\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"},{slug:"intechopen-identified-as-one-of-the-most-significant-contributor-to-oa-book-growth-in-doab-20210809",title:"IntechOpen Identified as One of the Most Significant Contributors to OA Book Growth in DOAB"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2287",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Crude Oil Exploration in the World",title:"Crude Oil Exploration in the World",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'"Crude Oil Exploration in the World" contains multidisciplinary chapters in the fields of prospection and exploration of crude oils all over the world in addition to environmental impact assessments, oil spills and marketing of crude oils.',isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0379-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6158-5",doi:"10.5772/2676",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"crude-oil-exploration-in-the-world",numberOfPages:232,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"929c0975182e0946cc7cc5ed77cfc137",bookSignature:"Mohamed Abdel-Aziz Younes",publishedDate:"March 16th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2287.jpg",numberOfDownloads:53235,numberOfWosCitations:23,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:38,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:71,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 4th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 1st 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 6th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 5th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 4th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"104550",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Abdel-Aziz",surname:"Younes",slug:"mohamed-younes",fullName:"Mohamed Younes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104550/images/system/104550.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Mohamed Abdel-Aziz Younes has recently rejoined the staff of Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Egypt as a Professor of Petroleum Geology and Geochemistry in 2007.\nMohamed has B. 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The ICSI has become method of choice to achieve fertilization. Fertilization is possible in cases in which the sperm motility and ability to penetrate the zona pellucida are impaired. Injection is possible with sperm obtained from ejaculation, microsurgical epididymal sperm aspiration (MESA), percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration (PESA), or testicular sperm extraction (TESE). In addition, indications for ICSI include idiopathic infertility and repeated conventional
The risk of oocyte damage by the ICSI procedure is low in humans and is due to both the skill of the person performing the injection procedure and the quality of the gametes used during the procedure [8]. The embryologist performing ICSI procedure is a significant predictor of fertilization, and laboratory conditions (i.e. incubators, culture of oocytes individually versus grouped) do not affect the rates [9]. When fertilization failure in most or all of the injected oocytes occurs, with experienced practitioners using normal sperm, the diagnosis falls to oocyte dysfunction, oocyte activation failure, or inability of sperm to be decondensed and processed by the oocyte.
Although ICSI is now a routine, it remains a very demanding technique to master, due partly to its inherent technical difficulty and partly to the heterogeneity of the cases. It is generally agreed that the ICSI procedure is subject to a “learning curve" [9] and that one common technical failure is not depositing the sperm within the oocyte cytoplasm. In this situation, the oocyte membrane may not have been broken during attempts to aspirate the ooplasm into the ICSI needle. Thus, the sperm is deposited next to the membrane so that when the oolemma returns to its original position, the sperm is pushed out into the perivitelline space, or is trapped inside a sac formed by the membrane [10]. The sperm may also become adherent to the tip of the injection needle or remain within the injection needle and be inadvertently pulled out upon withdrawal of the needle from the cytoplasm. Aspiration of the ooplasm is always used to make sure that the oocyte membrane is broken during injection. However, if the ooplasm is aspirated too much, degeneration of the oocyte frequently results. The degeneration of oocytes after ICSI is often a result of a fault in the ICSI technique, e.g. an injection pipette that is too large, not positioned properly or not sharp enough. Figure 1 shows different stages of egg maturation and damaged oocytes after ICSI and Figure 2 shows normal and abnormal fertilization after ICSI.
First row: A and B are GV, C is MI and D is MII oocyte. Second row: E shows typical funnel that appears after ICSI, F shows leakage of ooplasm after ICSI, G shows oocyte damage during denudation and H is an atretic oocyte after ICSI.
First row: A is an egg with1 pronucleus (PN), B with 3 and C with 4 PN. All these are abnormal fertilizations. Second row: Oocyte in D, E or F, each has 2 PN. This is a sign of normal fertilization.
Proper orientation of the polar body and needle position are also important, since improper positioning can damage or disrupt the metaphase plate during needle entry. In addition, disturbances in the nuclear spindle may dispose oocytes to aneuploidy or maturation arrest. Thus, perturbation of the cytoskeletal integrity of oocyte may critically influence the fate of the embryo. During ICSI, the location of the first polar body is commonly used as an indication of the spindle position, with the assumption that they are located in close proximity. To avoid damage to the spindle, oocytes are injected at the 3 o’clock position with the first polar body at the 6 or 12 o’clock position. However, with the aid of the computer assisted polarization microscopy, some reports suggest that the location of the first polar body does not necessarily correspond to the spindle position [11, 12]. The reasons for the displacement of the spindle are not fully understood [13]. Further detail on this aspect is given under use of Polscope.
Injection of a motile sperm without immobilization leads to poor fertilization rates [14]. In such cases, sperm with moving tails can be seen in the oocyte and sperm-oocyte interaction is obstructed by the normal sperm plasma membrane. Damage to the sperm membrane is necessary for successful oocyte activation following ICSI, as it induces gradual disruption of other parts of the sperm membrane allowing entry of sperm nucleus decondensing factor of the oocyte to induce initial swelling of the head. Because of this swelling, the sperm plasma membrane ruptures and sperm-associated oocyte activating factors are released into the ooplasm and induce oocyte activation. A modified ICSI technique is characterized by pushing the needle tip close to the membrane opposite the puncture site, aspirating the cytoplasm at this point and releasing the sperm in the centre of oocyte [5]. This modification improves fertilization in oocyte-dependent activation failure, but its routine application does not improve the overall results.
