynaptic transport or through their uptake via the blood-brain barrier [55]. Enhanced permeability of NPs through the blood-brain barrier has been reported to have increased the number of pathologies including hypertension and allergic encephalomyelitis. The surface charge of the nanoparticle has also been shown to have toxic effects on the brain leading to brain toxicity altering the blood-brain integrity [56]. NPs have also been associated with the production of reactive oxidative species and oxidative stress, which are also associated with brain diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s [57].
The widely used cosmetic products for application in the skin contains mostly 3% NPs of size range approximately 50–500 nm [58]. These NPs behold the scattering properties that enhance the entering of UV photons from the optical source into the skin layer although the dermatological effects of NPs able to penetrate the skin are still under investigation. In vitro study with multi-walled carbon nanotubes reported that the carbon NPs have the ability to localize within and initiate an irritation response in human keratinocytes, which are the primary route of occupational exposure [59].
Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy played a major role in identifying the toxicity of nanomaterials in embryonic cells. The observation through this microscopy revealed that the accumulation of NPs especially NPs with carboxylate group on their surface takes place more in smaller blood vessels rather than larger blood vessels [60]. These findings are majorly important for finding the aggregation state that can likely influence nanoparticle accumulation in angiogenic tissue. The fluorescence correlation spectroscopy helps to measure the loss of NPs from the blood streams of live embryo [61]. This kinetic loss of NPs can be correlated to surface characteristics of NPs such as surface charge and size. Also, it has been reported that in a mature organism, the renal clearance of nanoparticles occurs only for NPs with size less than 5 nm in lateral dimension. NPs are being reported to act as effective targeted delivery agents in angiogenic tissues of adults as well as embryonic tissues. Larson et al. reported that quantum dots could be used to image vasculature (using two-photon excitation) in the dermis of mice [61]. Semiconductor quantum dots are NPs with intense, stable fluorescence and are a very good source to detect ten to hundreds of cancer biomarkers in blood assays, on cancer tissue biopsies, or as contrast agents for medical imaging. Smith and coworkers have developed some functionalized quantum dots for tumor targeting in mice; however, no study has been made to measure directly the concentration of the quantum dots in the blood or whether or not they were aggregated; hence, the toxicity level of these quantum dots has not been checked [62].
The use of nanomaterials in biomedical sciences and health sciences has increased in recent years due to their size and surface characteristics appropriate for targeted and site-specific delivery of drugs to the affected areas. In cancer research, nanomedicine holds the massive potential for cancer therapy. The surface and tiny size and shape of NPs have been used as unique properties of NPs to play a key role for an efficient treatment and specific targeting. Nano-based therapeutic and diagnostic strategies pose as highly promising tools for easy and cost-effective diagnosis of cancer. But, the public interest’s in accurate, relevant, and predictive nanotoxicological assessments also has been growing. Due to the complication of ROS formation and disruption to the normal biological events, the use of nanomaterials has created complicated situation. The usage of nanomaterials has been highly reported to cause toxic events such as DNA damage, oxidative stress damage, and inflammatory responses. Major organs such as heart, brain, skin, etc. have been reported to have toxic responses related to nanoparticle applications. So, the development of a set of rules is needed for developing safe engineered nanomaterials, which can be determined by
The science of decision support is foundational for every type of policy, and this work offer a proposal to analyze its role in energy policy.
An example of application of a particular machine learning (ML) technique to an energy policy problem is presented. It is important to understand the role of ML in energy and environmental analysis, for two solid reasons.
The first concerns the need to process large volumes of data and to elaborate and model complex relationships, typical of the energy analysis and of the environmental analysis. In this context, the use of AI (Artificial Intelligence) and machine learning is almost mandatory.
The second concerns the need to a concerted effort to identify how these tools may best be applied to tackle major problems of recent years, like climate change [1]: about this, CO2 emissions is key variable that we must control to achieve the global objective of mitigating damage for humanity.
This work has a specific goal. Using known tools from the scientific literature on energy generation costs, we intend to show how the use of a machine learning technique (the support vector machines, SVM) can produce a more accurate modeling of these costs.
The link with CO2 emissions is provided by the possibility of using the cost model in a cost-effectiveness analysis (C-E A), in which the cost is represented by the Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE) and the effectiveness is represented by the CO2 emissions of the technologies considered per unit of energy produced.
