Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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\r\n\tNephritis can be seen as hereditary or as a result of infection, immunological diseases, metabolic disorders, exposure to toxic factors, and glomerular or hematological diseases. It may be asymptomatic or accompanied by hypertension, renal tubular acidosis, proteinuria, hematuria, edema, anemia, glucosuria, and nocturia. It is a progressive and chronic disease with sometimes acute exacerbations. Chronic nephritis often leads to chronic kidney disease, causing tubular atrophy and interstitial fibrosis. It is seen in approximately 15% of the causes of end-stage kidney disease. Generally, the pathological findings are tubular atrophy and dilatation, fibrosis in the interstitial space, and inflammatory cell infiltration, mostly consisting of mononuclear cells. In the later stages of the disease, glomerulosclerosis and vascular sclerosis develop. Current treatment involves diagnosing and eliminating the causative factor of chronic interstitial nephritis and treating complications according to the extent of kidney damage, the treatment of chronic nephritis is difficult, and the prognosis is poor; treatment is aimed at the etiology. The search for antifibrotic treatment continues in experimental models; various hormones, immunosuppressants, and symptomatic treatments are given according to the degree of renal damage and complications. However, since these treatments are applied for a long time, they cause many complications in the patient.
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\r\n\tNephrotic syndrome is one of the most common chronic diseases of childhood in which many symptoms due to kidney damage are seen together. Massive proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, hyperlipidemia, lipiduria, and edema are observed in the patient's clinic. 90% of childhood nephrotic syndrome cases are due to primary idiopathic or minimal change disease. It is often seen in adults due to focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, membranous nephropathy, lupus, or diabetes. \r\n\tWhile histopathologically, the most common minimal change disease is focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, mesangial proliferation, proliferative glomerulonephritis, and membranous glomerulopathy can be seen. Treatment is planned according to symptoms, complications, and primary disease. The first goal is to minimize protein loss. Although corticosteroids are the first choice in treatment, if side effects occur or the disease does not respond, immunosuppressive treatments are applied. Current treatment approaches have shown promising results in terms of disease treatment. However, its long-term side effects and remission sustainability are still unclear.
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\r\n\tNephrosis is an inflammatory, neoplastic or non-vascular nephropathy that causes degenerative changes and solute accumulation in tubules and glomeruli. Nephrosis may be due to a primary cause or secondary to another disorder. Nephrosis is often seen as amyloid nephrosis and osmotic nephrosis. Osmotic nephrosis causes structural changes with intracytoplasmic vacuolization and swelling of tubular cells, occurring primarily in the proximal tubules, without a change in osmotic balance, resulting from certain solutes such as dextran, contrast dyes, mannitol, and hydroxyethyl starch. It can lead to clinical manifestations ranging from acute renal failure to chronic kidney disease. \r\n\tAmyloid light-chain amyloidosis is the most common type of amyloidosis, with the kidney one of the organs most commonly affected. With the enlargement of the kidney area affected by amyloid deposits, proteinuria and renal dysfunction are usually observed. This topic includes advances in research on the etiology and pathogenesis of nephritis, nephrotic syndrome, and nephrosis, new early diagnosis methods, follow-up and treatment plans, and case series. It will provide significant opportunities and support to scientists, philosophic and medical doctors, urologists, nephrologists, public health practitioners, and family physicians from around the world to share new research, ideas, and solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-057-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-056-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-058-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"738f177168051e90f566ddc7c23b0862",bookSignature:"Prof. Hulya Çiçek, Dr. Mustafa Yıldırım, Dr. Necat Yilmaz and Dr. Mehmet Solakhan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11831.jpg",keywords:"Nephritis, Diagnosis, Treatment, Pathology, Nephrotic Syndrome, Kidney Damage, Diabetes, Nephrosis, Nephropathy, Amyloid Nephrosis, Osmotic Nephrosis, Amyloid Light-Chain Amyloidosis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 12th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 31st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Çiçek is currently a Professor at the Department of Medical Biochemistry/Gaziantep University School of Medicine. 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She was an Assistant Professor of Medical Biochemistry at Gaziantep University between 2007-and 2013. She became an Associate Professor in February 2013. She is currently a Professor at the Department of Medical Biochemistry/Gaziantep University School of Medicine since 2019. She also conducts academic studies in various disciplines. She worked as a thesis supervisor at the master's graduate and doctoral levels of many students. She is a member of editorial or reviewer boards of international eminent journals. Her research interests are focused on clinical biochemistry, biochemical technics, molecular biology, genetics, functional medicine, cancer research, nutrition, vitamin D, cardiac biomarkers, urology, neurologic diseases, dermatological biomarkers, obstetric and gynecology, and homocysteine. 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1. Introduction
The Mediterranean is known to be an important habitat for cartilaginous fish and is thought to encompass unique breeding grounds for species such as the white shark Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) and the thornback ray Raja clavata Linnaeus, 1758. Forty-nine sharks and thirty-six rays were recorded in this region.
Elasmobranchs represent about 1 percent of the total fish landings. These landings decrease from about 26,000 tons in 1984 to about 14,000 in 2015 (official statistic FAO).
Going back in the history, it has been demonstrated that sharks in the Mediterranean Sea have declined by more than 97 percent in number and “catch weight” over the last 200 years. They risk extinction if current fishing pressure continues [1]. The last 200 years have seen a dramatic decline of large predatory sharks in the Mediterranean Sea. This loss of top predators could hold serious implications for the entire marine ecosystem, greatly affecting food webs throughout this region.
There is evidence that the elasmobranchs of the Mediterranean are declining in abundance, diversity, and range due to the intense fishing activity primarily in response to the rapidly increasing demand for shark fins, meat, and cartilage. However, this direct fishing mortality is not the only impact on elasmobranch populations. There are fishing impacts on habitats through disturbance of biotic communities and substrates. Shipping and underwater exploration, construction, mining, and electrical installation and aquaculture offshore in cages also affect habitats, and increasing ambient sound, light, electromagnetic fields, and chemical contamination stimulate the sensory systems of these fishes.
Cartilaginous species, including sharks, rays, and chimaeras, are by far the most endangered group of marine fish in the Mediterranean Sea; among 73 assessed species in the Mediterranean, the Red List status of Chondrichthyans shows that 39 (53% of all) are critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable [2]. The biological characteristics of elasmobranches (low fecundity, late maturity, slow growth) make them more vulnerable to fishing pressure than most teleost fish. Overfishing, the wide use of nonselective fishing practices, and habitat degradation are leading to dramatic declines of these species in the Mediterranean Sea. In general, elasmobranchs are not targeted but are caught incidentally. In many fisheries they are, however, often landed and marketed. Better understanding of the composition of incidental and targeted catches of sharks by commercial fisheries is fundamentally important for conservation of these populations.
In this chapter, we try to provide an overview on the bycatch of sharks in the Mediterranean, their impact on biodiversity, and some recommendations for the conservation of this group of fish. We refer when necessary to the Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia). The Gulf of Gabès is in fact a “marine biodiversity hot spot” of significant regional importance and the most important fishery area of the Tunisian fishing fleet. The Gulf is the preferred habitat for many iconic Mediterranean vertebrate species—a wintering and foraging area for the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758)), a nursery for several elasmobranch species, and a suitable habitat to many other fish species such as groupers and tunas. Cetaceans, especially bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus (Montagu, 1821)), are encountered there.
2. Status of elasmobranches in the Mediterranean Sea
2.1. Mediterranean elasmobranch fauna
Cartilaginous fishes belong to the Chondrichthyes class comprising sharks, batoids (skates, stingrays, guitarfishes, and sawfishes), and chimaeroid fishes and including about 1200 living species [3]. The chimaeras fall in the subclass of Holocephali and the sharks and rays in the subclass of Elasmobranchii. For chimaeroid, two species occur in the Mediterranean, the common rabbitfish Chimaera monstrosa Linnaeus, 1758, and the large-eyed rabbitfish Hydrolagus mirabilis (Collett, 1904). The latter species is widespread; it is probably relatively common in the Northeast Atlantic and less common in the western and southern Atlantic [4]. In 2013, a large female was recorded in the eastern Mediterranean Sea for the first time by Hassan [5]. We deal in this review with this latter subclass, generally named elasmobranchs comprising sharks (Squalii and Pleurotremata) and rays (Batoidea and Hypotremata).
According to [6], 86 species of elasmobranchs thought to occur in the Mediterranean Sea. This number comprises 49 species of sharks from 17 families and 37 batoid species from 9 families.
Recently captures of the spinetail devil rays Mobula japanica (Müller and Henle, 1841) were reported from the northern coast of Tunisia (central Mediterranean) [7, 8] from Algerian coasts [9] and from Turkey [10]. Comparison with the partial mitogenome of M. japanica suggests sister-cryptic species complex and two different taxonomic units. However, the limited divergence within the species (>99.9% genetic identity) may be the result of a geographically and numerically restricted population of Mobula mobular (Bonnaterre, 1788) within the Mediterranean Sea [11]. Another genetic study combined genetic and morphological data challenges the notion that M. mobular and M. japanica are two separate species. However, additional and population-level sampling, combined with genetic analysis and morphological examination, are necessary before any conclusions can be drawn about the species status of M. japanica [12]. According to its status, M. japonica is not considered in this work.
2.2. Spatial distribution of elasmobranchs in the Mediterranean Sea
Historically, the diversity of Chondrichthyans was greatest in the western Mediterranean Sea, particularly in the coastal waters of North African countries (Figure 1). Diversity is slightly lower in the northwest Mediterranean countries [2]. This spatial distribution is also shown in works of [13, 14].
Figure 1.
Historical species richness of Chondrichthyans within the Mediterranean Sea [2].
Within the Mediterranean, the distribution of elasmobranch fishes is not homogenous [15]. Some areas are considered critical habitat for elasmobranchs. However, a big lack of knowledge on critical habitats for this group was noted in the Mediterranean. For example, the Tunisian waters provide a nursery area for the white shark C. carcharias (center of Tunisia), for the sandbar shark Carcharhinus plumbeus (Nardo, 1827) [16, 17] (Gulf of Gabès, south of Tunisia), and for the blackchin guitarfish Glaucostegus cemiculus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1817) [17].
2.3. Elasmobranch landings
Elasmobranch species are exploited mainly for their fins and meat. They are sometimes targeted by commercial fisheries, while in majority of the cases, they are incidentally caught as bycatch. In the Mediterranean Sea, elasmobranch fish catches represent only 1.15 percent of the total landings (Statistic FAO 1980–2015). A decline in cartilaginous species landings has been observed while fishing effort has generally increased. According FAO statistics of elasmobranchs, the catches show a decreasing trend: 26000 tons in 1983–1984 and 14,000 in 2015 (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Mediterranean elasmobranch production according to FAO statistics from 1980 to 2015.
The increase of production noted after 2008 is not really related to augmentation of catch but to the contribution of new countries to the FAO official statistic such as Libya. The contribution of African countries is becoming noticeable; in fact, they contributed by more than 70% of elasmobranch production of the area during the last 7 years (Figure 2).
During the last 7 years, the major elasmobranch-fishing countries within the Mediterranean are Libya and Tunisia; in fact they contributed by more than 70% of production (Figure 3). Italy and Turkey known to be the major elasmobranch-fishing countries within the Mediterranean, between 1980 and 2008, register a dramatic decrease in catch. Tunisian landings did not show any notable variations from 1980 to 2015. Those from Libya appear for the first time in FAO statistics and seem to be important (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Contribution of some countries in the Mediterranean elasmobranch production according to FAO statistics from 1980 to 2015.
It should be noted that the Mediterranean landings of Carcharhiniformes, the most represented group among the elasmobranchs and the most commercially fished, recorded notable decrease (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Landing evolution of some elasmobranch groups in the Mediterranean between 1980 and 2015.
3. Elasmobranch fisheries
Effects of fishing on marine megafauna are widespread and diverse, primarily due to overexploitation and bycatch [18, 19]. The capture of threatened vertebrates in fisheries is an increasingly prominent international issue [20]. There are particular concerns on elasmobranchs as they are particularly vulnerable to fishing mortality because of their life histories including slow growth, late maturity, and low fecundity rates [21, 22]. Elasmobranchs are less able to sustain their populations under fishing pressures that are sufficient to sustain target teleost and invertebrate species [23]. According to [22], a decline in elasmobranch populations has been observed throughout the world and was particularly marked in the Indo-Pacific and Mediterranean Sea. The loss of some shark and batoid populations from aquatic ecosystems has socioeconomic and ecological consequences [24, 25].