The cell surface hyaluronic acid (HA) binding glycoprotein is present in spermatozoa of different species including rat, mice, bull, and human [15]. The formation of hyaluronic-acid (HA)-binding sites on the sperm plasma membrane is one of the signs of sperm maturity. Various biochemical sperm markers indicate that human sperm bound to HA exhibit attributes similar to that of zona pellucida-bound sperm, including minimal DNA fragmentation, normal shape, and low frequency of chromosomal aneuploidies [16].
PICSI Sperm Selection Device (Biocoat, Inc. Horsham, PA, USA) offers advantage in selecting sperm for ICSI. The PICSI device, a dish similar to ICSI dish, contains 3 microdots of hyaluronan hydrogel which need to be hydrated by media before ICSI. The prepared sperm sample is placed at the edge of the microdrop of PICSI dish. Mature, biochemically competent sperm bind to the hyaluronan where they can be isolated by the embryologist and used for ICSI (Figure 3). The research supports that hyaluronan-bound PICSI-selected sperm are, in the vast majority of cases, more mature, exhibit less DNA damage, and have fewer chromosomal aneuploidies [17]. Further studies are needed to prove that use of PICSI technique improves pregnancy rates and reduce the number of IVF miscarriages.
A is a graphical presentation of a PICSI dish. Each arrow is pointing to a dot containing hyaluronan. B and C are suggested arrangements for oocyte washing, PVP and ICSI drops (A, B and C are oocyte washing drops, P is PVP drop, a, b and c are hyaluronan dots and1, 2, 3, and 4 are ICSI drops).
Intracytoplasmic morphologically selected sperm injection (IMSI) is examination of unstained spermatozoa at 6000 or higher magnification to select sperm with best morphology. It is based on a method of high magnification motile sperm organelle morphology examination (MSOME) [18]. It requires an inverted light microscope equipped with high power Nomarski optics enhanced with digital imaging. Such examination helps to identify spermatozoa with a normal nucleus and nuclear content [19]. The exact indications of IMSI [20] and usefulness [21] are debatable. Finding normal-looking spermatozoa took a minimum of 60 min, and up to 210 min, depending on the quality of the semen sample. The technique required two embryologists working together on the analysis of the same sample at the same time in order to minimize the subjective nature of sperm evaluation [22]. The IMSI procedure improved embryo development and the laboratory and clinical outcomes of sperm microinjection in the same infertile couples with male infertility and poor embryo development over the previous ICSI attempts [23]. A successful childbirth after IMSI without assisted oocyte activation in a patient with globozoospermia has been reported [24]. Randomized large-scale trials are needed to confirm the beneficial effects of IMSI in couples with poor reproductive prognoses [25].
The oocyte spindle can be imaged non-invasively based on the birefringence, an inherent optical property of highly ordered molecules, such as microtubules, as they are illuminated with polarized light. Polarized light microscopy has been applied to embryology for decades. A digital, orientation-independent polarized light microscope, the Polscope, has demonstrated the exquisite sensitivity needed to image the low levels of birefringence exhibited by mammalian spindles [26]. The Polscope, is used to protect the meiotic spindle from damage during ICSI. The oocytes having Polscope visualised spindle have higher fertilization rate. When the spindle is located at 0°-30° in relation to the first polar body, ICSI achieves highest fertilization rate [27]. The use of Polscope is still not widely practiced and further improvements are needed. Morphometric evaluation of the spindle through the Polscope is not consistent with confocal analysis. This suggests that the Polscope may still be a rather inefficient method for assessing the metaphase II spindle [28].
Both nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation of oocytes have to be completed to ensure optimal conditions for fertilization. Oocytes are retrieved prior to ovulation for IVF or ICSI procedures. In the pre-ovulatory phase, meiotic division of the oocyte must progress to metaphase II which is considered nuclear maturation and is evident by extrusion of first polar body. The oocyte also must develop the capacity to attain fertilization and initiate embryo development which is considered cytoplasmic maturation [29, 30]. Cytoplasmic maturity is thought to be asynchronous with nuclear maturity in stimulated cycles [31, 32] and the fertilizing ability of an oocyte with a mature nucleus is not necessarily at its maximum potential. Thus, preincubation of oocytes prior to IVF or ICSI may induce cytoplasmic maturation that could eventually increase fertilization and also pregnancy rates. The human oocytes progressively develop the ability for full activation and normal development during the MII arrest stage [33].
The ICSI technique is generally similar among different centres but the time intervals from retrieval to denudation and from denudation to ICSI varies. Very few studies have addressed this aspect, with discrepancies in the conclusions [34, 35]. The preincubation period between oocyte retrieval and injection improves the percentage of mature oocytes [36, 37], the fertilization rate [35, 37], and the embryo quality [35]. The appropriate incubation time for mature oocytes before ICSI is 5–6 h. This time improves embryo quality and pregnancy rate in ICSI cycles. The maximum clinical pregnancy rate is observed when ICSI is performed 5 h after oocyte retrieval. The clinical pregnancy rate dropped significantly when ICSI was performed 6 hrs after oocyte retrieval (Falcone et al., 2008). A longer oocyte pre-incubation (9– 11 hours) prior to ICSI is thought to have detrimental effects on embryo quality [38], probably due to oocyte ageing.