The CO2 estimation is then obtained by selecting the best generation options according to the C-E A results.
The meaning of this work is the following.
Imagine that you are an energy analyst, in the public or private sector, and you need to use only one or just few variable/s (such as a forecast on the cost of natural gas), to estimate the costs of an electricity generation technology.
This task can be accomplished using a cost model of electricity generation in which a single piece of information can vary, leaving everything else unchanged (or imposing a certain trend on it).
The metric used is the indicator LCOE (Levelised Cost of Energy) provided by IEA (International Energy Agency), using 2020 data.
Once you have obtained a certain level of accuracy in estimate of energy cost, it is possible to move into a context of cost-effectiveness analysis, in which the best energy option in terms of Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio (ICER) was selected to produce energy and, finally, provide a certain level of CO2 emissions for the time horizon in which such a technology is still the “best option”.
In other words, the estimate of energy cost and the cost-effectiveness analysis, allow us to trace the scenarios for electricity generation mix and, finally, calculate a quantitative forecast of the CO2 emitted.
The proposed work just intends to show the application of one of the existing machine learning techniques to the estimation of the LCOE, starting from some explanatory variables.
A linear model (LM) and an SVM are compared in the prediction of the LCOE value for a combined cycle gas plant (CCGT) with a focus on the fuel cost, Operation and Maintenance (O&M) cost and CO2 price using IEA data for Italy in 2020.
The work carried out intends to highlight the possibilities of applying machine learning techniques not only in the purely engineering aspects of energy systems, but also in the statistical-economic ones at a higher level of abstraction.
Some words about why to focus on power generation systems.
As countries work towards a low carbon world, it is crucial that policymakers, modelers, and experts have at their disposal reliable information on the cost of generation.
IEA [2] reports that the levelised costs of electricity generation of low-carbon generation technologies are more and more low the costs of conventional fossil fuel generation. Renewable energy costs continue their descent in recent years and their costs are now competitive with dispatchable fossil fuel-based electricity generation for many countries.
This section presents the main tools used in this work: the LCOE methodology provided by IEA and the SVM, the used machine learning technique. Just before SVM presentations a very brief remind about ML and its use in energy systems and CO2 emissions estimates will be provided.
The Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE) is the selected tool to measure the cost of an energy unit produced by the considered technologies. LCOE is a methodology described in the joint report by the International Energy Agency and the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) (now at the ninth edition in a series of studies on electricity generating costs) [1]. This report includes cost data on power generation from natural gas, coal, nuclear, and a broad range of renewable technologies.
The metric for plant-level cost chosen is the well-known levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) (IEA are now considering system effects and system costs with the help of the broader value-adjusted LCOE, or Levelised Cost of Value-Adjusted LCOE, VALCOE metric, here not considered).
The LCOE is widely considered as the principal tool for comparing the plant-level unit costs of different base load technologies over their operating lifetimes since indicates the economic costs of a technology family, not the financial costs of a certain projects in a certain market. Due to the equality between discounted average costs and the stable remuneration over lifetime electricity production LCOE recall the costs of electricity production in regulated electricity markets with stable tariffs than to the variable prices in deregulated markets.
Despite many limitations, LCOE has maintained its utility and appeal since it is a uniquely straightforward, transparent, comparable, and well understood metrics remaining a widely used tool for modeling, policy making and public debate.
The calculation of the LCOE is based on the equivalence of the present value of the sum of discounted revenues and the present value of the sum of discounted costs. Another way on the left-hand side one finds the discounted sum of benefits and on the right-hand side the discounted sum of costs:
where:
Eq. (1) is the formula used here to calculate average lifetime levelized costs based on the costs for investment, operation and maintenance, fuel, carbon emissions and decommissioning and dismantling provided by OECD countries and selected non-member countries.
Machine learning (ML) is the field of artificial intelligence (AI) that provide methods to learn from data over time creating algorithms not being programmed to do so.
The literature about ML is relatively recent but is so vast that only some hint to review works can be made here, as an access point to this world1.
Machine learning approaches are normally categorized as in the follows.
About the machine learning algorithms for use with labeled data the
Methods based for use with on unlabeled data are:
In this work, the machine learning approach used is the SVM one.
SVMs2 are machine learning algorithms built on statistical learning theory for structural risk minimization. In pattern recognition, classification, and analysis of regression, SVMs outperform other methodologies. The significant range of SVM applications in the field of load forecasting is due to its ability to generalize (also, local minima lead to no problems in SVM).
