Characteristics of the subjects. Mean ± SD.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9324",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems Theory",title:"Dynamical Systems Theory",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The quest to ensure perfect dynamical properties and the control of different systems is currently the goal of numerous research all over the world. The aim of this book is to provide the reader with a selection of methods in the field of mathematical modeling, simulation, and control of different dynamical systems. The chapters in this book focus on recent developments and current perspectives in this important and interesting area of mechanical engineering. We hope that readers will be attracted by the topics covered in the content, which are aimed at increasing their academic knowledge with competences related to selected new mathematical theoretical approaches and original numerical tools related to a few problems in dynamical systems theory.",isbn:"978-1-83880-230-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-229-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-457-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83328",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"dynamical-systems-theory",numberOfPages:184,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"413cbcf9c048bb251eca1b5e32bbc640",bookSignature:"Jan Awrejcewicz and Dariusz Grzelczyk",publishedDate:"March 25th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9324.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6206,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 2nd 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 4th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 3rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"68338",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Awrejcewicz",slug:"jan-awrejcewicz",fullName:"Jan Awrejcewicz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68338/images/system/68338.jpeg",biography:"Full Professor, Head of the Department of Automation, Biomechanics and Mechatronics of Lodz University of Technology (Poland). Multiple doctor honoris causa, recipient of the Humboldt Award, member of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Author/co-author of over 780 journal and conference papers and 50 monographs. Editor of 28 books and 36 journal special issues. Principal investigator of numerous research grants. Member of Editorial Boards of 88 Journals (17 with IF). Organizer and Head of 14 International Conferences 'Dynamical Systems – Theory and Applications” (Lodz, 1992-2017) and 3 International Conferences 'Mechatronics: Ideas for Industrial Applications' (Warsaw, 2012; Lodz, 2014; Gdansk, 2015). His scientific interests cover mathematics, mechanics, biomechanics, automation, physics, and computer-oriented sciences, with the main focus on nonlinear processes.",institutionString:"Lodz University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"Lodz University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"299336",title:"Dr.",name:"Dariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Grzelczyk",slug:"dariusz-grzelczyk",fullName:"Dariusz Grzelczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/299336/images/8409_n.jpg",biography:"Assistant Professor, employee at the Department of Automation, Biomechanics and Mechatronics at the Lodz University of Technology (Poland). Member of the Section of Dynamics of Systems of the Polish Academy of Sciences and member of the Polish Society of Biomechanics. Co-author of 32 journal papers, 13 book chapters and 54 abstracts or conference papers. Co-editor of 3 Special Issues (2 in journals with IF) and reviewer of over 70 research articles. Investigator of 8 research grants. Member of the Organizing Committee of 8 International Conferences held in Lodz (Poland), participant of 38 International Conferences. Co-supervisor of 3 finalized and 1 ongoing PhD theses and supervisor of 17 Master/Bachelor theses. His research interest cover mechanics, biomechanics, automation, robotics, mechatronics, physics and computer-oriented sciences.",institutionString:"Lodz University of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Lodz University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"966",title:"Dynamical Systems Theory",slug:"dynamical-systems-theory"}],chapters:[{id:"68758",title:"Coupled Mathieu Equations: γ-Hamiltonian and μ-Symplectic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88635",slug:"coupled-mathieu-equations-em-em-hamiltonian-and-em-em-symplectic",totalDownloads:642,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several theoretical studies deal with the stability transition curves of coupled and damped Mathieu equations utilizing numerical and asymptotic methods. In this contribution, we exploit the fact that symplectic maps describe the dynamics of Hamiltonian systems. Starting with a Hamiltonian system, a particular dissipation is introduced, which allows the extension of Hamiltonian and symplectic matrices to more general \n\nγ\n\n-Hamiltonian and \n\nμ\n\n-symplectic matrices. A proof is given that the state transition matrix of any \n\nγ\n\n-Hamiltonian system is \n\nμ\n\n-symplectic. Combined with Floquet theory, the symmetry of the Floquet multipliers with respect to a \n\nμ\n\n-circle, which is different from the unit circle, is highlighted. An attempt is made for generalizing the particular dissipation to a more general form. The methodology is applied for calculation of the stability transition curves of an example system of two coupled and damped Mathieu equations.",signatures:"Miguel Ramírez Barrios, Joaquín Collado and Fadi Dohnal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68758",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68758",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69020",title:"Partial Entropy and Bundle-Like Entropy for Topological Dynamical Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89021",slug:"partial-entropy-and-bundle-like-entropy-for-topological-dynamical-systems",totalDownloads:704,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Entropy is an important notion for understanding the complexity of dynamical systems. Several important entropy-like invariants based on the preimage structure for noninvertible maps have been defined and studied by some authors. In this chapter, following the idea of Hurley, we first further study the relationship among the topological entropy, pseudo-orbit, and preimage entropies for topological dynamical systems from the view of localization. Secondly, two entropy-like invariants, which are called the partial entropy and bundle-like entropy, for nonautonomous discrete dynamical systems are introduced. A relationship between the topological entropy and such two entropies is established.",signatures:"Kesong Yan and Fanping Zeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69020",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69020",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68762",title:"Determination of Stresses in Composite Plates with Holes and Cracks Based on Singular Integral Equations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87718",slug:"determination-of-stresses-in-composite-plates-with-holes-and-cracks-based-on-singular-integral-equat",totalDownloads:751,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The problems of determination of stresses at crack in bounded plates with holes of different shapes under the action of concentrated forces or distributed forces at its boundary are considered. The study is performed by the singular integral equation method. They were determined based on the established interdependences between the Lekhnitskii potentials and the stress and strain. The numerical method for solving integral equations is developed based on the quadrature method for the systems of holes and cracks. The eigen