Normal sperm ultrastructure correlates with positive IVF results [39]. Single structural defects involving the totality of ejaculated sperm are among rare cases of untreatable human male infertility. This form of infertility is of genetic origin and is generally transmitted as an autosomal recessive trait. Numerous defective genes are potentially involved in human isolated teratozoospermia but such defects have not been defined at the molecular level in most cases [40]. An in-depth evaluation of sperm morphology by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) can improve the diagnosis of male infertility and can give substantial information about the fertilizing competence of sperm [41, 42]. The TEM evaluation of sperm can also identify potentially inheritable genetic disorders (for example primary ciliary dyskinesia, Kartagener’s syndrome), providing valuable information for couples contemplating ICSI [43].
Abnormal spermatozoa with head vacuoles account for the patient infertility. Sperm head vacuoles are easily detectable in human spermatozoa under the electron microscope. A sperm head vacuole is considered abnormal when it exceeds 20% of the head\'s cross-sectional area. In rare cases, primary spermatozoa deformity is 100% vacuolated head [44]. There is a strong correlation between high relative vacuole area to sperm head and poor sperm morphology [45]. No correlation is observed between DNA defect and sperm-head morphology [46]. However, macrocephalic and large-headed spermatozoa are commonly associated with a low chance of pregnancy, mainly in relation to meiotic abnormalities during spermatogenesis. Enlarged-head spermatozoa are linked to sperm chromatin condensation dysfunction with no major meiotic dysfunction [47].
Acrosome agenesis is most often associated with a spherical shape of the head and is defined as “round head defect” or “globozoospermia”. The underlying causes of the syndrome remain to be elucidated [48]. The genetic contribution has been postulated as well [49]. An additional case report [50] supports it. Studies show that the pathogenic genes associated with globozoospermia include SPATA16, PICK1, GOPC, Hrb, Csnk2a2 and bs [51]. Globozoospermia results from perturbed expression of nuclear proteins or from an altered golgi-nuclear recognition during spermiogenesis. The sperm show both gross and ultrastructural abnormalities, including the complete lack of an acrosome, abnormal nuclear membrane and mid-piece defects. Depending on the severity of the defect, the fertilization rate after ICSI with round headed sperm ranges from 0% to 37% [52, 53]. Successful pregnancies have been reported after ICSI in patients with globozoospermia with or without oocyte activation [54, 53, 55]. The most likely cause for failed fertilization after ICSI using round-head sperm is inability of sperm to activate the oocyte. In some forms of globozoospermia, arrest of nuclear decondensation and/or premature chromosome condensation also causes fertilization failure [55].
DNA damage in the male germ line is associated with poor fertilization rates following IVF, defective pre-implantation embryonic development and high rates of miscarriage and morbidity in the offspring, including childhood cancer [56, 57]. Activation of embryonic genome expression occurs at the four to eight-cell stage in human embryos [58], suggesting that the paternal genome may not be effective until that stage. Therefore, a lack of correlation between elevated DNA strand breaks in sperm and fertilization rates may occur before the four to eight-cell stage [59, 60]. Many published articles indicate that DNA strand breaks are clearly detectable in ejaculated sperm and their presence is heightened in the ejaculates of men with poor semen parameters [61, 62]. Nuclear DNA damage in mature sperm includes single strand nicks and double strand breaks that can arise because of errors in chromatin rearrangement during spermiogenesis, abortive apoptosis and oxidative stress [63, 64]. In the same individuals, testicular samples show a significantly lower DNA damage compared to ejaculated spermatozoa (14.9%±5.0 vs. 40.6%±14.8, P<0.05), but significantly higher aneuploidy rates for the five analyzed chromosomes (12.41%±3.7 vs. 5.77%±1.2, P<0.05). While testicular spermatozoa appear favourable for ICSI in terms of lower DNA damage, this potential advantage could be offset by the higher aneuploidy rates in testicular spermatozoa [65].
Two tests are most commonly reported as indicators of sperm nuclear integrity; terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) and sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA). The TUNEL technique labels single or double-stranded DNA breaks, but does not quantify DNA strand breaks in a given cell. The SCSA, a quantitative and flowcytometric test, measures the susceptibility of sperm nuclear DNA to acid-induced DNA denaturation
Other tests of sperm nuclear DNA integrity include
Round spermatid nucleus injection (ROSNI) or round spermatid injection (ROSI) is a method in which precursors of mature sperm obtained from ejaculated specimens or testicular sperm extraction (TESE) are injected directly into oocytes. ROSNI is proposed as a treatment for men in whom other more mature sperm forms (elongating spermatids or sperm) cannot be identified for ICSI [72]. It is not widely performed, not as successful as ICSI and is still an experimental procedure. It should be applied only in the setting of a clinical trial approved and overseen by a properly constituted institutional review board. Accurate identification of round spermatid is a technical challenge of ROSNI. It is difficult to distinguish haploid round spermatids from diploid spermatogenic precursors and somatic cells using the standard optics present in most clinical IVF laboratories. Mouse round spermatids have increased levels of DNA fragmentation [73] that may interfere with fertilization [63]. Increased DNA damage may occur because of deficient sperm nuclear protamine to histone replacement and decreased nuclear condensation in these immature sperm allowing increased susceptibility to reactive oxygen species and other damaging agents in culture. Another major concern is genetic risk. Any genetic abnormality sufficiently severe to result in meiotic arrest during spermatogenesis may also have adverse effects on other normal cellular processes or other systemic manifestations. Occurrence of significant congenital anomalies in ROSNI-conceived pregnancies raises serious concerns [74]. ROSNI should not be performed when more mature sperm forms (elongating spermatids or sperm) can be identified and used for ICSI. Patients who may be candidates for ROSNI should receive careful and thorough pre-treatment counselling to ensure they are clearly informed of the limitations and potential risks of the procedure [75].