SVM was chosen, in this work, for the sake of simplicity, since the performed Support Vector Regression (SVR) [5], extremely easy to understand in comparing a traditional statistical tool with a competing machine learning based one.
Often, the available applications of SVM in the energy sector are oriented on the engineering side3 while in this work the approach is oriented in support decisions for energy policy field.
Using one of the possibilities offered by SVMs, namely the SVR, the follows show how it is possible to obtain more accurate forecasts of costs per unit of energy produced, using LCOE as a metric.
The best available accuracy is then used in a context of cost-effectiveness analysis.
In the following, a method to select among competing options (options that can be differ even for slight changes in some significant LCOE parameters), the one characterized by the best Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio (ICER) is presented.
The possibility of making this choice during the lifetime of the plant leads to the possibility of identifying the best technology available, year by year, to get the corresponding profile of the associated CO2 emissions.
The growing utilization of data collectors in energy systems has resulted in a massive amount of data accumulated (an increasing mass of mart sensors are now extensively used in energy production and energy consumption) leading to a continuous production of big data and, consequently, to a massive number of opportunities and challenges in decision support science.
Today, ML models in energy systems are essential for predictive modeling of production, consumption, and demand analysis due to their accuracy, efficacy, and speed or to provide an understanding on energy system functionality in the context of complex human interactions.
[7] propose a comprehensive review of essential ML to present the state of the art of ML models in energy systems and discuss their likely future trends.
Machine learning was used for estimate CO2 emission from energy systems in several context, using different approach. It is possible to recall, among an increasing number of works in recent years:
[8] about flexibility of the electricity demand, a machine learning algorithm developed to forecast the CO2 emission intensities in European electrical power grids distinguishing between average and marginal emissions in Danish bidding zone DK2;
[9] an investigation on the causal relationship among solar and wind energy production, coal consumption, economic growth, and CO2 emissions for these three countries;
[10] on the linkage between energy resources and economic development the focus of that work is to develop and apply the machine learning approach to predict gross domestic product (GDP) based on the mix of energy resources with a higher predictive accuracy;
[11] about proposing a standardized framework for estimating the indirect building carbon emissions within the boundaries of various types of Local Climate Zones (LCZs using a random forest machine learning method);
[12] on the relationship among iron and steel industries, air pollution and economic growth in China (using a Long Short Term Memory, LSTM, approach);
[13] on the forecasting of energy consumption related carbon emissions for the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region.
[14] on the uses of gray relational analysis to identify the factors that have a strong correlation with carbon emissions for China to reduce carbon emissions by studying prediction of carbon emissions (using LSTM).
[15] on the creation of an automated, high-resolution forest carbon emission monitoring system that will track near real-time changes and will support actions to reduce the environmental impacts of gold mining and other destructive forest activities for the Peruvian Amazon (using deep learning models).
[16] on the use of a random forest machine learning regression workflow to map country of Peru by combining 6.7 million hectares of airborne LiDAR measurements of top-of-canopy height with thousands of Planet Dove satellite images into, to create a cost-effective and spatially explicit indicators of aboveground carbon stocks and emissions for tropical countries as a transformative tool to quantify the climate change mitigation services that forests provide.
[17] To determine whether China can achieve the commitment of reducing carbon emission intensity in 2030, through a general regression neural network (GRNN) forecasting model based on improved fireworks algorithm (IFWA) optimization is constructed to forecast total carbon emissions (TCE) and carbon emissions intensity (CEI) in 2016–2040.
The present work reports an experiment performed using a simple LCOE model, built according to basic methodology proposed by IEA. The performed experiment is simple and straightforward. Two energy scenarios were produced, one based on a certain hypothesis of change in the fuel cost, the other based on a hypothesis of change in fuel cost, O&M cost, and CO2 price, for the CCGT type plant, over a period of 30 years.
In each scenario, a certain LCOE profile is obtained for the time horizon considered. A simple regression analysis is then performed on this variable, using as explanatory variables, first the cost of fuel, and then the operating costs.