The Mediterranean is considered a biodiversity hot spot for elasmobranchs [6, 22], being at the same time the area in the world with the highest proportion of threatened species because of unregulated fishing [2]. Besides fishery activities, Mediterranean elasmobranch populations are affected by pollution and habitat degradation resulting in drastic population declines [1]. In this area, some species are commercially targeted, but the majority are taken incidentally. Mediterranean elasmobranch species are mainly coastal occurring within the range of fisheries, potentially producing high bycatch mortality [6].
The historically low economic value of elasmobranch products compared to bony fishes has resulted in a lower priority for research and conservation of these species in the Mediterranean Sea. The chronology of appearance of publications related to elasmobranch captures in the Mediterranean Sea shows an increased concern in recent year (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
Temporal distribution of the number of published papers dealing with elasmobranch captures in the region in the Mediterranean Sea.
Given the socioeconomic and ecological consequences of declining shark and ray populations, there is an imperative to address declines by implementing effective conservation management.
3.1. Fisheries targeting elasmobranchs
In the Mediterranean Sea, few fisheries are targeting elasmobranchs; this fish group is mainly landed as bycatch [6, 26]. Elasmobranch species were targeted due to the decline of bony fish stocks and the increase in shark domestic consumption. The elasmobranch species were targeted mainly using specific gillnets and longline.
3.1.1. Gillnets
Fisheries targeting sharks in the Mediterranean Sea are generally seasonal and local [27, 28, 29]. These fisheries operate on the basis of the seasonal abundance of elasmobranch species. Furthermore, in some coastal communities, sharks represent a subsistence fishery between more profitable fishing seasons for teleosts, mollusks, and crustaceans [29]. These fisheries are very heterogeneous because the targeted species, the type of vessels, and the gears used vary locally and seasonally. Few studies have been undertaken to assess the biological characteristics and impact of these fisheries.
Smooth-hound sharks (Mustelus sp.) are targeted by specific gillnets in the north Adriatic Sea during spring [27] and in restricted area along the Mediterranean Turkish coasts [28]. In Tunisia, the fishery of smooth-hounds began in the mid-1980s using special gillnets called “Gattatia” from February to June along the Gulf of Gabès coasts (Figure 6). This gillnet has a stretched mesh size of 120–160 mm [29]. In recent years, sandbar sharks and the blackchin guitarfishes have become the object of directed artisanal fisheries using a special gillnet (stretched mesh size of 240–340 mm) locally known as “kallabia.” Sandbar sharks are targeted through April–June and, moreover, the guitarfishes during summer months [29]. In addition, Carcharhinus sp. and guitarfishes have become the object of directed artisanal fisheries along the Libyan coasts using gillnets [30, 31]. During the fishery season, gillnets are left in place and inspected daily.
Figure 6.
Elasmobranch species landed by specific gill nets in the Gulf of Gabès.
3.1.2. Longlines
The longline targeting sharks is known mainly in Tunisia and Libya. Decline in catches of swordfish in the area has shifted the pelagic longline to target elasmobranchs. The sandbar sharks are fished through July–October [32]. During 2007/2008 the catch rates of C. plumbeus in pelagic longline were 15.22 invidious/1000 hooks [32]. On the other hand, Carcharhinus sp. and guitarfishes are seasonally fished along Libyan coasts using bottom and pelagic longlines [30, 31]. Unfortunately, there is no data on species composition and catch rates about Libyan shark fisheries.
Although, these gears are considered selective, they bring several other nontarget species: Scyliorhinus canicula (Linnaeus, 1758); Squalus acanthias Linnaeus, 1758; Scyliorhinus stellaris (Linnaeus, 1758); Myliobatis Aquila (Linnaeus, 1758); Pteromylaeus bovinus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1817); Galeus melastomus (Rafinesque, 1810); Centrophorus granulosus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801); Raja radula Delaroche, 1809; Raja miraletus Linnaeus, 1758; Carcharhinus sp.; Dasyatis sp.; etc. [27, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Among sharks, Mustelus genus is the most targeted species throughout the whole Mediterranean Sea [27, 29, 30, 31, 32]. Indeed, this genus is present in the entire Mediterranean Sea, while the other species such as guitarfishes and sandbar sharks are more abundant in Tunisia and Libya [30, 31, 33].
3.2. Incidental capture
Research on elasmobranch bycatches has focused mainly on industrial fisheries [34]. However, recently, it appears that small-scale fisheries are also an important source of mortality for marine vertebrates [35, 36]. In fact, all cartilaginous fishes are caught accidentally in most fishing gear in the Mediterranean [37].
3.2.1. Small-scale fisheries
Small-scale fisheries, including artisanal and traditional fisheries, comprise over 80% of the Mediterranean fleets [38]. In the Mediterranean Sea, small-scale fisheries represented essentially by set nets and bottom longline are included in various métiers that are characterized by different fishing grounds, seasons, and target species.
The small-scale fisheries capture mainly elasmobranch species inhabiting the continental shelf [38, 39, 40, 41, 42]. In general, species composition and importance varied regionally. In the Gulf of Gabès, trammel net captures were dominated by the smooth-hound sharks; however, stingrays and skates were the most captured species in Balearic Islands, Corsica, and Aegean Sea [38, 39, 40, 41, 42].
Bottom longline targeting teleost fishes caught incidentally several demersal elasmobranch species [43, 44, 45]. In the Aegean Sea, skates (R. radula, R. clavata, and R. miraletus) represent 6 to 19% of the total catch. These rates vary with the hook size [43, 44]. In Adriatic Sea, bottom longline capture Raja sp., G. melastomus, and Mustelus mustelus (Linnaeus, 1758) [45]. Along the Lebanese coasts, small-scale fisheries capture incidentally more batoids than sharks: Rhinobatos rhinobatos (Linnaeus, 1758); Torpedo marmorata Risso, 1810; R. miraletus; G. cemiculus; and C. granulosus are the most fished species. [46]. Furthermore, small-scale fisheries affect mainly small species or newborns and juveniles of large species [42]. Among captured elasmobranch, discards and retained species varied also regionally based on its economic value [38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44].
The Mediterranean elasmobranch species are mainly coastal and benthic (80%), which make them vulnerable to fishing activities concentrated mainly on the coasts [6]. Considering the importance of small-scale fleet in the Mediterranean Sea, they represent a significant source of mortality for early-life stages of elasmobranch species. These fisheries operate mainly in nursery areas and coincide with the parturition period of most species. Because of the overlap of small-scale fisheries with critical area worldwide, they may be among the greatest current threats to nontargeted megafauna [35, 47].
3.2.2. Industrial fisheries
All cartilaginous fishes are caught accidentally in most industrial fishing gear in the Mediterranean [37]. It seems that trawlers, pelagic longlines, and purse seine constitute the most important threat to elasmobranch species.
3.2.2.1. Trawlers
Although trawlers represent about 10% of the Mediterranean fleet, they contribute by approximately 50% of the landed catch, which emphasize their importance. This technique generates several problems: juvenile catches, important discards, and negative impact on the environment [48]. In the Mediterranean, discards constitute over 40 percent of the catch [49].
For this fishing gear, very often the information concerns a listing of species without an estimate of catch rates by fishing effort. Recently, preliminary information on this issue was reported in the Aegean Sea [50], in the Gulf of Gabès [51], and in Turkish coasts [52].
All elasmobranch species are caught by trawlers; 62 species are listed in trawl fisheries in Greece, 62 species in Catalonia and 74 in Italian waters, 31 species in the Gulf of Gabès, and 20 species in Iskenderun bay [51, 52, 53]. However, demersal species, particularly Etmopterus spinax (Linnaeus, 1758), G. melastomus, S. canicula, Mustelus sp., and Rajidae are most caught [50, 54, 55, 56].
The proportion of elasmobranch in catch varied locally. In the Alboran Sea, elasmobranch species represent 4.91 to 8.24 percent by weight of total catches [56]. In Iskenderun bay and the Gulf of Gabès, elasmobranchs represent 23% and 5.4%, respectively [51, 52].
Among rays, it is noted that R. clavata, R. radula, and R. miraletus are the species most commonly caught in the Mediterranean trawling [53, 57]. This technique generates occasional catch of pelagic sharks as Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788); Prionace glauca (Linnaeus, 1758); Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810; C. carcharias; and rarely Cetorhinus maximus (Gunnerus, 1765).
3.2.2.2. Longlines
Generally, two types of longlines are used in the Mediterranean: bottom and surface longlines.
The surface longline targets, according to the hook size and immersion depth, swordfish (Xiphias gladius Linnaeus, 1758), albacore (Thunnus alalunga Bonnaterre, 1788), and tuna. This gear captures accidentally at least 12 species of sharks [58, 59, 60, 61, 62]. The most affected species are P. glauca and I. oxyrinchus. The catch rate of sharks was highest in the Alboran Sea followed by the Adriatic Sea [60, 61, 62].
Bottom longline catches especially batoids; in the Aegean Sea, the Rajidae (R. radula, R. clavata, and R. miraletus) represent 6 to 19 percent of the total catch. These rates vary with the hook size [42]. In the Gulf of Gabès, bottom longline targeting groupers captures incidentally the most abundant species such as Mustelus sp. and Rhinobatos sp. [31].
3.3. Impact of fisheries
Despite their sensible life-history characteristics, Mediterranean shark captures have historically received less attention than bony fish. Unfortunately, the overexploitation added to biological characteristics of the group has led many species to be threatened or disappeared from many areas [31].
Scarce data exist to quantify the historical level of elasmobranch exploitation in the Mediterranean, as the long-term sources of information to assess shark removals are very rare in this region [63]. The decline of elasmobranch species in the Mediterranean was recognized by IUCN [2] and also confirmed by fishers [64], while the rate of reduction in the different sectors of the Mediterranean is unclear by species. The decline importance varies locally in relation to fisheries importance (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Extinct and possibly extinct species in the Mediterranean Sea, showing that local extinctions have been most prevalent in the NW Mediterranean Sea [2].
Spatiotemporal analyses of large shark abundances in the Mediterranean Sea show that population status spatially ranges from overexploited to locally depleted and local extinction [1]. The case was also reported for Squatina squatina (Linnaeus, 1758) [65]. Recent analysis of the frequency of occurrence of smooth-hounds in fishery catch data showed that the species have declined by 80–90% since the beginning of last century to almost disappear in a large part of their original distributional range during the 1980s and 1990s [66]. Bibliographic data gathered in scientific bottom trawl surveys carried out off the southern coasts of Sicily from 1994 to 2009 and between a depth of 10 and 800 m indicated an important decline in abundance of the most captured species [67]. Analysis of Italian annual landing for elasmobranchs between 1997 and 2004 decreased 77% compared with the previous years (1959–1982). This decrease may be attributed to overharvesting that occurred during the 1980s and 1990s in Italian seas [68]. Several species (Rhinobatos sp., Carcharhinus sp., Mustelus sp., etc.) previously considered as common along the Mediterranean Sea were absent on MEDITS trawling surveys between 1994 and 1999 and currently appear to be disappeared from the north coasts [53].
In the frame of ACCOBAMS-GFCM Project on mitigating interactions between endangered marine species and fishing, developed with the collaboration of the RAC/SPA and a substantial financial support from the MAVA foundation, results of a pilot action on mitigating bycatch and depredation of elasmobranchs, sea turtles, and cetaceans in surface and bottom longline fisheries operating in the Gulf of Gabes (2016–2017) indicate a significant decline in catch rates of the most targeted species mainly C. plumbeus comparatively to summer 2007/2008. In addition, there is a shift for other species habitually considered as unwanted such as Dasyatis sp.
This decline can be attributed to a number of factors, mainly the intense fishing activity throughout the coastal and pelagic waters of the basin, such as the Gulf of Lions [69], the Tyrrhenian Sea [63], and the Adriatic Sea [70]. Moreover, the lack of biological information and appropriate fishery databases limits the assessment and management plan of elasmobranchs in this area [36].
Today, it is thought that economically viable and biologically sustainable yields can be taken from some of the relatively more productive species, such as Mustelus, under careful management [36]. However, in the Mediterranean Sea, bycatch and direct fisheries are unregulated, unmonitored, and unreported to national or international management agencies.
4. Compilation of conservation and mitigation measures for elasmobranch bycatch
Given this situation, several conservation measures for these fish are taken or suggested at the national, regional, and international levels. We review some of them.