solutions of the problem were taken into account in this method. The research of stresses at cracks in samples which are used in experimental studies of crack fracture resistance was performed.",signatures:"Olesia Maksymovych and Adam Podhorecki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68762",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68762",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"69906",title:"A New Computerized Boundary Element Model for Three-Temperature Nonlinear Generalized Thermoelastic Stresses in Anisotropic Circular Cylindrical Plate Structures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90053",slug:"a-new-computerized-boundary-element-model-for-three-temperature-nonlinear-generalized-thermoelastic-",totalDownloads:653,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we propose a new theory called nonlinear generalized thermoelasticity involving three temperatures. Because of strong nonlinearity of the proposed theory, therefore, it is much more difficult to develop analytical solution for solving problems related with the proposed theory. So, we propose a new computerized boundary element model for the solution of such problems and obtaining the three-temperature nonlinear generalized thermoelastic stresses in anisotropic circular cylindrical plate structures problems which are related with the proposed theory, where we used two-dimensional three temperature nonlinear radiative heat conduction equations coupled with electron, ion and phonon temperatures. The numerical results of the current study show the temperatures effects on the thermal stresses. Also, these numerical results demonstrate the validity and accuracy of our proposed model.",signatures:"Mohamed Abdelsabour Fahmy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69906",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69906",authors:[{id:"233766",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Abdelsabour",surname:"Fahmy",slug:"mohamed-abdelsabour-fahmy",fullName:"Mohamed Abdelsabour Fahmy"}],corrections:null},{id:"67928",title:"Distinctive Characteristics of Cosserat Plate Free Vibrations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87044",slug:"distinctive-characteristics-of-cosserat-plate-free-vibrations",totalDownloads:644,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we present the theoretical analysis of the distinctive characteristics of Cosserat plate vibrations. This analysis is based on the dynamic model of the Cosserat plates, which we developed as an extension of the Reissner plate theory. Primarily, we describe the validation of the model, which is based on the comparison with three-dimensional exact solutions. We present the results of the computer simulations, which allow us to identify different characteristics of the plate vibrations. Particularly, we illustrate and discuss the detection and the classification of the additional high resonance frequencies of a plate depending on the shape and orientation of microelements incorporated into the Cosserat plates.",signatures:"Lev Steinberg and Roman Kvasov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67928",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67928",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"70236",title:"On the Controlling of Multi-Legged Walking Robots on Stable and Unstable Ground",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90208",slug:"on-the-controlling-of-multi-legged-walking-robots-on-stable-and-unstable-ground",totalDownloads:536,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we developed and investigated numerically a general kinematic model of a multi-legged hybrid robot equipped with a crab-like and/or mammal-like legs. To drive the robot’s limbs, a novel generator of gait was employed and tested. The simulation model developed in Mathematica is suitable for virtual study and visualization of the locomotion process. In contrast to our previous papers, in this study we focused especially on precise control of the position of the robot during walking in different directions. In our study we were able to simultaneously control all six spatial degrees of freedom of the robot’s body, as well as all the robot’s legs. Therefore, the investigated robot can be considered and used as a fully controlled walking Stewart platform. What is more, the used algorithm can also be successfully employed to coordinate and control all limbs of the robot on unstable or vibrating ground. As an example, it can be used to stabilize spatial position of the robot when the supporting ground becomes vibrating or unstable, and it will keep the robot stable and prevent it from falling over. Eventually, the developed simulation algorithms can be relatively simply adopted to control real constructions of different multi-legged robots.",signatures:"Dariusz Grzelczyk and Jan Awrejcewicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70236",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70236",authors:[{id:"68338",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Awrejcewicz",slug:"jan-awrejcewicz",fullName:"Jan Awrejcewicz"},{id:"299336",title:"Dr.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Grzelczyk",slug:"dariusz-grzelczyk",fullName:"Dariusz Grzelczyk"}],corrections:null},{id:"70218",title:"On Dynamics and Invariant Sets in Predator-Prey Maps",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89572",slug:"on-dynamics-and-invariant-sets-in-predator-prey-maps",totalDownloads:869,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A multitude of physical, chemical, or biological systems evolving in discrete time can be modelled and studied using difference equations (or iterative maps). Here we discuss local and global dynamics for a predator-prey two-dimensional map. The system displays an enormous richness of dynamics including extinctions, co-extinctions, and both ordered and chaotic coexistence. Interestingly, for some regions we have found the so-called hyperchaos, here given by two positive Lyapunov exponents. An important feature of biological dynamical systems, especially in discrete time, is to know where the dynamics lives and asymptotically remains within the phase space, that is, which is the invariant set and how it evolves under parameter changes. We found that the invariant set for the predator-prey map is very sensitive to parameters, involving the presence of escaping regions for which the orbits go out of the domain of the system (the species overcome the carrying capacity) and then go to extinction in a very fast manner. This theoretical finding suggests a potential dynamical fragility by which unexpected and sharp extinctions may take place.",signatures:"Blai Vidiella, J. Tomás Lázaro, Lluís Alsedà and Josep Sardanyés",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70218",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70218",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"68868",title:"Using Dynamic Analysis to Adjust the Rheological Model of Three Parameters to the Eurocode Creep Criteria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88665",slug:"using-dynamic-analysis-to-adjust-the-rheological-model-of-three-parameters-to-the-eurocode-creep-cri",totalDownloads:697,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A dynamic analysis of vibration for considering a three-parameter rheological model to fit the same results as predicted for creep by the Eurocode (EN 1992) criteria is performed based on the adjustment of its parameters. The use of a rheological model of three parameters as a valid alternative for real problems brings a huge facility for mathematical implementation and manipulation due the simplicity of the solution. For adjustment of the elastics and the viscous parameters, a numerical simulation to calculate the fundamental frequency of an actual reinforcement concrete pole is carried out in comparison with the standard Eurocode criteria. In