The analysis is carried out both using a LM and the SVM, with further manual tuning of the last to improve its performance. The manual tuning for SVR was used for the sake of simplicity since the main goal of the study is to suggest the application of this ML technique to gain forecasting accuracy to use in the following phase, the cost-effectiveness analysis.4
To evaluate the accuracy of the forecast, the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), the Mean Average Error (MAE) and the Mean Average Percentage Error (MAPE) were used.5
This simple test was performed to show the accuracy of the fuel cost and O&M cost as a predictor of CCGT LCOE.
Once established the best technique, the data from the two scenarios in a third scenario are modified, under certain hypothesis explained in the follows, to made a C-E A between a technology represented by IEA data and another of the same type with little changes in O&M costs. Using ICER as a winning criterion, it is possible to select the best energy generation option and, finally, to trace the corresponding CO2 emission estimate trend over the plant’s lifetime.
All the data coming from IEA [2].
The LCOE model.
First, a LCOE model based on IEA Eq. (1), with the following level of detail, was built.
The basic relationships of the model are:
Where:
All other parameters are settled using the IEA values.
We have set two type of scenario, basing on the following assumptions about certain variables of the model. The basic hypothesis is a constant decreasing of 2% for every variable changed, except every 6 years (a totally arbitrary choice), simulating an increasing amplification of this cycle (every 6 years, the percentage variation of the cost respect to the previous value is double than it and then is multiplied for the number of the occurring, so the first time at year 6, this value is roughly 4, namely 2% multiplied by 2 and then multiplied per variation 1).
Table 1 describes the hypothesis used in this first step of the analysis.
Fuel Cost (baseline 45.5 USD/MWh) | O&MCost (baseline: 6.99 USD/MWh) | CO2 price (10.1 USD/MWh) | |
---|---|---|---|
Scenario 1 | Linear decreasing of 2% per year except every 6 years | constant | constant |
Scenario 2 | Linear decreasing of 2% per year except every 6 years | Linear decreasing of 2% per year except every 6 years | Linear decreasing of 2% per year except every 6 years |
Scenarios used for the regression of LCOE on fuel cost and O&M cost
Figure 1 shows the results obtained by performing a SVR about the data from IEA [1] for the first scenario considered (Figure 2).
Comparison between LM and SVMBT in predicting LCOE of CCGT technology for Italy (simulating data over lifetime of the plant - base data: Italy, 2020 - sources: IEA) - scenario 1 - Y = LCOE (USD/MWh), X = fuel cost (USD/MWh).
Comparison between LM and SVMAT in predicting LCOE of CCGT technology for Italy after tuning (simulating data over lifetime of the plant - base data: Italy, 2020 - sources: IEA) - scenario 1 - Y = LCOE (USD/MWh), X = fuel cost (USD/MWh).
The values of RMSE for the Linear Model (LM), the SVM Model Before Tuning (SVMBT) and the SVM Model After Tuning (SVMAT) are:
RMSE | MAE | MAPE | |
---|---|---|---|
Linear Model | 1,30E-14 | 8,39E-15 | 8,39E-17 |
SVM | 5,25E-01 | 4,01E-01 | 4,01E-03 |
Tuned SVM | 1,74E-03 | 1,54E-03 | 1,54E-05 |
with a clear improvement of performance of the SVM after tuning. The linear model since the strong relationships between the fuel cost and the LCOE is clearly preferable respect to the SVM (Figures 1 and 2).
Comparison between LM and SVMBT in predicting LCOE of CCGT technology for Italy (simulating data over lifetime of the plant - base data: Italy, 2020 - sources: IEA) - scenario 2 - Y = LCOE, X = O&M Cost.
Comparison between LM and SVMAT in predicting LCOE of CCGT technology for Italy after tuning (simulating data over lifetime of the plant - base data: Italy, 2020 - sources: IEA) - scenario 2 - Y = LCOE, X = O&M Cost.
The values of RMSE for the Linear Model (LM), the SVM Model Before Tuning (SVMBT) and the SVM Model After Tuning (SVMAT) are:
RMSE | MAE | MAPE | |
---|---|---|---|
Linear Model | 3.87E+00 | 2.70E+00 | 2.70E-02 |
SVM | 2.77E+00 | 1.59E+00 | 1.59E-02 |
Tuned SVM | 2.61E+00 | 1.45E+00 | 1.45E-02 |
Recalling that in the second case the O&M cost was used as a predictor, we can more appreciate the gain in terms of RMSE obtained by using the SVM.
The increasing accuracy of the SVR respect to the LM, can be used to perform a CO2 emission estimation in a cost-effectiveness analysis.