4.1. General measures
The shark fin trade
The trade in shark fins consists of cutting and keeping the fins of the shark and throwing the mutilated living part back into the sea. This is a cruel and wasteful practice since only 2 to 5% of the shark is exploited. Although the actual extent of shark fin trade in the Mediterranean is unknown, this practice is now a major global problem.
According to GFCM regulations (REC.CM-GFCM, 36/2012/3), the removal of fins and their purchase and sale are prohibited. Similarly, the butchering of specimens onboard the vessel and prior landing is prohibited.
Marine protected areas
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are recognized as effective tools for protecting the marine environment and as an approach that takes into account the ecosystem as a whole. Today, most of these protected areas occur in coastal waters in the north of the region, highlighting the importance of identifying MPAs along the southern and eastern coasts, as well as on the high seas.
International conventions
Several conventions relating to the conservation and management of ichthyofauna in the Mediterranean Sea have been ratified by all Mediterranean countries.
4.2. Mitigation of incidental catches of elasmobranchs by longline
In the light of the experiences of several longline fisheries, the following recommendations should be noted:
Plunge hooks deeper and the day.
The main species of pelagic sharks, as well as stingrays (Dasyatis sp.), are generally taken in surface waters, and shark activity is generally nocturnal.
Avoid attracting sharks and rays.
In particular, avoid dumping garbage, viscera, and unmarketable fish into a fishing area if you do not want to attract scavengers like most elasmobranchs.
Reduce the time of setting, to avoid that elasmobranchs are attracted in large numbers by captured prey.
Avoid certain types of bait that may be more attractive than others; several observations made by professionals have shown that sharks are more attracted to squid than to fish. To avoid catching stingrays and sharks mackerel or horse mackerel should be used instead of sardines.
On the other hand, the development of artificial baits could be an important contributor to the reduction of catches of sharks and rays.
Reduce the mortality caused by fishing operations.
Most of the elasmobranchs caught by longlines are alive at the time of longline recovery; it is advisable to be able to release them immediately by avoiding, if possible, any bruising. In general, the use of monofilament snoods, which sharks can more easily cut, is preferable than any other type of braided synthetic fiber or steel [57].
Move elasmobranchs away from baited hooks.
Pretreatment of baits with some synthetically produced substances may keep Carcharinids away without affecting other fish.
Small magnets of steel alloy, neodymium, and boron would be able to keep small sharks or skates away from baited hooks.
Guidelines for Recreational Fishing for Sharks and Rays in the Mediterranean Prepared by RAC/SPA for recreational fishermen as a contribution to the Action Plan for the Conservation of Cartilaginous Fish in the Mediterranean Sea aim, among other things, to reduce the potentially harmful impacts of recreational fishing activities on the Mediterranean shark and ray populations by advocating release. This Code of Conduct recommends the use of circular hooks; J-hooks are more likely to be swallowed than circular hooks. Barbed hooks are difficult to remove and can cause damage to internal organs. Circular hooks generally cling to the jaw and are easier to catch for quick release.
In order to evaluate the efficiency of some measures to reduce bycatch in the Gulf of Gabes (Tunisia), we evaluated the effect of hook shape (circle hook) and bait nature during experimental trips (23 fishing sets) conducted during summer 2016.
The nature of the bait and the shape of the hook may have impact on CPUE of the sandbar shark and other endangered shark listed in appendix II of the SPA/BD Protocol.
The CPUE of sandbar shark varies from 6.73 (individual/1000 hooks) with mackerel or other teleost used as bait to 17.94 when using elasmobranch bait. The use of circular hooks increased shark caches and specimens size while allowing more easy release of captured shark.
We focus mainly on endangered species in appendix 2 of the protocol concerning specially protected areas and biological diversity in the Mediterranean because this list was adopted by the GFCM in the Recommendation GFCM/36/2012/3 on fishery management measures for conservation of sharks and rays in the GFCM area.
In fact, GFCM parties shall ensure a high protection from fishing activities to elasmobranch species listed in Annex II of the SPA/BD protocol of the Barcelona Convention (list of endangered or threatened species) that must be released unharmed and alive to the extent possible.
Specimens of sharks’ species listed in Annex II of the SPA/BD Protocol cannot be retained on board, transshipped, landed, transferred, stored, sold, or displayed or offered for sale.
5. Conclusion
About 86 species of elasmobranchs are thought to occur in the Mediterranean Sea (49 species of sharks and 37 batoids). The distribution of elasmobranch fishes is not homogenous. Concentration of rays and sharks occurred in coastal waters of the western basin and the central Mediterranean, especially in the waters of Tunisia and Libya.
Some areas are considered as critical habitats for elasmobranchs such as the Gulf of Gabès (Tunisia).
Elasmobranchs are incidentally caught as bycatch, but sometimes they are directly targeted by commercial and recreational fisheries in some areas. Catches represent a mean of 1.1 percent of the total landings during the last 35 years. The catches show a decreasing trend from 1983 (about 26,000 tons) to 2015 (about 14,000 tons). The major elasmobranch-fishing countries within the Mediterranean are Libya and Tunisia for the last 7 years.
Small-scale fisheries, represented essentially by set nets and bottom longline, engender capture of several demersal species, with variable abundance among areas. All cartilaginous fishes are caught accidentally in most industrial fishing gear in the Mediterranean. It seems that trawlers, pelagic longlines, and purse seine constitute the most important threat to elasmobranch species.
Protection is currently granted to chondrichthyan fish species under various regional and international conventions where generally few species are considered. Few countries have developed their own legislation.
Taking action to collect reliable statistics on landings and bycatch of elasmobranchs should be a priority for shark’s conservation. Thanks are given to the GFCM which started a program to collect data on bycatch in the Mediterranean Sea.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Regional Activity Center for Specially Protected Areas (SPA/RAC) for its contribution in funding some of our research projects and the cost of editing this chapter.
\n',keywords:"elasmobranchs, Mediterranean Sea, bycatch, biodiversity, fisheries",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/60698.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/60698.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60698",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60698",totalDownloads:1122,totalViews:281,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:19,totalAltmetricsMentions:6,introChapter:null,impactScore:7,impactScorePercentile:96,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"November 26th 2017",dateReviewed:"February 5th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 1st 2018",dateFinished:"April 12th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Bibliographic analysis shows that the Mediterranean Sea is a hot spot for cartilaginous species biodiversity, including sharks, rays, and chimaeras; 49 sharks and 36 rays were recorded in this region. However, they are by far the most endangered group of marine fish in the Mediterranean Sea. The IUCN Red List shows clearly the vulnerability of elasmobranchs and the lack of data; 39 species (53% of 73 assessed species) are critically endangered, endangered, or vulnerable. The biological characteristics of elasmobranchs (low fecundity, late maturity, and slow growth) make them more vulnerable to fishing pressure than most teleost fish. Overfishing, the wide use of nonselective fishing practices, and habitat degradation are leading to dramatic declines of these species in the Mediterranean Sea. In general, elasmobranchs are not targeted but are caught incidentally. In many fisheries, they are, however, often landed and marketed. A decline in cartilaginous fish species landings has been observed while fishing effort has generally increased. Better understanding of the composition of incidental and targeted catches of sharks by commercial fisheries are fundamentally important for the conservation of these populations. Moreover, problems encountered by elasmobranchs in the area are highlighted, and conservation measures are suggested.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/60698",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/60698",book:{id:"6266",slug:"marine-ecology-biotic-and-abiotic-interactions"},signatures:"Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai, Bechir Saidi and Samira Enajjar",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Status of elasmobranches in the Mediterranean Sea",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Mediterranean elasmobranch fauna",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Spatial distribution of elasmobranchs in the Mediterranean Sea",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Elasmobranch landings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Elasmobranch fisheries",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1. Fisheries targeting elasmobranchs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.1. Gillnets",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.2. Longlines",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Incidental capture",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.1. Small-scale fisheries",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.2. Industrial fisheries",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"3.2.2.1. Trawlers",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"3.2.2.2. Longlines",level:"4"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.3. Impact of fisheries",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"4. Compilation of conservation and mitigation measures for elasmobranch bycatch",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"4.1. General measures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.2. Mitigation of incidental catches of elasmobranchs by longline",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ferretti F, Myers RA, Serena F, Lotze HK. Loss of large predatory sharks from the Mediterranean Sea. Conservation Biology. 2008;22:952-964'},{id:"B2",body:'Dulvy NK, Allen DJ, Ralph GM, Walls RHL. 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Elasmobranchs in trammel net fishery associated to marine reserves in the Balearic Islands (NW Mediterranean). Cybium. 2006;30:125-132'},{id:"B40",body:'Akyol O. Fish by-catch species from coastal small-scale shrimp trammel net fishery in the Aegean Sea (Izmir Bay, Turkey). Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 2008;24:339-341'},{id:"B41",body:'Le Direach L, Bonhomme P, Ourgaud M, Boudouresque C, Cadiou G. By-catch and discards of elasmobranchs in the artisanal net fishery in a Corsican MPA (North-Western Mediterranean). Rapport de la Commision Internationale pour l’Exploration Scientifique de la Méditerranée. 2013;40:493'},{id:"B42",body:'Saidi B, Enajjar S, Bradai MN. Elasmobranch captures in shrimps trammel net fishery off the Gulf of Gabès (southern Tunisia, Mediterranean Sea). Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 2016;32:421-426'},{id:"B43",body:'Mancusi C, Clò S, Affronte M, Bradaï MN, Hemida F, Serena F, Soldo A, Vacchi M. On the presence of basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) in the Mediterranean Sea. Cybium. 2003;29:399-405'},{id:"B44",body:'Stergiou KI, Moutopoulos DK, Erzini K. Gill net and longlines fisheries in Cyclades waters (Aegean Sea): Species composition and gear competition. Fisheries Research. 2002;57:25-37'},{id:"B45",body:'Ungaro N, Marano G, De Zio V, Pastorelli AM, Rositani L. Some Information on Offshore Bottom Longline Fishery in the Southern Adriatic Sea (GFCM Geographical Sub-Area 18). In Adriatic Sea Small-scale Fisheries. Report of the AdriaMed Technical Consultation on Adriatic Sea Small-Scale Fisheries. Split, Croatia, 14th – 15th October 2003. FAO-MiPAF Scientific Cooperation to Support Responsible Fisheries in the Adriatic Sea. GCP/RER/010/ITA/TD15. AdriaMed Technical Documents. 