this determination, the geometry variation, a concentrated force present at the free end of the structural element, and the self-weight of the structure are considered. The physical nonlinearity of the concrete due to the cracks is also considered by reducing of the flexural stiffness, and its viscoelastic behavior is included in the calculation through a temporal modulus of elasticity. In the analysis, the ground was modeled as a set of distributed springs along the foundation length. The frequency over time is then analytically calculated as the critical buckling load for different instants after the structure to be loaded.",signatures:"Alexandre de Macêdo Wahrhaftig",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68868",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68868",authors:[{id:"224580",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandre de Macêdo",surname:"Wahrhaftig",slug:"alexandre-de-macedo-wahrhaftig",fullName:"Alexandre de Macêdo Wahrhaftig"}],corrections:null},{id:"71213",title:"Dynamic Modelling by Bond Graph Approach of Convective Drying Phenomena",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91276",slug:"dynamic-modelling-by-bond-graph-approach-of-convective-drying-phenomena",totalDownloads:714,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Drying operations play an important role in food industries. They are often the last operation of the process of manufacturing a product, with a strong influence on the final quality. The processes are numerous and depend on the type and amount of product to be dried and water to be evaporated, the desired final quality, or the desired functionality for the dried product. In this chapter, we present a modeling study of heat transfer during drying a moist agricultural product placed in a hot air flow in a tunnel dryer with partial solar heating. The bond graph approach has been used for system modeling, and it is an object-oriented graphical approach based on an energetic description between subsystems. Some drying tests have been carried out on tomatoes and the experimental results are compared with the theoretical results for the validation of the developed model.",signatures:"Hatem Oueslati, Salah Ben Mabrouk and Abdelkader Mami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71213",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2508",title:"Nonlinearity, Bifurcation and Chaos",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cce4e2af0e23321e7072373518985b63",slug:"nonlinearity-bifurcation-and-chaos-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Jan Awrejcewicz and Peter Hagedorn",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2508.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"68338",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Awrejcewicz",slug:"jan-awrejcewicz",fullName:"Jan 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Hashim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"75919",title:"Peculiarities of Muscle-Tendon Mechanics and Energetics in Elite Athletes in Various Sports",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97000",slug:"peculiarities-of-muscle-tendon-mechanics-and-energetics-in-elite-athletes-in-various-sports",body:'Elastic strain energy is stored in tendons and is used in various motor tasks. It permits to minimize energy costs of muscle contraction and increase power output of muscle-tendon units (MTU). Therefore, specific mechanical properties of different tendons can influence MTU behavior and, ultimately, mechanical power and muscle efficiency of movements [1].
It was suggested that there was a relationship between the structure of various mammalian tendons and their role in effective transmission of force or energy conservation during elastic deformation [2]. The relevance of this idea lies in the context of improving results in various sport movements due to conformity of MTU functioning with requirements and specific features of a sport discipline.
This article presents research data on various strategies used for power production by MTU of the lower extremities in drop jumps. According to the hypothesis [3], to perform a motor task, a muscle develops power that should be adequate to mechanical requirements of the task in order to produce a movement. Any movement is determined by timing, sequence and amplitude of muscle activation. Two elastic mechanisms contribute to the efficiency of power production in multi-joint movements of the lower extremities during a take-off: pre-stretch of skeletal muscles and mechanical energy transfer via biarticular muscles. It is assumed that the extent to which each of the mechanisms is used exerts effect on the strategy of organization of multi-joint movements.
Preliminary stretching of skeletal muscles is the first mechanism to increase power of a take-off. It is known that pre-stretch of the muscle-tendon complex (MTU) amplifies strength of its subsequent contraction [4, 5]. This mechanism manifests itself in various movements, including vertical jumps [6, 7, 8].
The second mechanism of increasing power of a take-off (mechanical energy transfer) was described in a few works related to running, hopping and vertical jumping [3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12]. The mechanism of mechanical energy transfer via barticular muscles is also associated with the effects occurring in the MTU [13, 14].
Enhancement of MTU contraction can be reached with the help of three mechanisms: accumulation and release of elastic deformation energy, activation of spinal reflexes, and muscle potentiation. Many studies related to this topic were carried out in both animals and humans. They showed that several mechanisms could be activated simultaneously in the stretch-contraction cycle in order to enhance the MTU contraction. Those mechanisms could vary depending on external conditions and motor tasks [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. For example, in running and hopping it is necessary to maintain muscle strength that is achieved by the use of MTU elastic strain energy; in accelerations, starts and jumps the catapult mechanism is used; and in landing energy is absorbed due to muscle compliance [24]. Such variability in performance of different motor tasks is achieved by modulating the muscles’ intrinsic mechanical properties due to spinal reflexes, which can increase or decrease muscle stiffness [25, 26, 27]. So, it is possible to use the elastic deformation mechanism in muscles or, conversely, the muscles can act as a damper in landing. It is assumed that the choice of this or that mechanism depends on the character and requirements of the sport exercise, and athletes from different sports may demonstrate difference in organization of MTU control.
We hypothesized that to perform the same motor task athletes could employ different ways of movement organization. An athlete’s preference when choosing this or that mechanism for enhancing power of muscle contraction depended on specific features of sport discipline, notably, requirements to the main sport exercise.
From a practical perspective, our research was aimed at obtaining data that could be used in training of top athletes. Strength training is an integral part of athletic training in sport of top results, and it is effective only when it is based on individual characteristics of elite athletes. The results of this study will help coaches develop individual training plans for athletes, in particular strength training exercises targeting specific muscle groups.
The study involved male members of the Russian national teams in alpine skiing n = 4, bobsleigh n = 5, mogul skiing n = 5 and ski jumping n = 5 (Table 1). All athletes took part in the World Cups and World Championships. The experiment was carried out within the framework of regular testing of national team members according to established protocols in the course of preparation for international competitions [28].