Let us look at a simple and plain experiment based on IEA data [2] for Italy, 2020 in the following scenario:
Fuel Cost (baseline 45.5 USD/MWh) | O&MCost (baseline: 6.99 USD/MWh) | CO2 price (10.1 USD/MWh) | |
---|---|---|---|
Scenario 3 | Decreasing of 15% at 15th year then linear decreasing of 1% until rest of the lifetime. | Decreasing of 15% at 15th year then linear decreasing of 1% until rest of the lifetime. | Decreasing of 15% at 15th year then linear decreasing of 1% until rest of the lifetime. |
In scenario 3 we made a simulation basing on the hypothesis of a sudden shock for the three variables above reported in the 15th year, immediately followed by a linear decrease of them until end of the lifetime, starting from IEA 2020 data as a baseline value.
For scenario 3 the errors in predicting LCOE using O&M Cost over the considered time horizon are:
RMSE | MAE | MAPE | |
---|---|---|---|
Linear Model | 4.25878 | 3.49147 | 0.03491 |
SVM | 2.70117 | 1.52912 | 0.01529 |
Tuned SVM | 2.58541 | 1.52378 | 0.01524 |
In Cost-Effectiveness Analysis it is possible to calculate the Incremental Cost-Effectiveness Ratio (ICER), used as a measure of cost the LCOE and used as a measure of effectiveness through the quantity of CO2 emitted. The ICER can be used as a selection criterion between different options then, the winning options will be producing a certain level of emissions.
Now, let us imagine comparing two types of plants of the same technological family, in this case the CCGT. In this hypothetical exercise, the second type of plant is characterized by higher operating costs (+5% of the IEA base value).
In addition to this, let us imagine that the second type of plant has an average load factor of 94%.
Now, let us repeat the simulation performed for scenario 3 for the first type of CCGT plant (the real one), but only from the 20th year.
The meaning of this operation is as follows:
to use systems with different characteristics (in this case we have changed the O&M costs and the load factor of a single technology family);
to calculate the ICER corresponding to each plant in a defined time interval (in this case, from when the LCOE starts to vary);
to calculate the degree of uncertainty on the value of the ICER thanks to the MAPE of the SVR, defining the variation range for the ICER6;
to select the technology that has the lowest ICER and then we calculate the corresponding emissions over the time horizon considered;
finally, to calculate the emissions profile corresponding to the winning technology, year by year.
The results are shown in Figure 5.
CO2 emissions from different kind of CCGT plants in scenario 3 (sources: IEA, 2020 + imaginary data).
Figure 5 illustrates what happens using the ICER criterion as a selector of the winning generation option. For the first 20 years, the first type of installation is selected, and the corresponding emissions are those of the blue line. From 20 years of age onwards, using the ICER as a criterion means choosing the second type of plant and the curve that shows the new profile of the emissions is the orange one.
ML can help in providing accurate forecasts of CO2 emissions from power generation, especially when we face simultaneous variation of major driver (like fuel cost, operating cost of the plant and so on); only a little piece of the possible comparisons between traditional techniques and a particular ML method was shown, focusing on the better performance of the ML one (SVM) respect to the traditional one (the LM).
In our case, the performed step was:
improving LCOE forecasting performance,
comparing multiple competing options by use of the ICER in Cost-Effectiveness Analysis;
consider the uncertainty about ICER using the MAPE (in this case, but is just an option) calculated by SVM;
choosing the best technology and calculating the CO2 emissions for it;
defining the trend of the CO2 emissions in the lifetime of the plant by step 4.
Recalling that a basic LCOE model can be brought to a great level of granularity, it is easy to imagine how this type of analysis could gain in depth and significance if the required data are available. Indeed, also in case of missing data, significant simulation can be provided by using each available piece of information on energy costs.