When a cell, with chromosomes in MII, fuses with an inter-phase cell, the nuclear membrane of the cell in the inter-phase dissolves and its chromatin condenses. This phenomenon is called premature chromosomal condensation (PCC) [76]. Following penetration of sperm into an oocyte; oocyte activation is triggered, resulting in completion of meiosis and formation of both male and female pronuclei. Under some circumstances although the sperm is within the oocyte, fertilization fails to occur, the oocyte remains in the MII stage and the sperm head transforms into PCC, separate from the oocyte chromosomes [77, 78]. Chromatin analysis of human oocytes has revealed that sperm PCC is one of the prevalent causes of fertilization failure in both IVF and ICSI [77].
It is not yet fully understood how the sperm activates the oocytes. The failure of fertilization after ICSI may result from either the lack or deficiency of activating factors in sperm or from the lack of ooplasmic factors triggering sperm chromatin decondensation [79, 80]. Several pieces of evidence point to PLCζ being the physiological agent of oocyte activation and is detectable in different localities within the sperm head: the equatorial segment and acrosomal/post-acrosomal region [81].
During normal spermiogenesis, 85% of histones are replaced with protamines [82], which results in sperm chromatin condensation. A sperm with a condensed nucleus is in the G1 stage when entering an MII oocyte and is protected from PCC because an active maturation-promoting factor (MPF) is not capable of reacting with protamine-associated DNA. Once sperm nuclear decondensation factors from the ooplasm enter the sperm, the sperm head swells and sperm associated oocyte activating factor is released. This results in MPF inactivation [83], the completion of meiosis 2 and the oocyte enters the G1 stage. During this time, protamines are slowly replaced by histones and cell cycle synchronization takes place. Under some circumstances, the oocyte fails to activate and remains arrested at MII. Because of the presence of an active MPF, sperm chromatin transforms into condensed chromatin. Sperm with excessive histones are prone to PCC.
Sperm PCC has been associated with the type of ovarian stimulation protocol. Some protocols, such as clomiphene citrate and human menopausal gonadotropin stimulation may tend to recruit immature oocytes with immature cytoplasm [84]. Immature cytoplasm is believed to make sperm susceptible to a high incidence of PCC after insemination because of the inability of these immature oocytes to undergo oocyte activation [85]. The incidence of sperm PCC reported in the literature ranges from 10.1 to 85 % [86, 87], with higher values noted in cases of round headed sperm injection as they fail to activate the oocyte. Furthermore, other studies suggest a correlation between fertilization outcome post-ICSI and percentage of sperm with protamine deficiency [88]. The effect of sperm protamine deficiency on fertilization rate emphasizes the need for accurate sperm selection during ICSI as protamine-deficient sperm, in the form of slightly amorphous head, may find the chance of being injected due to inappropriate sperm selection [88].
Defective sperm tail is the principal cause of sperm motility disorders. There are two main forms of tail disorders with different phenotypic characteristics and consequences for male fertility: non-specific tail anomalies and various genetic disorders including primary ciliary diskinesia and the dysplasia of the fibrous sheath [89]. In non-specific tail anomalies, ICSI has good prognosis and does not pose additional risks in view of the lack of recognized genetic components in this Disorder. Significant sperm abnormalities of proven or suspected genetic origin are rare conditions responsible for extreme asthenozoospermia or total sperm immotility. Affected patients complain of male infertility and chronic respiratory disease, alterations caused by abnormal function of sperm flagella and respiratory cilia. In patients with tail genetic disorders, ICSI results in normal rates of fertilization and implantation, and many births of healthy babies have been reported. The main concern that remains is the potential transmission to the offspring [89].
Whether sperm movement is slow or rapid generally has no influence on ICSI results. However, injection of immotile sperm usually results in impaired fertilization. In particular, where a non-viable immotile sperm is injected into an oocyte, normal fertilization and pregnancy rarely occurs [90, 91]. In case of immotile sperm, it is possible that the sperm may be dead. The most common practice to select viable non-motile sperm for ICSI involves the hypo-osmotic swelling (HOS) test. However, preliminary results in animal experiments (mouse and rabbit) indicate that viability of injected sperm is not an absolute pre-requisite for fertilization. Embryos derived after injecting mouse oocytes with freeze-dried and thawed sperm developed normally [92]. It appears that provided the DNA integrity of the sperm is maintained, embryos can be generated, at least in animal model, from severely damaged sperm that are no longer capable of normal physiological activity.
The identification of a viable spermatozoon amongst immotile spermatozoa for ICSI often is difficult. However, selection of birefringent spermatozoa under Polscope shows promising results in asthenozoospermic men and men undergoing testicular sperm aspiration or extraction before ICSI [93]. The other tests employed are hypo-osmotic swelling test, the stimulation of motility with pentoxyfilline and non-contact diode laser [94, 95, 96, 97, 98].
In patients with 100% immotile sperm, HOS test is a useful method to examine sperm viability. It measures the functional integrity of the sperm membrane [99]. Upon exposure of the sperm to hypo-osmotic conditions, the intact semi-permeable barrier formed by the sperm membrane allows an influx of water and results in swelling of the cytoplasmic space and curling of the sperm tail fibers. Only viable sperm react to the HOS solution since dead sperm are unable to maintain the osmotic gradient.