2005;15:98-102'},{id:"B46",body:'Lteif M, Khalaf G, Jarraya M, Mouawad R, Lenfant P. The status of the cartilaginous fish species in the Lebanese coastal waters. In: International Congress on “Estuaries and Coastal Marine Protected Areas” ECPA 2014 (İzmir - Turkey), 2014. pp. 51-54'},{id:"B47",body:'Alfaro-Shigueto J, Mangel JC, Bernedo F, Dutton PH, Seminoff JA, Godley BJ. Small-scale fisheries of Peru: A major sink for marine turtles in the Pacific. Journal of Applied Ecology. 2011;48:1432-1440'},{id:"B48",body:'Sacchi J. Impact des techniques de pêche en Méditerranée: Solutions d’amélioration. GFCM:SAC10/2007/Dma.3'},{id:"B49",body:'Sánchez P, Demestre M, Martín P. Characterisation of the discards generated by bottom trawling in the northwestern Mediterranean. Fisheries Research. 2004;67:71-80'},{id:"B50",body:'Damalas D, Maravelias CD, Katsanevakis S, Karageorgis AP, Papaconstantinou C. Seasonal abundance of non–commercial demersal fish in the eastern Mediterranean Sea in relation to hydrographic and sediment characteristics. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 2010;89:107-118'},{id:"B51",body:'Hamdaoui, B. 2009. Les élasmobranches dans les débarquements des chalutiers au port de pêche de Sfax, golfe de Gabès. Master. Faculté des Sciences de Sfax, Tunisie; 75p'},{id:"B52",body:'Yaglioglu D, DeniZ T, Gurlek M, Erguden D, Turan C. Elasmobranch bycatch in a bottom trawl fishery in the Iskenderun Bay, northeastern Mediterranean. Cahiers de Biologie Marine. 2015;56:237-243'},{id:"B53",body:'Bertrand J, Gil De Sola L, Papakonstantinou C, Relini G, Souplet A. Contribution on the distribution of the elasmobranchs in the Mediterranean Sea (from the MEDITS surveys). Biologia Marina Mediterranea. 2000;7:385-399'},{id:"B54",body:'Baino R, Serena F, Ragonese S, Rey J, Rinelli P. Catch composition and abundance of elasmobranchs based on the MEDITS program. Rapport de la Commision Internationale pour l’Exploration Scientifique de la Méditerranée. 2001;36:234'},{id:"B55",body:'Massutí E, Moranta J. Demersal assemblages and depth distribution of elasmobranchs from the continental shelf and slope off the Balearic Islands (western Mediterranean). ICES Journal of Marine Science. 2003;60:753-766'},{id:"B56",body:'Carbonell A, Alemany F, Merella P, Quetglas A, Román E. The by–catch of sharks in the western Mediterranean (Balearic Islands) trawl fishery. Fisheries Research. 2003;61:7-18'},{id:"B57",body:'Abella AJ, Serena F. Comparison of elasmobranch catches from research trawl surveys and commercial landings at port of Viareggio, Italy, in the last decade. Journal Northwestern Atlantic Fisheries Science. 2005;35:345-356'},{id:"B58",body:'Di Natale A. By-catch of shark species in surface gear used by the Italian fleet for large pelagic species. Collective Volume of Scientific Papers ICCAT. 1998;48:138-140'},{id:"B59",body:'Mejuto JB, Garcia-Cortés B, de la Serna JM. 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Long term dynamics of chondrichthyan fish community in the upper Tyrrhenian Sea. ICES Council meeting documents. Copenhagen. ICES CM. 2005:25'},{id:"B64",body:'Maynou F, Sbrana M, Sartor P, Maravelias C, Kavadas S, Damalas D, Cartes JE, Osio G. Estimating trends of population decline in long-lived marine species in the Mediterranean Sea based on fishers’ perceptions. PLoS One. 2011;6:e21818'},{id:"B65",body:'Fortibuoni T, Borme D, Franceschini G, Giovanardi O, Raicevich S. Common, rare or extirpated? Shifting baselines for common angelshark, Squatina squatina (Elasmobranchii: Squatinidae), in the northern Adriatic Sea (Mediterranean Sea). Hydrobiologia. 2016;772:247-259'},{id:"B66",body:'Colloca F, Enea M, Ragonese S, Di Lorenzo M. A century of fishery data documenting the collapse of smoothhounds (Mustelus spp.) in the Mediterranean Sea. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems. 2017:1-11'},{id:"B67",body:'Ragonese S, Vitale S, Dimech M, Mazzola S. 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Petticrew",authors:[{id:"56432",title:"Prof.",name:"Ellen",middleName:null,surname:"Petticrew",fullName:"Ellen Petticrew",slug:"ellen-petticrew"},{id:"56436",title:"Dr.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Rex",fullName:"John Rex",slug:"john-rex"}]},{id:"20914",title:"The Filling Dynamics of an Estuary: From the Process to the Modelling",slug:"the-filling-dynamics-of-an-estuary-from-the-process-to-the-modelling",signatures:"Sylvain Guillou, Jérôme Thiebot, Julien Chauchat Romuald Verjus, Anthony Besq, Duc Hau Nguyen and Keang Sé Pouv",authors:[{id:"36826",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvain",middleName:"Sébastien Victor",surname:"Guillou",fullName:"Sylvain Guillou",slug:"sylvain-guillou"},{id:"90762",title:"Dr.",name:"Jérôme",middleName:null,surname:"Thiébot",fullName:"Jérôme Thiébot",slug:"jerome-thiebot"},{id:"90763",title:"Prof.",name:"Julien",middleName:null,surname:"Chauchat",fullName:"Julien Chauchat",slug:"julien-chauchat"},{id:"90767",title:"MSc.",name:"Romuald",middleName:null,surname:"Verjus",fullName:"Romuald Verjus",slug:"romuald-verjus"},{id:"90771",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Besq",fullName:"Anthony Besq",slug:"anthony-besq"},{id:"91073",title:"MSc.",name:"Duc Hau",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Duc Hau Nguyen",slug:"duc-hau-nguyen"},{id:"91074",title:"Dr.",name:"Keang Se",middleName:null,surname:"Pouv",fullName:"Keang Se Pouv",slug:"keang-se-pouv"}]},{id:"20915",title:"Transport of Sediments in Water Bodies of the Gulf of California",slug:"transport-of-sediments-in-water-bodies-of-the-gulf-of-california",signatures:"Noel Carbajal and Yovani Montaño-Ley",authors:[{id:"43612",title:"Dr.",name:"Noel",middleName:null,surname:"Carbajal",fullName:"Noel Carbajal",slug:"noel-carbajal"},{id:"56509",title:"Dr.",name:"Yovani",middleName:null,surname:"Montaño-Ley",fullName:"Yovani Montaño-Ley",slug:"yovani-montano-ley"}]},{id:"20916",title:"Sediment Transport Modelling and Morphological Trends at a Tidal Inlet",slug:"sediment-transport-modelling-and-morphological-trends-at-a-tidal-inlet",signatures:"Sandra Plecha, Paulo A. Silva, Anabela Oliveira and João M. Dias",authors:[{id:"56217",title:"MSc",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Plecha",fullName:"Sandra Plecha",slug:"sandra-plecha"},{id:"56355",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo A.",middleName:null,surname:"Silva",fullName:"Paulo A. Silva",slug:"paulo-a.-silva"},{id:"56356",title:"Dr.",name:"Anabela",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Anabela Oliveira",slug:"anabela-oliveira"},{id:"56357",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao M.",middleName:null,surname:"Dias",fullName:"Joao M. Dias",slug:"joao-m.-dias"}]},{id:"20917",title:"Coupling Watershed Erosion Model with Instream Hydrodynamic-Sediment Transport Model: An Example of Middle Rio Grande",slug:"coupling-watershed-erosion-model-with-instream-hydrodynamic-sediment-transport-model-an-example-of-m",signatures:"Dong Chen and Li Chen",authors:[{id:"42796",title:"Dr.",name:"Dong",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Dong Chen",slug:"dong-chen"},{id:"49303",title:"Dr.",name:"Li",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Li Chen",slug:"li-chen"}]},{id:"20918",title:"Coastal Morphological Modeling",slug:"coastal-morphological-modeling",signatures:"Yun-Chih Chiang and Sung-Shang Hsiao",authors:[{id:"46119",title:"Prof.",name:"Yun-Chih",middleName:null,surname:"Chiang",fullName:"Yun-Chih Chiang",slug:"yun-chih-chiang"},{id:"50880",title:"Prof.",name:"Sung-Shan",middleName:null,surname:"Hsiao",fullName:"Sung-Shan Hsiao",slug:"sung-shan-hsiao"}]},{id:"20919",title:"Computation of Lake or Reservoir Sedimentation in Terms of Soil Erosion",slug:"computation-of-lake-or-reservoir-sedimentation-in-terms-of-soil-erosion",signatures:"Vlassios Hrissanthou",authors:[{id:"37707",title:"Prof.",name:"Vlassios",middleName:null,surname:"Hrissanthou",fullName:"Vlassios Hrissanthou",slug:"vlassios-hrissanthou"}]},{id:"20920",title:"Hydrodynamic Influences on Fluid Mud Distribution in the Amazon Subaqueous Delta",slug:"hydrodynamic-influences-on-fluid-mud-distribution-in-the-amazon-subaqueous-delta",signatures:"Roberto Fioravanti Carelli Fontes, Aurea Maria Ciotti and Belmiro Mendes de Castro",authors:[{id:"37505",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto Fioravanti",middleName:"Carelli",surname:"Fontes",fullName:"Roberto Fioravanti Fontes",slug:"roberto-fioravanti-fontes"},{id:"55741",title:"Prof.",name:"Áurea",middleName:null,surname:"Ciotti",fullName:"Áurea Ciotti",slug:"aurea-ciotti"},{id:"55742",title:"Prof.",name:"Belmiro",middleName:null,surname:"Castro",fullName:"Belmiro Castro",slug:"belmiro-castro"}]},{id:"20921",title:"Hydrodynamic Effects of Sedimentation on Mass Transport Properties in Dead Water Zone of Natural Rivers",slug:"hydrodynamic-effects-of-sedimentation-on-mass-transport-properties-in-dead-water-zone-of-natural-riv",signatures:"Michio Sanjou",authors:[{id:"50576",title:"Dr.",name:"Michio",middleName:null,surname:"Sanjou",fullName:"Michio Sanjou",slug:"michio-sanjou"}]},{id:"20922",title:"Sediment Transport and River Channel Dynamics in Romania – Variability and Control Factors",slug:"sediment-transport-and-river-channel-dynamics-in-romania-variability-and-control-factors",signatures:"Liliana Zaharia, Florina Grecu, Gabriela Ioana-Toroimac and Gianina Neculau",authors:[{id:"43010",title:"Prof.",name:"Liliana",middleName:null,surname:"Zaharia",fullName:"Liliana Zaharia",slug:"liliana-zaharia"},{id:"55977",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriela",middleName:null,surname:"Ioana-Toroimac",fullName:"Gabriela Ioana-Toroimac",slug:"gabriela-ioana-toroimac"},{id:"91185",title:"Prof.",name:"Grecu",middleName:null,surname:"Florina",fullName:"Grecu Florina",slug:"grecu-florina"},{id:"91186",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianina",middleName:null,surname:"Neculau",fullName:"Gianina Neculau",slug:"gianina-neculau"}]},{id:"20923",title:"Integrating River Bed Dynamics to Flood Risk Assessment",slug:"integrating-river-bed-dynamics-to-flood-risk-assessment",signatures:"Clemens Neuhold, Philipp Stanzel and Hans Peter Nachtnebel",authors:[{id:"38336",title:"Dr.",name:"Clemens",middleName:null,surname:"Neuhold",fullName:"Clemens Neuhold",slug:"clemens-neuhold"},{id:"84308",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Nachtnebel",fullName:"Hans Peter Nachtnebel",slug:"hans-peter-nachtnebel"},{id:"87331",title:"Mr.",name:"Philipp",middleName:null,surname:"Stanzel",fullName:"Philipp Stanzel",slug:"philipp-stanzel"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"304",title:"Sediment Transport in Aquatic Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0eb11af1d03ad494253c41e1d3c998e9",slug:"sediment-transport-in-aquatic-environments",bookSignature:"Andrew J. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a primary (non-necrotizing granulomatous) vasculitis of autoimmune etiology, which especially affects extra cranial medium-sized arteries (branches of the external carotid arteries-ECAs-particularly the superficial temporal arteries-TAs) and sometimes large-sized arteries (aorta and its major branches). It is also recognized as Horton, temporal, or granulomatous arteritis. It causes narrowing of the artery, leading (by wall thickening) to partial (stenosis) or complete obstruction (occlusion) of local arterial blood flow, its clinical manifestations being expressed by signs of local ischemia [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
\n
GCA is the most common form of vasculitis that occurs in adults and in the elderly, being diagnosed over the age of 50’s. Women are two to three times more affected than men. It is well known that the disease can occur in every racial group but is most common in Caucasians, especially people of northern European descent, and others in northern latitudes. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6].
\n
According to Hunder [7], and Jennette [8] a complete diagnosis of GCA requires the presence of American College of Rheumatology (ACR) classification modified criteria:
scalp tenderness, abnormal temporal arteries on inspection and palpation (Figure 1), reduced pulse, jaw claudication (pain in the jaw while/after chewing);
blurred vision or permanent visual loss in one or both eyes (since permanent visual loss due to ischemia is frequent, GCA should be considered an ophthalmic emergency requiring immediate management);
systemic symptoms (fatigue, weight loss, fever, pain in the shoulders and hips: polymyalgia rheumatica);
increased inflammatory markers (erythrocyte sedimentation rate greater than 50 mm/h, C reactive protein greater than 1,5 mg/dl);
representative histologic findings in temporal artery biopsy (TAB): mononuclear cell infiltration or granulomatous inflammation of the vessel wall, usually accompanied with multinucleated giant cells (Figure 2).
\n\n
Figure 1.
Giant cell arteritis (GCA) of the left superficial temporal artery (TA) shows a prominent, tender and nodular artery, that is also hypo pulsating on palpation [9].
\n
Figure 2.
The histopathological examination of the left superficial temporal artery biopsy (TAB) noted [10]. (A) Thickened vascular wall with inflammatory infiltration of multinucleated giant cells, (B) epithelioid cells and (C) dissolution of the internal elastic lamina (H&E stain).