The experiment performed was conducted at the highest level of simplicity to better focus on the reasons that suggest ML integration not only about the engineering features of electricity generation field but also in support decision tools about energy policy.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Data are collected from Turkish CPAs’ survey responses, which are based on a seven-point Likert scale, and analyzed using explanatory factor analysis. 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By means of these studies, it becomes easier to understand accounting as a social and political activity within itself and thus to be able to understand the economic, institutional, political and social environment of the turnover of the practices. In this regard, the main aim of this study is to explain the development of the public accounting system in Turkey with the help of institutional theory. Thus, it is aimed to explain all the dynamics that provide the institutionalization of state account in the national sense, together with the economic, political and social processes of the period in question. It is revealed that the regulatory arrangements directly contribute to the institutionalization of a field, and as a result, how the public organizations directly contribute to the institutionalization process.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Ceray Aldemir and Tuğba Uçma Uysal",authors:[{id:"204342",title:"Dr.",name:"Ceray",middleName:null,surname:"Aldemir",slug:"ceray-aldemir",fullName:"Ceray Aldemir"},{id:"204348",title:"Dr.",name:"Tugba",middleName:null,surname:"Ucma Uysal",slug:"tugba-ucma-uysal",fullName:"Tugba Ucma Uysal"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"78825",title:"Accounting Quality and Its Challenges in 21st Century",slug:"accounting-quality-and-its-challenges-in-21st-century",totalDownloads:256,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This paper describes current research to drive future research challenges in accounting quality. The definition of accounting quality is mainly varying depending on the objective that the study pointed. Previous research revealed that many proxies describe the accounting quality but most of them from the financial perspective. Furthermore, this paper tries to expose this research issue in the behavioural approach and drive future research in the mixed method. It concludes that the behavioural issues can be a research model, triggering future research challenges in accounting quality. The authors support these triggers from the perspectives of political hegemony, bureaucracy ratcheting, cognitive distortion, and international accounting standard. Finally, we infer and simultaneously predict that accounting quality would broaden its concepts and lasting impression in the 21st century.",book:{id:"10818",slug:"accounting-and-finance-innovations",title:"Accounting and Finance Innovations",fullTitle:"Accounting and Finance Innovations"},signatures:"Sumiyana Sumiyana, Hendrian Hendrian, Ruslan Effendi, Krisnhoe Fitrijati and Sriwidharmanely Sriwidharmanely",authors:[{id:"328451",title:"Prof.",name:"Sumiyana",middleName:null,surname:"Sumiyana",slug:"sumiyana-sumiyana",fullName:"Sumiyana Sumiyana"},{id:"328452",title:"Dr.",name:"Sriwidharmanely",middleName:null,surname:"Sriwidharmanely",slug:"sriwidharmanely-sriwidharmanely",fullName:"Sriwidharmanely Sriwidharmanely"},{id:"350499",title:"Dr.",name:"Hendrian",middleName:null,surname:"Hendrian",slug:"hendrian-hendrian",fullName:"Hendrian Hendrian"},{id:"350500",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruslan",middleName:null,surname:"Effendi",slug:"ruslan-effendi",fullName:"Ruslan Effendi"},{id:"350501",title:"Dr.",name:"Krisnhoe",middleName:null,surname:"Fitrijati",slug:"krisnhoe-fitrijati",fullName:"Krisnhoe Fitrijati"}]},{id:"61095",title:"Ethical Awareness, Ethical Decision Making, and Transparency: A Study on Turkish CPAs in Istanbul",slug:"ethical-awareness-ethical-decision-making-and-transparency-a-study-on-turkish-cpas-in-istanbul",totalDownloads:1619,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This research aims to reveal the connections among ethical awareness, ethical decision making, and transparency from the perspective of certified public accountants (CPAs) in Istanbul. Data are collected from Turkish CPAs’ survey responses, which are based on a seven-point Likert scale, and analyzed using explanatory factor analysis. Hypotheses were tested using ordinary least squares regression, and the results show that, based on the participants’ average responses, CPAs are affected mainly by the level of their ethical awareness in decision making about an ethical issue or transparency of financial reports, which indicates that the three concepts are strongly connected to each other.",book:{id:"6660",slug:"accounting-from-a-cross-cultural-perspective",title:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective",fullTitle:"Accounting from a Cross-Cultural Perspective"},signatures:"Nida Türegün",authors:[{id:"238085",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nida",middleName:null,surname:"Türegün",slug:"nida-turegun",fullName:"Nida Türegün"}]},{id:"78745",title:"Analysis of Return and Risk of Cryptocurrency Bitcoin Asset as Investment Instrument",slug:"analysis-of-return-and-risk-of-cryptocurrency-bitcoin-asset-as-investment-instrument",totalDownloads:421,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This study aims to explore the potential use of the cryptocurrency bitcoin as an investment instrument in Indonesia. The return obtained from bitcoin cryptocurrency is compared to other investment instruments, namely stock returns, gold and the rupiah exchange