Sperm HOS test based on fructose and sodium citrate dihydrate is applied for identification of immotile sperm for ICSI [100]. A significantly greater fertilization and cleavage rate after injection of sperm selected using the HOS test is achieved in contrast to injection of randomly selected sperm. A modified HOS test based on NaCl solution further improves fertilization rate in patients with 100% immotile sperm [101]. In these procedures, approximately 200,000 sperm are exposed to the HOS solution for 1 hour at 37°C. A modified HOS test has been used for samples with a low sperm count such as testicular samples [102]. In this technique, individual morphologically normal sperm is aspirated by microinjection pipette and is exposed to HOS solution for a brief period to minimize the sperm membrane damage.
A mixture of 50% culture medium and 50% deionized grade water has the least delayed harmful effects on sperm vitality [103]. This mixture achieves similar implantation, pregnancy and ongoing pregnancy rates in the ejaculated and testicular non-motile sperm groups [104]. It is a simple and practical procedure and achieves acceptable and comparable pregnancy rates.
Obtaining viable spermatozoa from testicular biopsies using pentoxifylline is more effective in terms of fertilization and pregnancies than obtaining it through an HOS test [97]. The clinical use of pentoxifylline for activation of immotile ejaculatory sperm before ICSI in patients with Kartagener’s syndrome improves the outcome of the treatment and reduces the need of invasive intervention such as TESE in these patients. The immotile sperm are treated for 30 min with pentoxifylline (1.76 mM) before ICSI. Some spermatozoa show minimal motion and can be used for ICSI. Fertilization rate after ICSI is about 75% [105].
A new era in the field of assisted reproduction opened after the achievement of pregnancies and births after ICSI of human oocytes [106]. In special cases of long-standing male infertility, only a few functional sperm are available. By means of ICSI, most sub-fertile men and even men previously considered sterile (those with azoospermia, extreme oligozoospermia or cryptozoospermia) can now father a child.
Azoospermia, is the most severe form of male factor infertility. The condition is currently classified as ’obstructive’ or ’non-obstructive’. Obstructive azoospermia is the result of obstruction in either the upper or lower male reproductive tract. Sperm production may be normal but the obstruction prevents the sperm from being ejaculated. Non-obstructive azoospermia is the result of testicular failure where sperm production is either severely impaired or nonexistent, although in many cases sperm may be found and surgically extracted directly from the testicles [107].
Conflicting results for fertilization and pregnancy rates are available in the literature after use of ejaculated or surgically retrieved sperm. After ICSI, ejaculated or surgically extracted sperm, when motile and morphologically normal, result in similar fertilization, implantation [108, 109] and clinical pregnancy rates ([109]. The incidence of early or late spontaneous abortion and ectopic pregnancy, or malformations is also similar [108]. However, after conventional IVF, even testicular or epididymal aspirates with very good sperm concentration and motility, generally achieve low fertilization and pregnancy rates [110].
The effect of cryopreservation of sperm on ICSI outcome has been thoroughly studied. Current studies suggest that the use of fresh or frozen-thawed sperm does not appear to affect ICSI outcomes [111]. Testicular tissue and epididymal sperm can be cryopreserved successfully without markedly reducing subsequent fertilization and implantation rates and repeated testicular biopsy can be avoided without the risk of any decrease in the outcome [112].
The origin of the sperm used in ICSI does not have a major influence on the early life outcomes for the offspring, but transgenerational and epigenetic effects remain unknown. From the limited information available, it appears that there is no increased risk of congenital malformations in children born from ICSI. There is, however, a small increase in both de novo and inherited chromosome abnormalities. In terms of growth and neurodevelopment, there are very few studies, and so far, no adverse outcomes have been found in young children whose fathers have a sperm defect [113].
Oocyte activation is a complex series of events that results in the release of the cortical granules, activation of membrane bound ATPase, resumption of meiosis with the extrusion of the second polar body and finally the formation of male and female pronuclei. The ovulated or retrieved oocyte activates when the sperm enters, by either natural penetration or ICSI. In cases of oocyte activation failure, artificial means of oocyte activation are helpful.
The oocytes remain arrested at MII if maturation has been completed. When one sperm contacts the oolemma and penetrates into the ooplasm, intracellular calcium oscillation occurs [114]. This increase in the concentration of calcium underlies oocyte activation and initiation of development. In mammals, growing experimental evidence supports the notion that, following fusion of the gametes, a factor from sperm is responsible for inducing calcium oscillations and stimulating inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) production [115]. Initial evidence stemmed from injection of cytosolic sperm extracts into oocytes that reproduced the calcium responses associated with fertilization regardless of the species of origin [116, 117]. Subsequent biochemical characterization of the extracts revealed that the active component contained a protein moiety [116] that possessed phospholipase C (PLC) -like activity capable of inducing production of IP3 [118, 119] and that the PLC activity was highly sensitive to calcium [120]. A screen of expressed sequenced tags from testes identified a sperm-specific phospholipase C, PLCζ. The presence of PLCζ correlates with calcium activity in cytosolic sperm extracts [121]. Moreover, injection of oocytes with the recombinant protein [122] or with the encoding mRNA induces fertilization-like oscillations (Saunders, 2002), whereas depletion of PLCζ from the extracts with specific antisera abrogates PLCζ activity [123] and the calcium oscillatory activity of the extracts [121, 123]. The PLCζ is located in the equatorial region of human sperm. Men whose sperm are unable to initiate calcium oscillations consistently fail to fertilize following ICSI and lack PLCζ [124]. It has to be established that PLCζ is the sole calcium oscillation–inducing factor and how its absence has an impact on male fertility.
The process of natural fertilization encompasses the entry of the sperm, oocyte activation and the first mitotic division resulting in a 2 cell embryo. Two steps are important for successful fertilization following ICSI, namely immobilization of the sperm and rupture of the oolemma in order to facilitate the liberation of the cytosolic sperm factor responsible for the oscillator function [14].