\n
Several imaging techniques may be suitable in the diagnosis of GCA. [9] Compared to other imaging techniques, US is considered to be the most suitable in the evaluation of GCA patients, therefor it can easily be performed by the clinician (immediately after the general examination of patient), and it is significantly shortening the waiting period until another investigation is performed. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
\n
\n
\n
2. Extracranial duplex sonography in giant cell arteritis (GCA)
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Ultrasonography (US) is a safe, noninvasive, without radiations, widespread accessible, fast, and low-cost bedside screening technique which has the unique capacity of studying real-time hemodynamics. It presents the ability to evaluate the anatomy of vessel’s wall, identifying equally parietal abnormalities (wall thickening, hypoechoic plaques, clotting, parietal hematoma, dissections) and the external diameter of the artery; it can rule out both stenosis and occlusion. Therefore, the use of US is widespread in neurological clinical practice, mainly in the evaluation of arterial atherosclerotic process but also for monitoring other diseases such as medium/large-vessel vasculitis. [17, 18, 19].
\n
Olah noted that for US imaging of extracranial vessels different modes are being used:
\nB-mode (brightness mode)\n
\n
The strength of the echo is recorded as a bright dot, while the location of different gray dots corresponds to the depth of the target. [17]
\n
\nb. The duplex image\n
\n
It associates a B-mode gray-scale image with pulse-wave (PW) Doppler flow velocities measurements.
The B-mode image represents the anatomical localization of the vessels, indicating the zone of interest where a Doppler sample volume should be placed and where the velocities are measured.
The Doppler angle can be measured correctly when the blood is parallel to the direction of the vessel. [17]
\n
\nc. Color Doppler flow imaging\n
\n
Measure mean frequency shift in each sample volume.
It represents color–coded velocity information, which is superimposed as a color flow map on a B-mode image.
In each sample volume, the color reflects the blood flow velocity in a semi quantitative manner, as well as the flow direction relative to the transducer. Blood flowing toward or away from the transducer is shown by different colors (red and blue). Moreover, fast flow is indicated by a lighter hue and slow flow by a deeper one.
The color flow map indicates the position and orientation of the vessels, as well as the site of turbulent flow or stenosis. Since color flow mapping is based on flow velocity measured by PW technology, aliasing occurs if the frequency shift is higher than half of the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). [17]
\n
\nd. Power Doppler mode\n
\n
Uses the signal intensity of the returning Doppler signal instead of frequency shift.
Power (intensity) of the signal is displayed as a color map superimposed on a B-mode image. Since the Doppler power is determined mainly by the volume rather than the velocity of moving blood, power Doppler imaging is free from aliasing artifacts and much more sensitive to detect flow, especially in the low-flow regions. However, it does not contain information about the flow direction or flow velocity. [17]
\n\n
The advantages of US over other imaging techniques in GCA are represented by its safety, accessibility, tolerability, fast (may take about 15-20 minutes, if it’s conducted by an experienced sonographer) and the more important, its high resolution (a high –frequency probe offers both an axial and a lateral resolution of 0.1 mm) [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. The smaller the vessel diameter, the more difficult is to appreciate the vessel wall damages, so that, in this case, the most informative US data are based on Doppler spectral evaluation. This is also valid for the assessment of medium to small vessel inflammation such as intracranial vasculitis. Small vessel vasculitis (the ANCA-associated or the immune complex vasculitis) are not a domain of ultrasound. [19].
\n
Furthermore, US has a higher sensitivity than TAB, the last one evaluating only a restricted anatomical region in a systemic disease. Using US, we can reveal pathological characteristics in GCA: non-compressible arteries (compression sign), the wall thickening (“halo” sign), stenosis and vessel occlusion. A normal intima-media complex (IMC) of an artery is represented by US as a homogeneous, hypoechoic or anechoic echo structure delineated by two parallel hyperechoic margins. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
There is imperative to underline the importance of establishing the arteries that should be routinely examined in a patient suspected for GCA and these are: the TAs, and axillary arteries. If US of these arteries does not reveal suggestive lesions, in the presence of a clear patient history and of an obvious clinical examination, other arteries should be examined: other branches of the ECAs (the internal maxillary, the facial, the lingual, the occipital arteries), the vertebral, the subclavian, the common carotid arteries-CCAs, and the internal carotid arteries-ICAs. [9, 19, 21].
\n
Regarding the adequate US equipment for the diagnosis of GCA, modern high-resolution linear probes providing Doppler mode should be used, especially for examination of TAs. We should take into consideration that tissue penetration increases with lower frequencies and the resolution of US increases with higher frequencies. Probes that provide frequencies >20 MHz allow the clearly visualization of the normal IMC of TAs probes with frequencies ≥15 MHz are usually used for detection of minor wall thickening. [19, 21].
\n
\n
2.1 Ultrasonography (US) of the large cervical and cervico-brachial vessels
\n
In 2012, during the Chapel Hill Consensus Conference [19, 28], large vascular vasculitis (LVV) was well-defined as a vasculitis involving the aorta and its major branches, although any size of artery may be affected. This definition does not state that LVV mainly affects large vessels because in many patients, the number of medium and small arteries affected is greater than the number of large arteries involvement. For example, in GCA, only few branches of the ECAs may be affected when there is involvement of numerous small branches extending into the eye and orbit (e.g., central retinal artery, posterior ciliary arteries). [29, 30] Less frequently, the CCA and the ICA are also affected (Figures 3 and 4). [9].
\n
Figure 3.
Large vessels GCA; CT-angiography- occlusion of the left CCA, ECA, and ICA [9].
\n
Figure 4.
Large vessels GCA, color Doppler ultrasound in transverse view of the right CCA. Hypoechoic wall swelling with right CCA occlusion [9].
\n
As Sturzenegger pointed up, angiography is not able to illustrate the vessel wall, so as to diagnose the inflammation of the large cervical and cervico-brachial vessels (aorta and its supra-aortic branches), the US can be very useful, since it can define alterations of the vessel wall with the use of B-mode imaging, while Doppler spectral flow velocity evaluation can help identify the stenosis or occlusion of the vessel. [19].
\n
Color Doppler Duplex sonography (CDDS) is an excellent device used in screening the large vessels involvement. Agreeing with different authors, including Sturzenegger, there are two ultra-sonographic hallmarks of large vessels GCA:
Vessel wall thickening, that typically is homogeneous, circumferential and over long segments (Figures 4 and 5);
Large vessel GCA, color Doppler ultrasound in longitudinal view of the right CCA with hypoechoic wall swelling [4].
\n
Remarkably in some cases [9], the common carotid and the internal carotid arteries are also involved (large-vessel GCA) (Figures 3, 4, and 5).
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Ultrasonography (US) of the temporal arteries (TAs)
\n
Extracranial Duplex sonography investigates almost completely the whole length of the common superficial TAs, including the frontal and parietal branches, and founds that inflammation is segmental (intermittent arterial involvement) [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. The common superficial TA derives from the ECA. It divides into the frontal and parietal ramus in front of the ear. The distal common superficial TA and the rami are localized between the two layers of the temporal fascia, which is like a bright band at ultrasound examination. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
\n
2.2.1 Technical requirements
\n
High-resolution color Doppler US can illustrate the vessel wall and the lumen of the TAs. One should use linear probes with a minimum gray scale frequency of 8 Mhz. Color frequency should be about 10 Mhz. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
\n
\n
2.2.2 Machine adjustments
\n
The pulse repetition frequency (PRF) should be about 2.5 kHz as maximum systolic velocities are rather high (20-100 cm/s). Steering of the color box and the Doppler beam should be maximal as the rami are parallel to the probe. It is important that the color covers the artery lumen exactly. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
\n
\n
2.2.3 Sonographer training
\n
The sonographer should perform at least 50 Duplex ultrasound of the TAs of subjects without GCA to be sure about the appearance of normal TAs before starting to evaluate patients with GCA. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
\n
\n
2.2.4 Sequence of the ultrasound examination
\n
The investigation should begin with the TA, using the longitudinal scan. The probe should then be moved along the course of the TA to the parietal ramus. On the way back one should delineate the TA in transverse scans. Using the transverse scan, one can find the frontal ramus, which should then be delineated in both scans (longitudinal and transverse). If the color signal indicates localized aliasing and diastolic flow, one should use the pw-Doppler mode to confirm the presence of stenosis. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
In 1997 Schmidt et al. proved that the most specific (almost 100% specificity) and sensitive (73% sensitivity) sign for GCA was a concentric hypo-echogenic mural thickening, dubbed “halo”, which the authors interpreted as “vessel wall edema”. [24].
\n
Other positive findings for GCA are the presence of occlusion and stenosis. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
In conclusion, there are three important items in the ultrasound diagnosis of temporal arteritis:
“dark halo” sign – a typically homogeneous, hypoechoic, circumferential wall thickening around the lumen of an inflamed TA - which represents vessel wall edema and a characteristic finding in temporal arteritis/GCA. It is well delineated toward the lumen (Figure 6).
stenosis are documented by blood-flow velocities, which are more than twice the rate recorded in the area of stenosis compared with the area before the stenosis, with wave forms demonstrating turbulence and reduced velocities behind the area of stenosis (Figure 7).
acute occlusions, in which the US image is comparable to that of acute embolism in other vessels, showing hypoechoic material in the former artery lumen with absence of color signals. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]
\n\n
Figure 6.
Color Doppler ultrasonography (CDUS) of the right TA shows a hypoechoic halo around the lumen in transverse view (arrow). The “halo sign” corresponds to edema of the artery wall. [11].
\n
Figure 7.
Longitudinal view of the right TA by color Doppler ultrasonography (CDUS) shows a hypoechoic halo of the TA and the presence of turbulent and weak flow, suggesting the presence of stenosis. The PSV is 1 m/s, that is double compared to the segment without stenosis. [11].
\n
Related ultrasound patterns can be found in other arteries: the facial, the internal maxillary, the lingual, the occipital, the distal subclavian and the axillary arteries.
\n
The best time to perform ultrasound investigation is before initiating the corticosteroid treatment, or in the first 7 days of treatment, since with corticosteroid therapy the” halo” revealed by TAs ultrasound disappears within 2-3 weeks. The wall inflammation, stenosis, or occlusions of the larger arteries (CCA, ICA) remain for months, despite corticosteroid treatment. However, the diagnosis process should not postpone the initiation of therapy. Ultrasound may also detect inflamed TAs in patients with clinically normal TAs. Some patients with the clinical image of polymyalgia rheumatica, but with hidden TAs may be diagnosed using ultrasonography. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
In 2010, Arida et al. [26] evaluated a number of studies that examined the sensitivity and specificity of the “halo” sign confirmed by TA ultrasound (US) for GCA diagnosis versus the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) 1990 criteria for the classification of this vasculitis (used as a reference standard). Only 8 studies involving 575 patients, 204 of whom received the final diagnosis of GCA, achieved the technical quality criteria for US. This meta-analysis disclosed a sensitivity of 68% and a specificity of 91% for the unilateral “halo” sign, as well as 43% and 100%, respectively, for the bilateral “halo” sign in TA US for GCA diagnosis when the 1990 ACR criteria are used as the reference standard. The authors established that the halo sign in US is of great utility in diagnosing GCA. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
\n
In the case of consistent clinical and sonographic results, temporal arteries biopsy (TAB) does not appear to be useful and justified. [19, 27].
\n
Sturzenegger affirmed that differential diagnosis with arteriosclerosis is important in patients over 50 years, taking into consideration that GCA with large vessels disease disturbs almost exclusively this category of patients. There are some characteristic features of the arteriosclerotic wall: the thickening usually appears less homogeneous; there are calcified arteriosclerotic plaques ulcers; stenosis extends over shorter segments, they are not concentric, not tapering, and location of lesions differs (e.g., mainly bifurcations). [19].
\n
Besides, agreeing to Sturzenegger, differential diagnosis with the other LVV, especially Takayasu arteritis, has to be reflected:
Takayasu arteritis usually affects women below the age of 40 years;
symptoms like tender scalp or polymyalgia syndrome are exceptional;
the involvement of CCA is more frequent in Takayasu arteritis, while the involvement of temporal artery in Takayasu arteritis is not known;
US image of wall thickening (“halo”) is brighter in TA than in GCA probably due to a larger mural edema in GCA which is a more acute disease than TA. Reflected. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
2.3 Color Doppler imaging (CDI) of orbital (retro-bulbar) vessels
\n
Approximately 25% of patients with temporal artery biopsy (TAB) - proven GCA have ophthalmologic complications: usually unilateral visual loss (due to the vasculitic involvement of orbital vessels:
of posterior ciliary arteries (PCAs) - represented by arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathies (A-AION), or
of central retinal artery (CRA) - represented by central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO). [31, 32, 33, 34, 35]
\n\n
Schmidt compared the results of TAs-US examinations with the occurrence of visual ischemic complications (A-AION, CRAO, branch retinal artery occlusion, diplopia, or amaurosis fugax) in 222 consecutive patients with newly diagnosed, active GCA. [21, 22, 23, 24].