Alpine skiing | Mogul skiing | Bobsleighing | Ski jumping | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Weight (kg) | 82,4 ± 4,3 | 73,5 ± 2,3 | 108,9 ± 6,5 | 69,1 ± 1,7 |
Height (m) | 1,79 ± 3,1 | 1,66 ± 2,4 | 1,89 ± 2,5 | 1,78 ± 2,1 |
Body mass index (m/kg°) | 25,7 ± 6,5 | 26,6 ± 5,4 | 30,4 ± 7,8 | 20,3 ± 2,8 |
% of muscles in the body (%) | 53,4 ± 7,5 | 34,1 ± 6,7 | 49,1 ± 8,1 | 51,6 ± 2,4 |
Experience (y) | 10,1 ± 3,1 | 7,8 ± 1,8 | 11,4 ± 2,8 | 8,9 ± 2,2 |
Characteristics of the subjects. Mean ± SD.
Testing procedure. After a warm-up subjects performed drop jumps (vertical jumps after jumping down) from the height of 10 cm, 30 cm, and 50 cm with no arms swing. The subjects were advised to wear their preferred athletic shoes and to keep hands on the hips during the jumps. The best of three trials, regarding jumping height (CoM elevation), was considered for further analysis. Rest interval between the trials was about 2–3 min depending on the individual need of the athlete.
Data Processing Approach. The software complex received input data of reаl movement from by the Qualisys Motion Capture System (24 cameras Oqus 5 Qualisys, Sweden). Jumping exercises were performed on two force plates AMTI 6000 (AMTI, USA). Recording was done at frame rate 400 fps and synchronized with force plate’s signals. The data were processed with the help of the software package OpenSim [29]. The software package permitted to create an individual musculoskeletal model of every athlete and identify specific features of his movement technique.
Kinematic and dynamic calculations were performed using simulation of a full-body model proposed by the Hamner and Delp paper [30]. We used a three-dimensional musculoskeletal model with 29 degrees of freedom, 92 muscles of the torso and lower extremities driven by torque actuators. This model was previously used to study how each muscle contributes to accelerating the body’s center of mass during a jump [30, 31]. The model included 35 lower limb muscles, 5 of which were examined in this study. To analyze metabolic costs during the jump experiment, we selected a group of key muscles involved in the take-off phase of a vertical jump: Gl (gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus muscles), RF (rectus femoris), VAS (vast medial muscle), GAS (lateral sections of the gastrocnemius muscle), SOL (soleus muscle).
An individual muscle and tendon complex was described by a three-piece MTU model, based on Thelen’s work in 2003 [32], modified by few other authors [33, 34] and implemented in the OpenSim application. The model calculated the change in length and strength of muscles and tendons over a wide range of body positions. The model also permitted to study in detail functioning of the MTUs of the ankle, knee and hip joints when generating force and its derivatives for each subject. We simulated each jump with the help of the methods described by Hamner and Delp [30].
Our simulation workflow began with scaling the geometry of the generic musculoskeletal model to match the anthropometry of each of our subjects, using the OpenSim Scale Tool. In addition, we scaled the maximum isometric forces of the muscles according to a regression equation based on each subject’s mass and height [31]. Then we generated muscle driven motions of the recorded experiments with OpenSim’s Computed Muscle Control (CMC) Tool [32], using the individual models and the adjusted kinematics. CMC calculated muscle excitations that could produce the observed jumping motion while minimizing the sum of squared muscle activations at regular intervals in the motion.
Elastic Strain Energy (ESE) Calculation. During the analysis we attempted to calculate the possible amount of stored and utilized elastic strain energy (ESE) using methods suggested by [4, 35]. According to the authors mechanical energy expenditures (MEEs) of two human lower extremity models are associated with two different sources of mechanical energy - (l) muscles and (2) joint moments. The source of mechanical energy in the Model 1 was a group of eight muscles, three of them being two-joint muscles. The source of mechanical energy in the Model 2 was a set of net moments in its joints.
It was shown that the model with two-joint muscles spent less mechanical energy than the model with no two-joint muscles in the same movement. Saving of mechanical energy by two-joint muscles was possible on condition that: (i) muscle powers produced by the two-joint muscle at both joints were of opposite signs, (ii) moments produced by that muscle at each of the two joints were codirectional with the net joint moments at those joints, and (iii) biarticular antagonist muscles did not produce force.
Metabolic Costs Calculation. To estimate metabolic energy consumption, we used a metabolics model developed by [36, 37] with few modifications by [36]. To employ this metabolic model, we used the Umberger2010MuscleMetabolicsProbe in OpenSim v4.
In accordance with the calculation method, we summed the rate of energy expendutures of all muscles, added a basal rate (1.2 W/kg – [38]).
Leg Stiffness Calculation. We estimated leg stiffness:
where Kleg – the leg stiffness normalized to body weight as the ratio of the peak vertical ground reaction force (Fmax) to the difference between the leg length when standing and the leg length when the center of mass is at its lowest point lmin. The leg length l0 was the distance from the center-of-pressure [39] to the center of the pelvis in a model derived from the musculoskeletal model described by [40].
To process the results of our research we used a software package STATISTICA ver.10. As we had small sample sizes, we used non parametrical statistical methods: Kruskal-Wallis test and Wilcoxon test.
Ethical Approval. The study was approved by the Local Human Research Ethics Committee, and all participants gave their written informed consent prior to testing. All human testing procedures conformed with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.