Low fertilization rates after ICSI in patients with round-headed sperm, globozoospermia, is a result of reduced ability of round-headed sperm to activate the oocyte. In the literature, the success rates of ICSI in cases of globozoospermia are variable. Assisted oocyte activation combined with ICSI may overcome the infertility associated with globozoospermia. Normal healthy live birth without assisted oocyte activation has also been achieved [54]. Apart from low fertilization rates associated with the use of round-headed sperm, cleavage rates are also compromised and these sperm may lack normal centrosomes [52]. Assisted oocyte activation and ICSI restore fertilization, embryo cleavage and development for patients with globozoospermia [125].
Assisted oocyte activation after ICS is very efficient in patients with a suspected oocyte-related activation deficiency and previous total fertilization failure after conventional ICSI. However, when there was a prior history of low fertilization, one should be careful and test the efficiency of assisted oocyte activation on half of the sibling oocytes, because assisted oocyte activation is not always beneficial for patients with previous low fertilization and a suspected oocyte-related activation deficiency. For these patients, a split assisted oocyte activation-ICSI cycle using sibling oocytes can help to distinguish between a molecular oocyte-related activation deficiency and a previous technical or other biological failure [126].
Assisted oocyte activation aims to mimic the action of sperm penetration [127]. Some assisted activation treatments such as strontium chloride [128] and ionomycin [129], promote an increase in intracellular free calcium concentrations by the release of calcium from cytoplasmic stores. Others such as electrical stimulus promote influx of calcium from the extracellular medium and some treatments such as ethanol promote both effects [129].
A birth after oocyte activation by treatment with the calcium ionophore A23187 and ICSI has been obtained in 1994 [130]. Human oocytes injected with round-headed sperm are activated following combination of calcium chloride injection and ionophore treatment. This activation is followed by an apparently normal completion of meiosis, male and female pronuclei formation, embryonic development and successful delivery of a healthy infant [53]. A combination of calcium ionophore A23187 with puromycin stimulates the unfertilized oocytes 20–68 h after ICSI. It results in an activation rate of 91.2% (31/34), a cleavage rate of 64.7% (22/34) and high-quality embryo rate of 44.1% (15/34). Nearly all activated embryos derived from 2PN/2PB had a normal set of sex chromosomes and developed normally [131]. Although calcium ionophore A23187 and puromycin do not appear to be cytotoxic to oocytes and result in pregnancies and the birth of healthy babies when low concentrations are used, the possible teratogenic and mutagenic activity of calcium ionophore A23187 and puromycin needs further investigation in animal models and in humans.
Treatment with 10 mM strontium chloride for 60 min, approximately 30 min after ICSl results in activation and fertilization of all injected oocytes [132], development of the embryos to the blastocyst stage and delivery in patients with repeated fertilization failure [133]. Physical and mental development of the children from birth to 12 months is normal [132]. However, further studies are required to substantiate the finding that strontium chloride treatment is an effective method of artificial oocyte activation.
An electrical field can generate micropores in the cell membrane of gametes and somatic cells to induce sufficient calcium influx through the pores to activate cytoplasm through calcium dependent mechanisms [134]. Mouse oocytes injected with secondary spermatocytes or spermatids are fertilized when stimulated by electroporation and developed into normal offspring when the resultant embryos are transferred to a recipient [135]. Clinical pregnancy and delivery after oocyte activation by electrostimulation in combination with ICSI in previously failed to fertilize oocytes has been obtained [80]. Electrical stimulation rescues human oocytes that failed to fertilize after ICSI and stimulates them to complete the second meiotic division, to form pronuclei and to undergo early embryonic development [136]. Although the fertilization rate issimilar regardless of the number of electrical pulses applied, subsequent embryo development is dramatically improved in those oocytes that received three electrical pulses [136]. The embryo formation rate in the electrically activated group is 80% compared to 16% in the control group [137]. Although the fertilization rate is significantly higher in the electroactivated group (68%) as compared with that of the control (60%), a higher miscarriage rate is reported in the electroactivated group (5 of 15 pregnancies) compared to the control (3 of 33) [6]. Like any other new assisted reproductive procedure, the impact of electrical activation on oocyte and embryo health must be evaluated in larger studies before this procedure can be considered for routine clinical purposes. Ideally, karyotyping or fluorescent
The definition of ‘poor response’ in the literature is often based on a combination of factors, including the number of mature follicles, the number of oocytes retrieved and the peak estradiol level [138]. The cut-off levels for the number of follicles or oocytes that define poor response vary widely from study to study. Some authors feel that the definition of poor response should also include the degree of ovarian stimulation used and that a low oocyte number is detrimental only when high total dose of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) has been administered [139]. Various endocrine and ultrasonographic markers and dynamic tests to assess ovarian reserve have been evaluated. Such tests include basal FSH on cycle day 3, clomiphene citrate challenge test, inhibin B, oestrogen, anti-Mullerian hormone, antral follicle counts and ovarian volume. The success of each test can be measured against ovarian response or live birth rate per cycle [140]. However, none of these tests has demonstrated a reliable predictive value and for many women poor ovarian response is not discovered until the first IVF cycle.