\n
However, findings of TAs US did not correlate with eye complications. [21, 22, 23, 24].
\n
This is the reason why we always have to exam the orbital (retrobulbar) vessels in GCA patients or in patients with unilateral abrupt visual loss [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16] (Figure 8A,B).
\n
Figure 8.
Color Doppler imaging (CDI) of orbital (retro-bulbar) vessels: (A). central retinal artery (CRA); (B). posterior ciliary arteries (PCAs) [15].
\n
\n
2.3.1 Orbital (retrobulbar) vessels
\n
The ophthalmic artery (OA) branches in several arteries, including (Table 1):
the central retinal artery (CRA) (Figure 8 A), and
the posterior ciliary arteries (nasal and temporal branches-nPCAs, tPCAs) [28, 31, 32] (Figure 8B), (Table 1). [15, 28, 31, 32]
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameter
\n
OA
\n
CRA
\n
PCA (temporal)
\n
PCA (nasal)
\n
SOV (superior ophthalmic vein)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
PSV (cm/s)
\n
45,3 ± 10,5
\n
17,3 ± 2,6
\n
13,3 ± 3,5
\n
12,4 ± 3,4
\n
10,2 ± 3,8
\n
\n
\n
EDV (cm/s)
\n
11,8 ± 4,3
\n
6,2 ± 2,7
\n
6,4 ± 1,5
\n
5,8 ± 2,5
\n
4,3 ± 2,4
\n
\n
\n
RI
\n
0,74 ± 0,07
\n
0,63 ± 0,09
\n
0,52 ± 0,10
\n
0,53 ± 0,08
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Normal flow velocities and Resistance Index in orbital vessels [15, 31, 32].
Note: These are the normal flow velocities and resistances index in orbital vessels which are generally accepted by the specialists.
\n
OA finishes in the a. supra-trohlearis and A. dorsalis nasi.
\n
\n
\n
2.3.2 Probe selection
\n
Standard neurovascular ultrasound machines equipped with linear-array transducers emitting 6-12 MHz (up to 15 MHz) are adequate for identifying (by Color Doppler sonography), and measuring (by spectral analysis pulsed Doppler sonography) the blood flow in the orbital vessels: the OA, the CRA and central retinal vein (CRV), PCAs, and the superior ophthalmic vein (SOV). [28, 31, 32].
\n
The CRA, a distal branch of the OA, enters the optic nerve (ON) approximately 1-1.5 cm distal from the bulbus coming from the dorsolateral direction. Parallel to this is the CRV.
\n
The PCAs are located near the optic nerve (ON) (the nasal-nPCA and the temporal-tPCA branches). [28, 31, 32].
\n
If the vessels are difficult to display, the power should be elevated for a short time if the clinical question is important. [28, 31, 32].
\n
\n
\n
2.3.3 Arterial blood supply of the anterior part of the optic nerve
\n
The optic nerve head (ONH) consists of (from anterior to posterior):
the surface nerve fiber layer - mostly supplied by the retinal arterioles. The cilioretinal artery, when present, usually supplies the corresponding sector of the surface layer. [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]
the prelaminar region - situated anterior of the lamina cribrosa. It is supplied by centripetal branches from the peripapillary choroid. [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]
the lamina cribrosa region - supplied by centripetal branches from the posterior ciliary arteries (PCAs), either directly or by the so-called arterial circle of Zinn and Haller (when is present). [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]
the retrolaminar region - is the part of the ONH that lies immediately behind the lamina cribrosa. It is supplied by two vascular systems: the peripheral centripetal and the axial centrifugal systems. The previous represents the main source of stream for this part. It is formed by recurrent pial branches arising from the peripapillary choroid and the circle of Zinn and Haller (when present, or the PCAs instead). In addition, pial branches from the central retinal artery (CRA) also supply this part. The latter is not present in all eyes. When present, it is formed by inconstant branches arising from the intraneural part of the CRA.
\n\n
From the description of the arterial supply of the ONH given above, it is obvious that the PCAs are the main source of blood supply to the ONH. [36, 37, 38, 39, 40].
\n
\n
\n
2.3.4 Pathophysiology of factors controlling blood flow in the optic nerve head (ONH)
\n
The blood flow in the ONH depends upon [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]:
resistance to blood flow - depends upon the condition and caliber of the vessels supplying the ONH, which in turn are influenced by: the efficiency of auto-regulation of the ONH blood flow, the vascular variations in the arteries feeding the ONH circulation, and the rheological properties of the blood.
arterial blood pressure (BP) - both arterial hypertension and hypotension can influence the ONH blood flow in several ways. In an ONH, a fall of blood pressure below a critical level of auto-regulation would decrease its blood flow. Decrease of BP in the ONH may be due to systemic (nocturnal arterial hypotension during sleep, intensive antihypertensive medication, etc.) or local hypotension.
intra-ocular pressure (IOP) - there is an opposite relationship between intra-ocular pressure and perfusion pressure in the ONH.
\n\n
The blood flow in the ONH is calculated by using the following formula:
\n
Perfusion pressure = Mean BP minus intraocular pressure (IOP).
\n
Mean BP = Diastolic BP + 1/3 (systolic - diastolic BP) [6, 13].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathies (AIONs)
\n
AION is the consequence of an acute ischemic disorder (a segmental infarction) of the ONH supplied by the PCAs. Blood supply interruption can occur with or without arterial inflammation. Therefore, AION is of two types: non-arteritic AION (NA-AION) and arteritic AION (A-AION). The prior is far more common than the last, and they are distinct entities etiologically, pathogenically, clinically and from the management point of view. [36, 37, 38, 39, 40].
\n
A history of amaurosis fugax before an abrupt, painless, and severe loss of vision of the involved eye, with concomitant diffuse pale optic disc edema is extremely suggestive of A-AION. None of these symptoms are found in NA-AION patients. [36, 37, 38, 39, 40].
\n
\n
3.1 Spectral Doppler analysis of the orbital (retro-bulbar) vessels in A-AION
\n
In acute stage, blood flow cannot be detected in the PCAs in the clinically affected eye of any of the GCA patients with A-AION. Low end diastolic velocities (EDV) and high resistance index (RI) are identified in all other orbital vessels (including the PCAs in the opposite eye) of all A-AION patients. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41].
\n
Over 7 days, Spectral Doppler analysis of the orbital vessels highlights blood flow alterations in all A-AION patients even with a high-dose corticosteroids therapy. Severely reduced blood flow velocities (especially EDV) in the PCAs of the affected eye (both nasal and temporal branches), compared to the unaffected eye, are observed. An increased RI in the PCAs is noted (the RI is higher on the clinically affected eye as compared to the unaffected eye). [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41] (Figure 9A,B).
\n
Figure 9.
CDI of the PCAs in A-AION: (A). Decreased EDV in the nasal PCAs of the clinically affected right eye, and (B) of the clinically unaffected left eye.
\n
Fewer abnormalities are detected in the CRAs: high RI are measured in both sides, with decreased peak systolic velocities (PSV) in the CRA of the clinically affected eye. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41].
\n
Similar abnormalities are noted in the OAs: high RI are measured in both sides. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41].
\n
At 1 month, after treatment with high-dose corticosteroids, CDI examinations of orbital blood vessels reveals that blood flow normalization is slow in all A-AION patients. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41].
\n
In conclusion, the Spectral Doppler Analysis of the orbital vessels in A-AION indicates (after several days of corticosteroid treatment) low blood velocities, especially EDV, and high RI in all orbital vessels, in both orbits. These signs represent characteristic signs of the CDI of the orbital vessels in A-AION. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41].
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Spectral Doppler analysis of the orbital (retro-bulbar) vessels in NA-AION
\n
In contrast, the patients with NA-AION present the following characteristics in acute stage, and at 1 week of evolution:
minor reduction of PSV in PCAs (nasal and temporal) in the affected eye, compared to the unaffected eye.
slight decrease of PSV in CRA of the affected eye, due to papillary edema. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41]:
in OAs, PSV are variable: normal to decreased, according to ipsilateral ICAs status.
\n\n
Severe ICA stenosis (≥70% of vessel diameter) combined with an insufficient Willis polygon led to diminish PSV in ipsilateral OA. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41].
\n
In 1 month, CDI examinations of orbital blood vessels reveal that blood flow normalization is reached. The exceptions are the cases with severe ipsilateral ICA stenosis/occlusion. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41].
\n
In conclusion, in NA-AION, blood velocities and RI in PCAs are preserved. Similar results were obtained in other studies. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 41].
\n
Fluorescein angiogram and CDI of the orbital vessels data support the histopathological evidence of involvement of the entire trunk of the PCAs in the A-AION (impaired optic disc and choroidal perfusion in the patients with A-AION). On the other hand, in the NA-AION, the impaired flow to the optic nerve head (ONH) is distal to the PCAs themselves, possibly at the level of the para-optic branches (only 1/3 of the flow of the PCAs). [36, 37, 38, 39, 40].
\n
These branches supply the ONH directly (impaired optic disc perfusion, with relatively conservation of the choroidal perfusion). [36, 37, 38, 39, 40].
\n
Extremely delayed or absent filling of the choroid has been depicted as a fluorescein angiogram characteristic of arteritic AION and has been suggested as one useful factor by which A-AION can be differentiated from NA-AION. [36, 37, 38, 39, 40].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO)
\n
CRAO is the result of an abrupt diminuation of blood flow in CRA, severe enough to cause ischemia of the inner retina. Due to the fact that there are no functional anastomoses between choroidal (PCAs) and retinal circulation (CRA), CRAO determines severe and permanent loss of vision. Therefore, it is very important to identify the cause of CRAO, in order to protect the contralateral eye. Frequently, the site of the blockage is within the optic nerve substance and for this reason, it is generally not visible on the ophthalmoscopy. The majority of CRAO are caused by thrombus formation due to systemic diseases, including GCA. For this reason, all patients with CRAO should undergo a systemic evaluation. [42, 43, 44].
\n
\n
4.1 Spectral Doppler analysis of the orbital (retro-bulbar) vessels in CRAO
\n
The patients with an unilateral CRAO present at the Spectral Doppler analysis of the retrobulbar vessels the following aspects [9, 15, 16]:
an elevated RI in the CRAs (the RI is higher on the affected side, than it is on the unaffected side); with severe diminished blood flow velocities (especially EDV) in the CRA.
fewer abnormalities are observed in the PCAs, and in the OAs (Figure 10).
\n\n
Figure 10.
CDI of orbital vessels revealed severely diminished EDV and high RI in both CRAs (a, b) despite the fact that the left eye had the normal aspect at ophthalmoscopy. Fewer abnormalities were observed in the PCAs (c, d). [15].
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. US and others imaging techniques
\n
Other imaging techniques, such as high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), magnetic resonance-angiography (MR-A), computer tomography angiography (CT-A), positron emission tomography (PET) provide valuable information regarding the structure of large vessels, highlighting with much greater precision the thoracic aorta, compared with US. [45, 46, 47].
\n
There are few studies that compared US with other imaging techniques. Some of them indicated that there is a good correlation between US and PET, even though PET might have a little more sensitivity for vertebral arteries examination. [45, 46] 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography/ computed tomography (FDG-PET/CT) has a higher sensitivity for detection of large arteries and aortic involvement - analysis of the arterial wall. [45, 46] The diagnostic power of high-resolution MRI and color-coded duplex US of extra-cranial arteries in detecting GCA are equivalent [47].
\n
The disadvantages of this techniques are: they are more expensive, hardly accessible, some of them are limited by invasiveness, nephrotoxicity (angiography) and exposure to high radiations (CT,PET), this is why they might be unnecessary (excepting those patients with exclusively thoracic aorta involvement) and are not accepted as diagnostic methods in GCA. They should only be used when interventions are required [45, 46, 47].
\n
All these imaging techniques should always be performed by well-trained specialists, using suitable equipment and operational protocols. [45, 46, 47].
\n
Nevertheless, US is particularly useful in examining the orbital vessels. [9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 28, 31, 32, 41].