Figure 1 demonstrates multidirectional changes in the maximum peak power in drop jumps from different heights performed by the subjects. Mogul skiers showed negative dynamics of the maximum peak power as the height of the drop jump increased: the maximum peak power in drop jumps from the height of 0.1 m and 0.3 m differed by 2.67 ± 0.05 W/kg ((T = 0,0, p = 0,043), the difference of the maximum peak power in drop jumps from the height of 0.3 m and 0.5 m was 2.89 ± 0.07 W/kg (T = 0,0 p = 0,041). All the other subjects (alpine skiers, bobsledders, and ski jumpers) showed positive dynamics of maximum peak power. The greatest maximum peak power was reached in the group of ski jumpers (0.1 m – 59.2 ± 0.23 W/kg; 0.3 m – 62.8 ± 0.30; 0.5 m – 79.8 ± 0.56 W/kg), while the lowest – in the group of mogul skiers (0.1 m – 59.2 ± 0.27 W/kg; 0.3 м – 62.8 ± 0.23 W/kg; 0.5 м – 79.8 ± 0.46 W/kg) . Mogul skiers demonstrated significant difference in maximum peak power in comparison with the other athletes (H = 8,22003 p < 0,01).
The maximum peak power in the take-off phase.
Time of the take-off phase (Figure 2) significantly differs in ski jumpers (0,1 м - 0,18 ± 0,06 s; 0,3 м - 0,215 ± 0,05 s; T = 8,32117, p > 0,01; 0,5 м - 0,23 ± 0,07 s; T = 8,32117, p > 0,01) and in athletes from the other groups. The average time of the take-off in the groups of bobsledders, alpine skiers and mogul skiers was 0.11–0.13 ± 0.02 s in all jumps, while in ski jumpers it was 0.18–0.23 ± 0.05 s (H = 8,32117, p < 0,01).
Time of the take-off phase.
If we compare Figures 1 and 3, we will note that the athletes achieved different power of movement on the background of different leg stiffness. The maximum leg stiffness was registered in alpine skiers in drop jumps from 0.1 m – 23659.6 ± 1182 N/m, bobsledders in drop jumps from 0.3 m – 24384,9 ± 987 N/m, and mogul skiers in drop jumps from 0.5 m - 23608,8 ± 1243 N/m; the minimal leg stiffness was registered in ski jumpers (0.1 m - 14463,4 ± 723 N/m; 0.3 m - 9206,8 ± 803 N/m and 0.5 m - 7115,1 ± 654 N/m). The difference between the groups was significant (H = 8.75356, p < 0.01), the dynamics of data within each group was different. Mogul skiers demonstrated the maximum values in leg stiffness in drop jumps from 0.5 m. In alpine skiers and ski jumpers the maximal leg stiffness was found in drop jumps from 0.1 m. The small height may permit these athletes to perform preliminary muscle stimulation before landing that makes it possible to counteract external inertial forces acting on the body. When the height is greater, athletes try to compensate loads on the musculoskeletal system in shock absorption phase by increasing the amplitude of movement in the knee joints, thereby reducing the stiffness of the legs. In bobsledders leg stiffness in the jump from 0.5 m was 6.5% lower than that in the jump from 0.3 m. It might be that the bobsledders tried to keep high leg stiffness, but as they were heavy, their muscles could not resist the load in the eccentric phase.
Peak value of the stiffness of the muscles of the lower extremities in drop jumps.
Energy transfer between the muscle groups of the lower extremities during the concentric contraction phase of the take-off was calculated using the method described in [4, 35] (Figure 4). We found that the mechanism of energy transfer was almost not used by ski jumpers (Hip-Knee: 3–6%, Knee-Ankle: less than 3%, H = 8,564 p < 0,01). The highest percentage of energy transfer was found in bobsledders (Knee-Ankle: 28 ± 0.8% in a drop jump from 0.3 m, 25 ± 0.7% in a drop jump from 0.5 м) and alpine skiers (Hip-Knee: 23 ± 0.4% from 0.3 м), but the segments of the lower limbs mostly involved in the energy transfer were different in those two groups. In bobsledders the highest energy transfer occurred from the thigh muscles to the lower leg muscles via the knee joint, while in alpine skiers energy transfer between the hip extensors and the thigh muscles was the highest. Mogul skiers showed a very low energy transfer from the hip extensors to the thigh muscles and almost no energy transfer from the thigh muscles to the lower leg muscles via the knee joint.
Transfer of energy between muscle groups of the lower limbs in the take-off phase (concentric muscle contraction).
Gl - gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus muscles, RF - rectus femoris, VAS - vastus medialis, GAS - lateral sections of the gastrocnemius muscle, SOL - soleus muscle.
The highest peak metabolic costs of all lower extremities muscles were found in mogul skiers (Figure 5). In all athletes peak metabolic costs of the hip extensor (Gl) tended to decrease, as the height of drop jumps increased, because athletes tried to maintain more upright posture for stability. All athletes had the lowest peak metabolic costs in GAS. In mogul skiers the maximum metabolic costs in GAS were registered in drop jumps from the height of 0.1 m (40.9 ± 2.5 W); in ski jumpers the minimum metabolic costs in GAS were registered in drop jumps from the height of 0.5 m (7.2 ± 1.2 W). High peak metabolic costs in RF and VAS were found in all athletes (87.2–73.1 and 105.1–74.6 W, correspondingly). As the height of drop jumps increased, the metabolic costs in RF and VAS_L increased in mogul skiers and decreased in alpine skiers. The total metabolic costs increased in mogul skiers and ski jumpers, were stable in alpine skiers, and decreased in bobsledders, when the height of drop jumps increased.
Metabolic expenditures in simulated muscles.
Gl - gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus muscles, RF - rectus femoris, VAS - vastus medialis, GAS - lateral sections of the gastrocnemius muscle, SOL - soleus muscle.
The peak force in the tendon of the MTU model involved in the take-off is shown in Figure 6. Ski jumpers had the lowest peak force in the tendon in comparison with the other subjects for all muscles and in all drop jumps. Alpine skiers, bobsledders and mogul skiers demonstrated active work in the tendons of the GAS and SOL muscles, as well as positive dynamics, as the height of drop jumps increased. Tendon activity of VAS in mogul skiers and alpine skiers revealed similarity in magnitude and positive dynamics. The greatest peak activity of the Gl tendons during the take-off was observed in alpine skiers when drop jumping from a height of 0.5 m (108.3 ± 6.7 N).