Poor response to gonadotropin stimulation occurs more often in older women, but may also occur in young women, regardless of the endocrinologic profile [141]. Poor responders have a significantly lower pregnancy rate per retrieval compared to normal to high responders in the same age group [138]. Although it is possible to have normal embryos and pregnancy in younger poor responders, the fertilization rate and quality of embryos in older poor responders are always low and the chance of achieving pregnancy in these patients is low. Poor responders also have an increased cycle cancellation rate due to retrieval of few or no oocytes and/or TFF. One of the major contributing factors for TFF after ICSI is ≤3 MII oocytes retrieved (Esfandiari
Fecundity significantly decreases with increasing maternal age [144]. In a classic study of the Hutterite women, sterility increased from just over 10% at 34 years old to over 85% by the age of 44 years [145]. In women, all germ cells are formed during fetal life. The population of germ cells appears to rise steadily from 600 000 at 2 months post conception, reaching a peak of 6 800 000 at 5 months. By the time of birth, the number declines to 2 000 000 of which 50% are atretic. Of the 1 000 000 normal oocytes in the newborn infant, only 300 000 survive to the age of 7 years [146]. Continuous loss of oocytes occurs through the physiological process of follicular growth and atresia throughout life [147].
The incidence of TFF increases with age [10]. Older women are more likely to undergo multiple cycles, have decreased number of oocytes retrieved and a lower number of embryos transferred [9].
One of the major causes of TFF after ICSI is a low number of retrieved MII oocytes [10]. About 20% of retrieved oocytes from controlled ovarian stimulation cycles are immature, either at metaphase-I (MI) or germinal-vesicle (GV) stage in human IVF [35]. Some of these oocytes may extrude the first polar body during
The injection of MI oocytes immediately after denudation results in a high degeneration rate due to increased fragility of the oolemma. The fertilization rate of retrieved MI oocytes that remained MI at the time of ICSI is lower than the fertilization rate of sibling retrieved MI progressing to MII
In cases of poor responders and in patients with an unsynchronized cohort of follicles, where the presence of immature oocytes is frequent after stimulation [149], the use of immature oocytes is important in order to increase the number of embryos obtained in each cycle. Based on the assumption that oocyte maturity is a pre-requisite for obtaining normal fertilization, attempts have been made to mature GV and MI oocytes
Poor oocyte morphology is a major determinant of failed or impaired fertilization. Normal features of a healthy mature oocyte at Metaphase-II (MII) include presence of a polar body, a round even shape, light colour cytoplasm with homogenous granularity, a small perivitelline space without debris and a colourless zona pellucida. In denuded oocytes, it is possible to assess the morphology and the nuclear maturity but not the cytoplasmic maturity. The MII oocytes with apparently normal cytoplasmic organization may exhibit extra-cytoplasmic characteristics, such as increased perivitelline space, perivitelline debris and/or fragmentation of the first polar body, which may reduce developmental competence of the oocyte [152]. It is common that extra-cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic dysmorphism occur together in the same oocyte (Figure 4 and 5). The dysmorphic phenotypes, which arise early in meiotic maturation, may be associated with failed fertilization and aneuploidy, while those occurring later in maturation may cause a higher incidence of developmental failure [153, 154].
Oocytes in both rows show extra-cytoplasmic and cytoplasmic dysmorphism.
Decreased fertilization rates due to some oocyte dysmorphisms have been reported [152], while others failed to observe that association [155, 156, 157, 158, 159]. Lower pregnancy and implantation rates result when the transferred embryos originate from cycles with >50% dysmorphic oocytes and the same dysmorphism repeats from cycle to cycle [155]. The repetitive organelle clustering is associated with an underlying adverse factor affecting the entire follicular cohort. The presence of a dark cytoplasm decreases by 83% the likelihood of obtaining good quality embryos [160]. However, another study did not find any adverse impact of dark colour of the oocytes on fertilization, embryo development and pregnancy rate [161]. In human oocytes, the cytoplasmic granularity can be homogeneous affecting the whole cytoplasm, or concentrated in the centre with a clear peripheral ring giving a darkened appearance to the cytoplasm [162]. The abnormal changes in the cytoplasm of MII oocytes may be a reflection of delayed cytoplasmic maturation that is unsynchronized with nuclear maturity [163].
Oocytes in first row represent different degrees of vacuoles in cytoplasm. Each oocytes in second row has increased central granularity.
Normal fertilization, embryo development and live birth are possible after ICSI in oocytes with thick zonae, abnormal morphology or repeated polyspermia following conventional IVF. The oocytes with extreme morphological abnormalities should not be discarded as ICSI can result in fertilization, cleavage and normal embryonic development [164, 161]. The zona-free oocytes may be fertilized normally after ICSI and develop to the blastocyst stage [165]. Pregnancy in human [166] and live birth in mouse [167] and pig [168] have been obtained after transfer of embryos resulting from zona-free oocytes.
Repeated ICSI treatment can be useful or necessary because there is a high possibility of achieving normal fertilization if a reasonable number of oocytes with normal morphology are available and motile sperm can be found. If there are no motile sperm present in the first ejaculate, a second sample should be required followed by PESA or TESE to obtain motile sperm. In this way, a sufficient number of motile sperm for ICSI are usually found in most men with severe asthenozoospermia.
A history of failed fertilization may be related to some gamete abnormality that may be modified or corrected at the next cycle. It has been documented that for a particular patient, fertilization results can be quite varied when followed through several ICSI cycles at the same centre [169]. The differences between fertilization rates are unexplained, although fluctuations in the gamete quality are probably contributory. Pretreatment endocrine assays and semen analyses prove to be of little value in forecasting failed fertilization. One-third of the patients with TFF achieved pregnancy with their own oocytes in a subsequent ICSI cycle [10]. Since follow-up ICSI treatment has been shown to result in fertilization in 85% of cases, repeated ICSI attempts are suggested in TFF [4, 170].