\n
The diagnostic work-up of AION benefits from the combined used of fluorescein angiography and noninvasive multimodal imaging, including CDI of the orbital vessels and structural Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) of the optic nerve head (ONH) and OCT angiography [10, 48]. They provide very detailed information regarding the structural (retinal nerve fiber layer-RNFL-thickness/optic disc edema) and vascular impairments (microvascular defects-vessel tortuosity, and vessel density reduction) of the ONH, respectively [10, 48].
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions
\n
US should be used as a first-line diagnostic investigation for patients presenting with clinical and biological features suggestive for GCA, taking into consideration that it has a high sensitivity to detect vessel wall thickening (dark hallo sign) in the case of large/medium vessels. In a few cases of our studies, the CCAs and the ICAs were also involved.
\n
In consequence, in our department, CCDS has emerged as a safe and reliable alternative to TAB as a point of care diagnostic tool in the management of temporal arteritis.
\n
The eye involvement in GCA is frequent and consists in A-AIONs or CRAO, with abrupt, painless, and severe loss of vision of the involved eye.
\n
Because findings of TAs US do not correlate with eye complications in GCA, CDI of the orbital vessels is of critical importance, in order to quickly differentiate the mechanism of eye involvement (arteritic, versus non-arteritic). This US tehnique may be helpful to detect the blood flow in the orbital vessels, especially in cases of opacity of the medium, or when the clinical appearance of ophthalmologic complications in temporal arteritis is athypical.
\n
The Spectral Doppler Analysis of the orbital vessels in GCA with eye involvement reveals low blood velocities, especially EDV, and high RI in all orbital vessels, in both orbits, for all patients (especially on the affected side).
\n
A huge advantage of CDI of orbital vessels is that it provides immediate information that can be used to inform treatment decisions, including a potential reduction in loss of sight and avoidance of unnecessary long-term steroid treatment by early exclusion of mimics.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"giant cell arteritis (GCA), temporal arteries (TAs), temporal artery biopsy (TAB), “dark halo” sign, ultrasonography (US), arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathies (A-AION), central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO), color Doppler imaging (CDI) of the orbital vessels, end diastolic velocities (EDV), resistance index (RI)",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75441.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75441.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75441",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75441",totalDownloads:234,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 4th 2020",dateReviewed:"February 3rd 2021",datePrePublished:"February 26th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 26th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a primary vasculitis that affects especially extracranial medium-sized arteries, such as superficial temporal arteries (TAs). Three findings are important for the ultrasound (US) diagnosis of TA: „dark halo” sign, which represents vessel wall edema, stenosis, and acute occlusions. US has a high sensitivity to detect vessel wall thickening in the case of large vessels GCA. The eye involvement in GCA is frequent and consists in arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathies or central retinal arterial occlusion, with abrupt, painless, and severe loss of vision of the involved eye. Because findings of TAs US do not correlate with eye complications in GCA, color Doppler imaging of the orbital vessels is of critical importance (it reveals low end diastolic velocities, and high resistance index), in order to quickly differentiate the mechanism of eye involvement (arteritic, versus non-arteritic). The former should be treated promptly with systemic corticosteroids to prevent further visual loss of the fellow eye.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75441",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75441",signatures:"Dragoș Cătălin Jianu, Silviana Nina Jianu, Georgiana Munteanu, Traian Flavius Dan, Anca Elena Gogu and Ligia Petrica",book:{id:"10304",type:"book",title:"Giant-Cell Arteritis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Giant-Cell Arteritis",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Imtiaz A. Chaudhry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10304.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-209-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-208-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-210-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"66603",title:"Dr.",name:"Imtiaz",middleName:"A.",surname:"Chaudhry",slug:"imtiaz-chaudhry",fullName:"Imtiaz Chaudhry"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Extracranial duplex sonography in giant cell arteritis (GCA)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Ultrasonography (US) of the large cervical and cervico-brachial vessels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Ultrasonography (US) of the temporal arteries (TAs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Technical requirements",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Machine adjustments",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Sonographer training",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4 Sequence of the ultrasound examination",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.3 Color Doppler imaging (CDI) of orbital (retro-bulbar) vessels",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.3.2 Probe selection",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.3.3 Arterial blood supply of the anterior part of the optic nerve",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.3.4 Pathophysiology of factors controlling blood flow in the optic nerve head (ONH)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathies (AIONs)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.1 Spectral Doppler analysis of the orbital (retro-bulbar) vessels in A-AION",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.2 Spectral Doppler analysis of the orbital (retro-bulbar) vessels in NA-AION",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Central retinal artery occlusion (CRAO)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.1 Spectral Doppler analysis of the orbital (retro-bulbar) vessels in CRAO",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"5. US and others imaging techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nGonzalez-Gay M.(2005) The diagnosis and management of patients with giant cell arteritis. J Rheumatol 2005;32:1186-1188.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nSalvarani C, Cantini F, Hunder GG (2008): Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant-cell arteritis. Lancet 2008, 372:234-245.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nMelson MR, Weyand CM, Newman NJ, Biousse V. The diagnosis of giant cell arteritis. Rev Neurol Dis 2007: 4(3): 128 - 42.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nHayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Raman R, Zimmerman B. Giant cell arteritis: validity and reliability of various diagnostic criteria. AmJOphthalmol 1997: 123(3): 285- 96.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nLevine SM, Hellmann DB. (2002) Giant cell arteritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2002;14:3-10.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nGonzalez-Gay MA, Vazquez-Rodriguez TR, Lopez-Diaz MJ, et al. Epidemiology of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica Arthritis Rheum 2009, 61:1454-1461.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nHunder G.G., et al. (1990) - The American College of Reumatology 1990 criteria for the classification of giant cell arteritis, Arteritis Rheum. 1990; 33:1122-28.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nJennette J et al-Revised international Chapell Hill consensus Conference Nomenclature of Vasculitides. Arthritis Rheum. 2013;65:1-11.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nJianu DC, Jianu SN, Petrica L, Serpe M - Advances in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Vasculitis - Luis M Amezcua-Guerra (Ed.)-Chapter 16, Large Giant Cell Arteritis with Eye Involvement, InTech, Rijeka, Croatia,2011, pg 311-330.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nStanca HT, Suvac E, Munteanu M, Jianu DC, Motoc AGM, Rosca GC, Boruga O - Giant cell arteritis with arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Rom J Morphol Embryol 2017, 58 (1): 281-285.\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nJianu DC, Jianu SN. Chapter 8-The role of Color Doppler Imaging in the study of optic neuropathies. In: Jianu DC, Jianu SN, editors. Color Doppler Imaging. Neuro-ophthalmological correlations. Timisoara, Romania: Mirton: 2010. p. 154- 74.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nJianu DC, Jianu SN– Updates in the diagnosis and treatment of vasculitis - Lazaros Sakkas and Christina Katsiari (Ed.) - Chapter 5, Giant Cell Arteritis and arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathies InTech, Rijeka, Croatia, 2013, pg 111- 130.\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nJianu DC, Jianu SN, Petrica L, Motoc AGM, Dan TF, Lazureanu DC, Munteanu M - Clinical and color Doppler imaging features of one patient with occult giant cell arteritis presenting arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Rom J Morphol Embryol 2016, 57(2): 579-583.\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nJianu DC, Jianu SN, Munteanu M, Petrica L-Clinical and ultrasonographic features in anterior ischemic optic neuropathies –Vojnosanitetski Pregled (Military Medical and Pharmaceutical Journal of Serbia) 2018, August, Vol.75 (No.8): p.773-779.\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nJianu DC, Jianu SN. Chapter 6-The role of Color Doppler Imaging in the study of central retinal artery obstruction. In: Jianu DC, Jianu SN, editors. Color Doppler Imaging. Neuro-ophthalmological correlations. Timisoara, Romania: Mirton: 2010. p. 125-142.\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nJianu DC, Jianu SN, Munteanu M, Vlad D, Rosca C, Petrica L - Color Doppler imaging features of two patients presenting central retinal artery occlusion with and without giant cell arteritis. Vojnosanitetski Pregled (Military Medical and Pharmaceutical Journal of Serbia) 2016 April Vol.73 (No.4), 397-401.\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nLaszlo Olah. Chapter 1 Ultrasound principles pg 1-14, in Manual of Neurosonology, L Csiba, and C Baracchini (ed), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 2016.\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nMassimo Del Sete and Valentina Saia. Chapter 5A. Atherosclerotic carotid disease. Carotid ultrasound imaging, pg 57-63, in Manual of Neurosonology, L Csiba, and C Baracchini (ed), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 2016.\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nMathias H. Sturzenegger. Chapter 8 Cervical artery vasculitides pg 300-305, in Manual of Neurosonology, L Csiba, and C Baracchini (ed), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 2016).\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nDuftner C, Dejaco C, Moller-Dohn U. Ultrasound definitions for vasculitis in cranial and large vessel giant cell arteritis: results of a Delphi survey of the OMERACT ultrasound large vessel vasculitis group. Ann Rheum Dis2016;75(Suppl 2):626. Doi:10.1136/annrheumdis-2016-eular.5487.\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nSchmidt WA. Role of ultrasound in the understanding and management of vasculitis. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis 2014; 6: 39-47.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nWolfgang A. Schmidt Ultrasound in the diagnosis and management of giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology 2018; 57: ii22-ii31 doi:10.1093/rheumatology/kex461.\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nSchmidt WA.Takayasu and temporal arteritis, in Baumgartner R.W. (ed.): Handbook on Neurovascular Ultrasound. Front.Neurol.Neurosci.Basel, Karger, 2006, 21:96-104.\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nSchmidt WA, Kraft HE, Vorpahl K, et al.Color duplex ultrasonography in the diagnosis of temporal arteritis. N Engl J Med 1997, 337:1336-1342.\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nMonti S, Floris A, Ponte C et al. The use of ultrasound to assess giant cell arteritis: review of the current evidence and practical guide for the rheumatologist. Rheumatology 2018;57:227-35.\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nArida A, Kyprianou M, Kanakis M, Sfikakis PP. The diagnostic value of ultrasonography-derived edema of the temporal artery wall in giant cell arteritis: a second meta-analysis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2010, 11:44.\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nJared Ching, Sonja Mansfield Smith, Bhaskar Dasgupta, Erika Marie Damato, The Role of Vascular Ultrasound in Managing Giant Cell Arteritis in Ophthalmology https://doi.org/10.1016/j.survophthal.2019.11.004Get rights and content.\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nMario Siebler. Chapter 25 Neuro-orbital ultrasound, pg 300-305 in Manual of Neurosonology, L Csiba, and C Baracchini (ed), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 2016).\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nMartínez-Valle F, Solans-Laqué R, Bosch-Gil J, et al.(2010): Aortic involvement in giant cell arteritis. Autoimmun Rev 2010, 9:521-524.\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nAgard C, Barrier JH, Dupas B, et al. Aortic involvement in recent-onset giant cell (temporal) arteritis: a case-control prospective study using helical aortic computed tomodensitometric scan. Arthritis Rheum 2008, 59:670-676.\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nPichot O, Gonzalvez B, Franco A, Mouillon M. Color Doppler ultrasonography in the study of orbital and ocular vascular diseases. J Fr Ophtalmol; 2001, 19(1): 19-31.\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nLieb WE, Cohen SM, Merton DA, Shields JA, Mitchell DG, Goldberg BB. Color Doppler imaging of the eye and orbit. Technique and normal vascular anatomy. Arch Ophthalmol 1991; 109(4): 527- 31.\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nGonzalez-Gay MA, Garcia-Porrua C, Llorca J, Hajeer AH, Branas F, Dababneh A, et al.(2000) Visual manifestations of giant cell arteritis: trends and clinical spectrum in 161 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000;79:283-92.\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nSingh AG, Kermani TA, Crowson CS, Weyand CM, Matteson EL, Warrington KJ. Visual manifestations in giant cell arteritis: Trend over 5 decades in a population-based cohort. J Rheumatol 2015: 42(2): 309-15.\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nHayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman B. Occult giant cell arteritis: ocular manifestations. Am J Ophthalmol 1998: 125(4): 521- 6.\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nBiousse V: Newman NJ. Ischemic Optic Neuropathies. N Engl J Med 2015: 372(25): 2428- 36.\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nArnold AC.Chapter 191 - Ischemic optic neuropathy, in Ianoff M., Duker J.S., ed., Ophtalmology, second edition, Mosby, 2004:1268-1272.\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nCollignon-Robe NJ, Feke GT, Rizzo JF. Optic nerve head circulation in nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy and optic neuritis, Ophthalmol. 2004; 111: 1663-72.\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nHayreh SS. Ischemic optic neuropathies-where are we now? Graefes Arch Clin Exp Oplnhalmol 2013: 251(8): 1873-84.\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nHayreh SS. Management of ischemic optic neuropathies. Inidian J Ophthalmol 2011:59(2): 123- 36.\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nTranquart F, Aubert-Urena AS, Arsene S, Audrierie C, Rossazza C., Pourcelot L. Echo-Doppler couleur des arteres ciliaires posterieures dans la neuropathie optique ischemique anterieure aigue, J.E.MU. 1997; 18(1):6871.\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nDuker JS. Chapter 114 - Retinal arterial obstruction, in Yanoff M., Duker J.S., ed., Ophtalmology, second edition, Mosby, 2004:856-63.\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nAhuja RM, Chaturvedi S, Elliot A, et al. Mechanism of retinal arterial occlusive disease in African, American and Caucasian patients, Stroke 1999, 30(8): 479-84.\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nConnolly BP, Krishnan A, Shah GK, Whelan J, Brown GC, Eagle RC, et al. Characteristics of patients presenting with central retinal artery occlusion with and without giant cell arteritis. Can J Ophthalmol 2000; 35(7): 379-84.\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nCzihal M, Tato F, Forster S et al. Fever of unknown origin as initial manifestation of large vessel giant cell arteritis: diagnosis by colour-coded sonography and 18-FDG-PET. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2010;28:549-52.\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nGermano G, Macchioni P, Possemato N et al. Contrast enhanced ultrasound of the carotid artery in patients with large vessel vasculitis: correlation with positron emission tomography findings. Arthritis Care Res 2017;69:143-9.\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nBley TA, Reinhard M, Hauenstein C et al. Comparison of duplex sonography and high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Arthritis Rheum 2008; 58: 2574-8.\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nPierro L, Arrigo A, Aragona E, Cavalleri M, Bandello F. Vessel Density and vessel tortuosity quantitative analysis of A-AIONS and NA-AIONS: an OCT-Angiography Study. Journal of Clinical Medicine 2020;Apr 12;9 (4)1094 doi: 10.3390/jcm9041094\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Dragoș Cătălin Jianu",address:"dcjianu@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Neurology, “Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