Peak active tendon force.
To understand the peculiarities of the MTU work in athletes of four different sport specializations, it is necessary to briefly present specific features of those sport disciplines.
Alpine skiing includes four disciplines, which are divided into technical disciplines (slalom SL, giant slalom GS) and speed disciplines (super giant SG, downhill DH). In slalom (SL) the peak ground reaction force (GRF) being a measure of the external load on the skier and equipment, can reach five times the body weight of an athlete [41]. In three other alpine skiing disciplines the highest GRF values are observed in giant slalom [42]. The main muscles involved in alpine skiing are the thigh muscles, hamstrings, quads, calves, and foot muscles [43]. Most of the muscles involved in alpine skiing contract eccentrically during the race. This means that the muscle lengthens as it contracts. The contraction rate during downhill skiing is relatively slow compared to running or jumping. This is due to the fact that, for example, the angle of the hip does not change significantly during a ski turn, so the rate of contraction is relatively low. Alpine skiing requires fast movements with multiple maximum contractions. Compared to other athletes, alpine skiers have high isometric leg strength [44] and isokinetic leg strength, measured as maximum torque during knee extension [45]. In technical disciplines, a “quasi-static” component of skiing has already been proposed because of the evidence for coactivation during contraction of the thigh muscles [46]. Evidence from elite Swiss riders confirms that eccentric muscular work prevailed over concentric work in the SL, GS and SG disciplines [47]. Authors [47] claimed that alpine skiing is “the only sport in which eccentric muscular activity predominates” [47]. Higher levels of force allow the skier to work with less relative strength, which can lead to more control in turns (less energy dissipation) and less fatigue when racing.
Mogul skiers have to overcome irregularities in the form of bumps and pits when descending from the mountain. On a mogul course, the turns to the left and right of the downhill line are always made cyclically, without any separate transition phase between individual turns. An athlete goes around the hillocks on the descent. He/she makes a turn at each bump that forms the so-called “swinging rhythm”. Mogul skiing is characterized by clearly identifiable ski loading and unloading phases, and alteration of ski bending and unbending. The load, being almost evenly distributed between both skis, reaches the maximum value of about 150% of the skier’s body weight on each ski. The technique obliges athletes to move along the track with an angle at the knee joints close to 90° to ensure the minimum deviation of the CoM trajectory. This stance allows a skier to cushion the height differences of bumps and pits, while maintaining and controlling the speed. According to the data of [48, 49], it was shown that in mogul skiers, in contrast to alpine skiers, the ratio of eccentric/concentric patterns is close to those in running.
A standard bobsled race may be divided into three phases: start, race and finish [50]. Acceleration and high speed at the end of the start phase are crucial for high bob speed during a race and a better overall result [50, 51]. At the start phase, athletes must start the race by pushing the bob within 60 seconds after the start signal and run at full speed about 55 m. The start and push phases last for only 6 seconds, but they are the most important for the final result [52]. To perform a push-start, leg extensors must generate high mechanical power in the hip, knee and ankle joints to create significant horizontal propulsive force that propels the athlete’s body and bob forward. Previous studies reporting the electromyographic (EMG) activity in sprinters in the acceleration phase have shown that biceps femoris (RF) is one of the most important muscles for developing maximum speed [53]. Similar as at the start of a sprint run, the longer running distance increased workload of the plantar ankle flexors [52].
Take-off in ski jumping is a very important phase [54, 55], since it affects the initial flight phase. Three parameters indicating a change in body position during a take-off are important for the overall performance: (1) generation of angular momentum during a take-off [54, 56, 57]; (2) high speed of leg extension [54, 56, 57]; and (3) direction of a take-off [58, 59, 60]. Athletes perform a take-off in a quasi-static crouch position [57]. This position is necessary to maintain an effective aerodynamic posture and to resist the pressing external force acting on the body at a speed of about 90 km/h. According to [61], time from the start of the lower extremities extension and the rise of the athlete’s center of gravity (COG) is about 0.22 ± 0.03 sec. The data presented in [62] indicate the time range of 0.25–0.30 sec. The study [59] examined the activity of the vastus lateralis muscle, vastus medialis, gastrocnemius, tibialis anterior and gluteus maximus. During acceleration on the jumping ramp the activity of all those muscles is very low. When an athlete enters the inner curve of the jumping ramp, the activity of the vastus lateralis, tibialis anterior and the gastrocnemius muscles grows that stabilizes the knee and ankle joints. Stable knees resist additional stress caused by the centrifugal force. The gluteus maximus remains inactive. During the take-off activity of the vastus lateral and the gastrocnemius muscles significantly increase. The tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius muscles are active to stabilize the ankle, but their activity is not greater than that registered at the curve of the jumping ramp. Greater activity of Gl at the end of the take-off results in an increase of moments in hip joints. Involvement of GA in the final phase of the take-off is considerably lower than in vertical jumps, in which plantar flexion plays very important role. A ski jumper rises skis quickly that does not allow him/her to use the gastrocnemius effectively, and knee extensors are the main muscles involved in the take-off. On the other hand, the design of ski jumping boots limit efficient plantar flexion during the take-off [62].
The data presented in the results section show that all groups of athletes chose different strategies for producing muscle power in order to achieve the maximum jump height in drop jumps. We will try to explain the mechanisms of work of lower extremities’ muscles in athletes, who demonstrate different organization of movement and interaction of muscles and tendons in drop jumps. Let us examine ways of enhancing MTU contraction, which employ elastic properties of muscles, in particular, their resilient elements, that results in muscle potentiation. Besides that, enhancement of muscle contraction occurs due to stretch reflex, which manifests itself when the muscle is stretched for 20–50 ms [63] and even up to 60 ms [64]. There is no disagreement in the literature that the preliminary stretching of the MTU enhances its subsequent contraction, and this fact is described by many authors. However, with regard to the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, many authors express doubts about the unambiguity of conclusions in favor of each of them, in particular, regarding the use of the energy of elastic deformation [65]. At the same time the use of the energy of elastic deformation in running and hopping is beyond any doubt. All doubts arise from the difficulty to examine human MTU behavior in vivo, in particular in complex multi-joint movements. Without inquiring into the mechanisms of MTU pre-stretching, let us discuss if the athletes participating in our study use the positive effect of MTU pre-stretch.