rate. The research period was carried out based on research data from 2011 to 2020. This study employee compares means test (t test) and analysis of variance (F test) on rate of return of bitcoin investment. The bitcoin return compare to the rate of return form the others investments instruments namely exchange rate, gold and stock. The study collected 120 data of each investments instruments: bitcoin, exchange rate, gold and stock from various of sources during 2011–2020. Then, we calculate the return and risk of individual investment instruments. The results showed that the bitcoin currency had the highest rate of return 18% with a standard deviation of 61% compared to exchange rate, gold and stock returns. While the rate of return for the others investment instruments showed less than 0.5% with standard deviation less than 5%. The rate of return bitcoin has significance difference compare to the rate of return of exchange rate, gold and stock. The study contribute for the investors who would like to invest on bitcoin. The investors should understand the characteristic of bitcoin in term of rate of returns and also the risk. This study also contributes to government of Indonesia on crypto currency development. The Indonesia government should adopt and regulate on crypto currency in the future to secure the investor and economic growth.",book:{id:"10818",slug:"accounting-and-finance-innovations",title:"Accounting and Finance Innovations",fullTitle:"Accounting and Finance Innovations"},signatures:"Sunita Dasman",authors:[{id:"348739",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunita",middleName:null,surname:"Dasman",slug:"sunita-dasman",fullName:"Sunita Dasman"}]},{id:"55587",title:"Historical Development of Government Accounting",slug:"historical-development-of-government-accounting",totalDownloads:2774,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Government accounting aims at preventing waste in government services and establishing a balance between optimal expenditure and services by managing government assets and government sources in the most efficient way. This balance can be established only by obtaining complete and accurate information from government accounting system on time. Since the users have a low level of knowledge needs in government accounting system, it has been recorded for long years in a cash basis manner. However, as the government’s area of operation expanded and the needs increased, it became obvious that cash basis system had lacking parts. So it started to focus on recording financial transactions and financial reporting. These lacking parts in the accounting system tried to be overcome through a new regulation by focusing on the areas where cash basis accounting system was insufficient; and a change was experienced with regard to applying the accrual basis in the areas of government accounting and financial reporting. This study aims to explain the historical development of government accounting by applications in countries and especially by detailed expressions for Turkey. As a result of the literature review and the examination of countries’ government accounting practices, it has been determined that the government accounting practice has made the correct transition from cash basis to accrual basis.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Mihriban Coşkun Arslan",authors:[{id:"203724",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihriban",middleName:null,surname:"Coşkun Arslan",slug:"mihriban-coskun-arslan",fullName:"Mihriban Coşkun Arslan"}]},{id:"55289",title:"Behavioral Accounting and its Interactions",slug:"behavioral-accounting-and-its-interactions",totalDownloads:4019,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Behavioral accounting is a branch of accounting that is related to behavior besides the accounting knowledge. It deals with the attitude and behavior of people when they are encountered with an accounting phenomenon which determines the behavior that they will show in decision‐making. This special area of accounting addresses such aspects as human information‐processing behavior, judgment quality, accounting problems that are created by users and providers of accounting information, and accounting information users’ and producers’ decision‐making skills. Behavioral research tries to find out how individuals make decisions and interact and influence other individuals, organizations, markets, and society. Behavioral accounting concept is examined under the topics of the influence of accounting information on behavior, managerial control (budget participation, nonfinancial measures, leadership, and balanced scorecard), auditing (auditor‐client negotiations, auditor’s judgment, and decision‐making), and ethics (ethical decision‐making, ethical orientation, and rationalizations on unethical behavior) in this chapter.",book:{id:"6000",slug:"accounting-and-corporate-reporting-today-and-tomorrow",title:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting",fullTitle:"Accounting and Corporate Reporting - Today and Tomorrow"},signatures:"Filiz Angay Kutluk",authors:[{id:"203083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Filiz",middleName:null,surname:"Angay Kutluk",slug:"filiz-angay-kutluk",fullName:"Filiz Angay Kutluk"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"62",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",slug:"malaria",publishedDate:"December 11th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kasenga is a graduate of Tumaini University, Kilimanjaro Christian Medical College, Moshi, Tanzania and Umeå University, Sweden. He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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