Department of Neurology, Clinical Emergency County Hospital, Timisoara, Romania
Department of Nephrology, “Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
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Life",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6000bc0eeed7fcf0277a2f8d75907d9",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",bookSignature:"Ana Alice Vilas Boas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5761.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175373",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Vilas Boas",slug:"ana-alice-vilas-boas",fullName:"Ana Alice Vilas Boas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"66422",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85463",title:"Vulnerability and Social Exclusion: Risk in Adolescence and Old Age",slug:"vulnerability-and-social-exclusion-risk-in-adolescence-and-old-age",totalDownloads:1157,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Vulnerability can be defined as the quality or state of being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either physically or emotionally. In this chapter, it is defined as a possible ability of an individual or a group to face, manage, and anticipate a possible problem. This concept of vulnerability is associated with that of risk factor for social isolation, and therefore to situations that can also lead to illness and lack of mental and physical health. It can have its roots in poverty, in social exclusion, in ethnicity, in disability or simply in disease or specific developmental phases in life. All these aspects reflect very important vulnerability factors among biological, psychological, social, and behavioral variables. To date, no one has highlighted together two critical moments in life in which this brain area undergoes important variations: adolescence, in which its development occurs, and old age, in which this area goes into cognitive decline with the relative loss of many higher cognitive functions. This knowledge can help to better understand the forms of exclusion due to vulnerability in order to develop new forms of social inclusion.",book:{id:"8262",slug:"the-new-forms-of-social-exclusion",title:"The New Forms of Social Exclusion",fullTitle:"The New Forms of Social Exclusion"},signatures:"Rosalba Morese, Sara Palermo, Matteo Defedele, Juri Nervo and Alberto Borraccino",authors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",middleName:null,surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese"},{id:"218983",title:"BSc.",name:"Juri",middleName:null,surname:"Nervo",slug:"juri-nervo",fullName:"Juri Nervo"},{id:"218984",title:"MSc.",name:"Matteo",middleName:null,surname:"Defedele",slug:"matteo-defedele",fullName:"Matteo Defedele"},{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"},{id:"266453",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Borraccino",slug:"alberto-borraccino",fullName:"Alberto Borraccino"}]},{id:"74550",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95395",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2308,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"55323",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68873",title:"Positive Psychology: The Use of the Framework of Achievement Bests to Facilitate Personal Flourishing",slug:"positive-psychology-the-use-of-the-framework-of-achievement-bests-to-facilitate-personal-flourishing",totalDownloads:1737,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The Framework of Achievement Bests, which was recently published in Educational Psychology Review, makes a theoretical contribution to the study of positive psychology. The Framework of Achievement Bests provides an explanatory account of a person’s optimal best practice from his/her actual best. Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of optimization, which is central to our understanding of person’s optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman’s PERMA theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan and Bing H. Ngu",authors:[{id:"196435",title:"Prof.",name:"Huy",middleName:"P",surname:"Phan",slug:"huy-phan",fullName:"Huy Phan"}]},{id:"55349",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68596",title:"The Development of a Human Well-Being Index for the United States",slug:"the-development-of-a-human-well-being-index-for-the-united-states",totalDownloads:2041,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a human well-being index (HWBI) that assesses the over-all well-being of its population at the county level. The HWBI contains eight domains representing social, economic and environmental well-being. These domains include 25 indicators comprised of 80 metrics and 22 social, economic and environmental services. The application of the HWBI has been made for the nation as a whole at the county level and two alternative applications have been made to represent key populations within the overall US population—Native Americans and children. A number of advances have been made to estimate the values of metrics for counties where no data is available and one such estimator—MERLIN—is discussed. Finally, efforts to make the index into an interactive web site are described.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"J. Kevin Summers, Lisa M. Smith, Linda C. Harwell and Kyle D. Buck",authors:[{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers"},{id:"197486",title:"Ms.",name:"Lisa",middleName:null,surname:"Smith",slug:"lisa-smith",fullName:"Lisa Smith"},{id:"197487",title:"Ms.",name:"Linda",middleName:null,surname:"Harwell",slug:"linda-harwell",fullName:"Linda Harwell"},{id:"197488",title:"Dr.",name:"Kyle",middleName:null,surname:"Buck",slug:"kyle-buck",fullName:"Kyle Buck"}]},{id:"56529",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70237",title:"Well-being and Quality of Working Life of University Professors in Brazil",slug:"well-being-and-quality-of-working-life-of-university-professors-in-brazil",totalDownloads:1676,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"This chapter presents a study about the perceptions on quality of working life (QWL) regarding factors and indicator in two public universities in Brazil. It aimed also to analyze their perceptions about university working conditions. This exploratory study is based on quantitative and qualitative analyses. A sample of 715 university professors participated on the research. Data collection was carried out in two steps: online survey and focus groups. There is a moderate negative correlation between psychological well-being and work-related stress. Emotional charge also presents a moderate positive correlation with work-related stress, as well as physical charge and psychological distress. Work-life balance is negatively correlated with physical charge, emotional charge, work-related stress, psychological distress, and burnout. We observed also that 43.6% of the professors reported high levels of work-related stress in their everyday work. The precariousness of university teaching is associated with three main elements, which we defined as the tripod of the precarization of university teaching work. It consists of academic productivism, excess of administrative work and bureaucratic activities, and inadequate working conditions. The operating dynamics of this tripod effect professors’ well-being, their QWL, and even the quality of the work they develop in public universities.",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Alessandro Vinicius de Paula and Ana Alice Vilas Boas",authors:[{id:"175373",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Vilas Boas",slug:"ana-alice-vilas-boas",fullName:"Ana Alice Vilas Boas"},{id:"196534",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro Vinicius",middleName:null,surname:"De Paula",slug:"alessandro-vinicius-de-paula",fullName:"Alessandro Vinicius De Paula"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"76968",title:"In the Darkness of This Time: Wittgenstein and Freud on Uncertainty",slug:"in-the-darkness-of-this-time-wittgenstein-and-freud-on-uncertainty",totalDownloads:461,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Both Wittgenstein and Freud experienced the crisis of humanism resulting from the first and second world wars. Although they were both considered to be influential figures, they hardly investigated the ways in which people could cope with the consequences of these crises. However, Wittgenstein and Freud did suggest ways of understanding uncertainties caused by real life events, as well as by the nature of human thought processes. This article will explore the therapeutic ways of dealing with uncertainties common to both thinkers and the different concepts facilitating their methodologies. The central contention of this article is that both Wittgenstein and Freud developed a complex methodology, acknowledging the constant and unexpected changes humans have deal with, whilst also offering the possibility of defining “hinge propositions” and “language-games” which can stabilize our consciousness.",book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives"},signatures:"Dorit Lemberger",authors:[{id:"325725",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorit",middleName:null,surname:"Lemberger",slug:"dorit-lemberger",fullName:"Dorit Lemberger"}]},{id:"76565",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Transition from Distress to Acceptance of Human Frailty - Anthropology and Psychology of the Pandemic Era",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-transition-from-distress-to-acceptance-of-human-frailty-anthropology-and-ps",totalDownloads:393,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives"},signatures:"Fabio Gabrielli and Floriana Irtelli",authors:[{id:"174641",title:"Dr.",name:"Floriana",middleName:null,surname:"Irtelli",slug:"floriana-irtelli",fullName:"Floriana Irtelli"},{id:"259407",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrielli",slug:"fabio-gabrielli",fullName:"Fabio Gabrielli"}]},{id:"77214",title:"The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Mental Health of Dentists",slug:"the-impact-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-on-the-mental-health-of-dentists",totalDownloads:390,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Since March 2020, the COVID-19 disease has declared a pandemic producing a worldwide containment. For months, many people were subjected to strict social isolation away from family and loved ones to prevent disease transmission, leading to anxiety, fear, and depression. On the other hand, many had to close down their businesses and stop working, resulting in financial issues. Previous studies have reported that pandemics, epidemics, and some diseases can lead to mental disorders such as fear, anxiety, stress, and depression. Among those most affected, healthcare workers (HCWs), especially those on the front line, often develop mental health problems. Although there is data available on the management and care of HCWs, little attention has been paid to the mental health and well-being of dentists during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, this chapter aims to review the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on dentists’ mental health and mental health-related symptoms. Finally, to recommend specific measures to avoid consequent potential implications for dentists, dental students, and dental patients.",book:{id:"10814",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives"},signatures:"Andrea Vergara-Buenaventura and Carmen Castro-Ruiz",authors:[{id:"346660",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Vergara-Buenaventura",slug:"andrea-vergara-buenaventura",fullName:"Andrea Vergara-Buenaventura"},{id:"419814",title:"MSc.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Castro-Ruiz",slug:"carmen-castro-ruiz",fullName:"Carmen Castro-Ruiz"}]},{id:"55323",title:"Positive Psychology: The Use of the Framework of Achievement Bests to Facilitate Personal Flourishing",slug:"positive-psychology-the-use-of-the-framework-of-achievement-bests-to-facilitate-personal-flourishing",totalDownloads:1748,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The Framework of Achievement Bests, which was recently published in Educational Psychology Review, makes a theoretical contribution to the study of positive psychology. The Framework of Achievement Bests provides an explanatory account of a person’s optimal best practice from his/her actual best. Another aspect emphasizes on the saliency of the psychological process of optimization, which is central to our understanding of person’s optimal functioning in a subject matter. Achieving an exceptional level of best practice (e.g. achieving excellent grades in mathematics) does not exist in isolation, but rather depends on the potent impact of optimization. This chapter, theoretical in nature, focuses on an in‐depth examination of the expansion of the Framework of Achievement Bests. Our discussion of the Framework of Achievement Bests, reflecting a methodical conceptualization, is benchmarked against another notable theory for understanding, namely: Martin Seligman’s PERMA theory. For example, for consideration, one aspect that we examine entails the extent to which the Framework of Achievement Bests could explain the optimization of each of the five components of PERMA (e.g. how does the Framework of Achievement Bests explain the optimization of engagement?).",book:{id:"5761",slug:"quality-of-life-and-quality-of-working-life",title:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life",fullTitle:"Quality of Life and Quality of Working Life"},signatures:"Huy P. Phan and Bing H. 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He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11399,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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