In the groups of alpine skiers and mogul skiers, duration of the take-off went far beyond the time limits where it was possible to use the positive effect of the stretch reflex. However, the subjects of these two groups could enhance voluntary contraction of their leg muscles due to elastic strain energy, even though the shock absorption phase was very long. Although an increase in the MTU stretching time reduced efficiency of elastic strain energy use, this mechanism was preserved [66]. We might be confused by the fact that the optimal ratio of muscle length and speed of their stretching is disturbed in alpine and mogul skiers because of large angular amplitudes of movements in leg joints. However, the use of elastic energy is still possible for any muscle length [67]. The question arises with regard to the use of the positive effect of shock absorption in drop jumps performed by alpine and mogul skiers. Question: Did the MTU work differ in these groups of athletes, since the technique of sport exercise was different? The answer is obvious - yes, it differed. This is confirmed by the data related to the transfer of elastic deformation energy between the lower extremities links. First of all, let us examine results of the drop jump from the height of 0.3 m, in which the load on the leg muscles is optimal for achieving the maximum jump height [68]. In the drop jump from 0.3 m the possible use of elastic energy in the take-off phase was: 23 ± 1.6% (Hip-Knee) and 15 ± 1.1% (Knee-Ankle) in alpine skiers, and 12 ± 0.6% (for Hip-Knee) and 8 ± 0.5% (for Knee-Ankle) in mogul skiers. Alpine skiers used energy transformation more effective than mogul skiers that was due to the higher stiffness of their leg muscles. The difference in the utilization of stored elastic energy between the subjects was visible when comparing metabolic costs in RF and VAS and tendon strength in these muscles, which were significantly higher in mogul skiers. In a drop jump from the height of 0.5 m the external load on the leg muscles was almost critically high. Mogul skiers showed a drop in mechanical power as well as an increase in RF metabolic costs and RF and VAS_L tendon strength. In both groups we found a decrease of elastic energy use. Referring to the difference in the requirements of a sport exercise, we may assume that there are no mandatory requirements for mogul skiers to generate maximum power during a mogul race, unlike for alpine skiers. In alpine skiers, the decrease in efficiency of energy transfer might be associated with the decrease in stiffness in order to increase the role of muscle activity.
Bobsledders demonstrated the highest percentage of mechanical energy transfer. As the height of a drop jump increased, the metabolic costs of activation of the GA and SOL muscles decreased and the peak strength of tendons increased. These results indicate the use of the mechanism of transfer of mechanical energy generated during muscles pre-stretch. This mechanism can only be activated if the extension starts in the hip joint, which generates the greatest power. The energy transfer cannot occur instantaneously, because the bicarticular muscles need time to stretch and gain stiffness in order to reduce energy loss caused by dissipation [69]. When the hip joint extended due to Gl contraction, the energy was transferred to the shin via the RF, then it took time for the GA to be activated after the start of the knee extension. Elastic energy was stored in the tendons of the ankle extensors and then it was released quickly. The MTUs of the muscles acted as an adjustable spring, and the contractile component modulated the energy required for fast limbs extension. Thus, leg extension occurred with successive achievement of peak power values in each of the joints and peak values of the linear velocity of the leg links in the direction from the proximal joint to the distal one. In fact, energy transfer in squat jump and counter movement jump occurs exactly this way [3, 70, 71, 72]. As a result, the ankle joint being controlled by the weakest muscle group, can develop greater power due to the energy received from the proximal joint [3]. Thus, to achieve maximum muscle power, bobsledders used conjoint work of both muscles and tendons that permitted them to make use of the mechanism of energy transfer based on the pre-stretch effect. The group of bobsledders included former track-and-field athletes. To push the bob, they extended the lower extremities using similar range of articular angles as in drop jumps. According to our data, it can be assumed that ski jumpers have no technical skills to increase muscle power in a take-off using additional mechanisms besides muscle activity. The ski jumpers showed the longest take-off time in drop jumps, and it corresponded to the take-off time from the take-off table in their sport exercise. In accordance with the temporal characteristics of the take-off, we may assume that ski jumpers do not use the effect of stretch reflex. High metabolic costs of muscle work and small forces in the tendons indicated that the ski jumpers used only muscle strength to perform drop jumps from different height and did not employ any additional mechanisms to increase the power of the movement. Pre-stretch in the MTU in the shock absorption phase in drop jumps led to utilization of energy stored in tendons and muscles into heat in the take-off phase. Athletes performed the take-off in drop jumps using the technique they are accustomed to, i.e. the technique of their sport exercise. This was confirmed by a decrease in legs stiffness and an increase in mechanical power as the drop jump height increased.
The results demonstrated the strong effect of sport specialization on the motor control in elite athletes. Drop jump performed from different heights revealed peculiarities of MTU functioning which were similar to those used by athletes in competitive exercises. Thus, our data provided an important insight into the contribution of various mechanisms to generating power of a movement in top athletes from different sport disciplines. It has been determined that to achieve the maximum mechanical power in any motor action, athletes used their previous sport experience. Apparently, athletes chose a motor program that maximized the MTU potential, but they used the energy of elastic deformation stored in muscles and tendons in different ways: (1) the energy of elastic deformation permitted to obtain the maximum power due to conjoint work of muscles and tendons; (2) the energy of elastic deformation was accumulated in the tendons for its further recuperation into the muscles and their additional stretching; (3) the energy of elastic deformation dissipated with heat and the movement was performed due to muscle activation. This study confirmed the presence of two mechanisms for transferring elastic deformation energy in the lower extremities: the MTU pre-stretch mechanism and the mechanism of energy transfer via biarticular muscles. These results helped us understand how athletes of different sport specializations employed different mechanisms to increase efficiency of generation of mechanical power taking into account requirements to performance of their main sport exercise.
There were certain limitations in our work. As there were not so many elite athletes to form the experimental groups, the number of subjects in the samples was quite small. Thus, it was not possible to carry out a sufficient statistical analysis. Nevertheless, the results allowed us to define the general trend. Besides that, the work lacks experimental data related to sport exercises. Availability of such data and development of appropriate models would make it possible to expand the comparative analysis of the data. To continue this work in future, it seems important to use an individualized approach to assessing the effectiveness of each elite athlete, taking into account peculiarities of his/her sport technique. A very interesting lead for further research is modeling of conscious control of skeletal muscles and the whole body, taking into account regularities related to the use of various mechanisms of generation power of movements and behavior of MTU presented in this article.
The results of the study are useful for interpretation of differences in test jumps performed by top athletes in the course of regular control. The results of our study may help coaches choose appropriate means and methods of strength training in different sport disciplines, develop special exercises and training regimens for them.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Segmentation is a section of image processing for the separation or segregation of information from the required target region of the image. There are different techniques used for segmentation of pixels of interest from the image. Active contour is one of the active models in segmentation techniques, which makes use of the energy constraints and forces in the image for separation of region of interest. Active contour defines a separate boundary or curvature for the regions of target object for segmentation. The contour depends on various constraints based on which they are classified into different types such as gradient vector flow, balloon and geometric models. Active contour models are used in various image processing applications specifically in medical image processing. In medical imaging, active contours are used in segmentation of regions from different medical images such as brain CT images, MRI images of different organs, cardiac images and different images of regions in the human body. Active contours can also be used in motion tracking and stereo tracking. Thus, the active contour segmentation is used for the separation of pixels of interest for different image processing.",book:{id:"6692",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis"},signatures:"R.J. Hemalatha, T.R. Thamizhvani, A. Josephin Arockia Dhivya,\nJosline Elsa Joseph, Bincy Babu and R. 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There are millions of imaging procedures done every week worldwide. Medical imaging is developing rapidly due to developments in image processing techniques including image recognition, analysis, and enhancement. Image processing increases the percentage and amount of detected tissues. This chapter presents the application of both simple and sophisticated image analysis techniques in the medical imaging field. This chapter also summarizes how to exemplify image interpretation challenges using different image processing algorithms such as k-means, ROI-based segmentation, and watershed techniques.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Yousif Mohamed Y. 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This provides a new idea for revealing the underlining mechanisms of neuropathic pain and improving the clinical treatment concepts. In this chapter, we summarized the recent studies of fMRI in neuropathic pain so that readers can better understand the research status and future research directions.",book:{id:"8125",slug:"medical-imaging-principles-and-applications",title:"Medical Imaging",fullTitle:"Medical Imaging - Principles and Applications"},signatures:"Zhi Dou and Liqiang Yang",authors:[{id:"302075",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zhi",middleName:null,surname:"Dou",slug:"zhi-dou",fullName:"Zhi Dou"},{id:"310181",title:"Dr.",name:"Liqiang",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"liqiang-yang",fullName:"Liqiang Yang"}]},{id:"60152",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75202",title:"Abnormal Tissue Zone Detection and Average Active Stress Estimation in Patients with LV Dysfunction",slug:"abnormal-tissue-zone-detection-and-average-active-stress-estimation-in-patients-with-lv-dysfunction",totalDownloads:966,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Detection of regional ventricular dysfunction is a challenging problem. This study presents an efficient method based on ultrasound (US) imaging and finite element (FE) analysis, for detecting akinetic and dyskinetic regions in the left ventricle (LV). The underlying hypothesis is that the contraction of a healthy LV is approximately homogeneous. Therefore, any deviations between the image-based measured deformation and a homogeneous contraction FE model should correspond to a pathological region. The method was first successfully applied to synthetic data simulating an acute ischemia; it demonstrated that the pathological areas were revealed with a higher contrast than those observed directly in the deformation maps. The technique was then applied to a cohort of eight left bundle branch block (LBBB) patients. For this group, the heterogeneities were significantly less pronounced than those revealed for the synthetic cases but the method was still able to identify the abnormal regions of the LV. This study indicated the potential clinical utility of the method by its simplicity in a patient-specific context and its ability to quickly identify various heterogeneities in LV function. 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As the image segmentation technique results robust and high degree of accuracy, it is very much useful for the analysis of different image modalities, such as computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in the medical field. CT imaging gives more importance than MRI because of its wider availability, inexpensive and sensitiveness. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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This includes, but is not limited to: single-neuron modeling, sensory processing, motor control, memory, and synaptic plasticity, attention, identification, categorization, discrimination, learning, development, axonal patterning, guidance, neural architecture, behaviors, and dynamics of networks, cognition and the neuroscientific basis of consciousness. 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It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence"},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. 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We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. 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\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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",annualVolume:11967,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"177015",title:"Prof.",name:"Elke Jurandy",middleName:null,surname:"Bran Nogueira Cardoso",fullName:"Elke Jurandy Bran Nogueira Cardoso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGxzQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-25T08:32:33.jpg",institutionString:"Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil",institution:null},{id:"211260",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Ricart",fullName:"Sandra Ricart",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211260/images/system/211260.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",keywords:"Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Fauna, Taxonomy, Invasive species, Destruction of habitats, Overexploitation of natural resources, Pollution, Global warming, Conservation of natural spaces, Bioremediation",scope:"