Physicians should counsel patients based on the best possible evidence available and allow the couple to make an informed choice. The adverse result of a failed ICSI cycle does not imply a hopeless prognosis for future ICSI treatment. Very subtle improvements in semen parameters and/or oocyte yield/quality may result in fertilization in a subsequent ICSI attempt [169]. Otherwise, the options of donor sperm insemination, donated oocytes or embryos, adoption and remaining childless should be discussed with the couple [171].
Significant advances have been made in achieving fertilization, pregnancy and live birth in cases with severe male factor infertility, oocyte activation failure and ICSI technique. Usually fertilization is 80-100 percent in mature eggs, however, low or no fertilization can still occur. Most cases of no fertilization occur due to very low number of mature oocytes, failure of oocyte activation or non-availability of appropriate sperm. Repeated ICSI attempts results in fertilization in 85% of cases.
Modern and complex aortic valve surgery is dependent on extracorporeal circulation established first in 1953 by Gibbon [1]. The first, Hufnagel’s aortic valve was implanted in the descending aorta in 1956 [2] and from then on annual numbers of aortic valve procedures performed through a full median sternotomy have risen significantly over the next decades. In 2002, Cribier performed the first transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI), which paved the way for percutaneously resolving patients with prohibitive surgical risk [3]. Although, first minimally invasive approaches were developed a decade earlier, they gained increased interest after ever looser indications for TAVI. That dictated a response from the cardiac surgery society. Cosgrove performed the first minimally invasive aortic valve replacement (AVR) through a right parasternal approach back in 1996 [4]. In the same decade, more minimally invasive approaches were developed, such as upper mini-sternotomy, anterior right mini-thoracotomy (ART) or transverse sternotomy. Today, most isolated AVRs are performed through either upper mini-sternotomy or ART (Figure 1) with reduced pain, improved respiratory function, early recovery and an overall reduction in trauma.
Different approaches for aortic valve surgery. Left: median sternotomy; middle: upper mini-sternotomy; right: anterior right mini-thoracotomy.
Regardless of the approach, some essentials must not be compromised in aortic valve surgery. These include safe application of a stable aortic cross-clamp, adequate visualization of the aortic valve, ensuring the same degree of myocardial protection as in median sternotomy, enabled approach to the aortic root and ascending aorta, and ability to quickly convert to median sternotomy if needed.
The present chapter aims to describe the two most commonly used minimally invasive approaches to aortic valve surgery (upper mini-sternotomy and ART) with a special focus on surgical technique and outcomes.
Skin incision runs over the upper half of the sternum and is usually <10 cm long. Sternotomy can be performed with either the standard (our preference) or oscillating saw and is performed in a “J” matter into the right 3rd (Maribor preference) or 4th (Graz preference) intercostal space. The selected intercostal space is determined by the total sternal length, method of myocardial protection delivery (antegrade or combined ante−/retrograde cardioplegia) and surgeon preference. If exposure of the aortic valve is not satisfying, the “J” mini-sternotomy can be modified to a “T” mini-sternotomy or converted to a full median sternotomy. However, care must be taken during sternotomy osteosynthesis when more than two sternal fragments are present to avoid excessive postoperative bleeding or sternal dehiscence. In upper “J” mini-sternotomy, prophylactic division of the right internal thoracic artery (RITA) is not required.
A small-blade retractor is inserted and the pericardium is opened in a longitudinal matter (Figure 2) [5]. Two to three stay sutures on both sides are applied and the intrapericardial contents are lifted upwards. Care must be taken not to reduce cardiac preload, which could lead to patient deterioration in the presence of severe aortic valve stenosis.
Incision of the pericardium through an upper mini-sternotomy [
The cardiopulmonary bypass could be established centrally or peripherally. At our institutions, central cannulation remains the preferred option except in cases of severe ascending aortic calcifications. After systemic heparinization with 300 I.U./kg to achieve an activated clotting time (ACT) > 480 s, the distal ascending aorta is cannulated through two Prolene 3-0 purse-string sutures with pledgets placed in a circular fashion. A double-stage venous cannula is placed through a single Prolene 3-0 purse-string suture either through the right atrial appendage (Graz preference) or in the superior vena cava (Maribor preference). When cannulating the right atrial appendage, the venous cannula could be positioned to the side of the mini-sternotomy wound or under the undivided sternum and beneath the xiphoid (Figure 3) [6].
Upper mini-sternotomy. Operative field and sternal incision [
The choice of cardioplegia dictates the type of cannulation. Some cardioplegic solutions (for example del Nido extracellular crystalloid cardioplegia) require only antegrade delivery. On the other hand, other solutions (such as blood cardioplegia or St. Thomas extracellular crystalloid cardioplegia) enhance myocardial protection when administered via both ante- and retrograde fashion. In that case, the retrograde cardioplegic cannula is inserted in the coronary sinus through a single Prolene 3-0 U-suture placed between the venous cannula and the inferior vena cava. The antegrade cardioplegic cannula is inserted in the proximal ascending aorta through a single Prolene 3-0 U-suture.
After placing the patient on cardiopulmonary bypass, a left ventricular vent is placed through the right superior pulmonary vein or directly through the aorta. Patients could be safely operated on in normothermia (Maribor preference) or mild hypothermia (34°C) (Graz preference).
The aorta is cross-clamped, cardioplegia is administered and the intrapericardial sac is flushed with cold saline to topically cool the heart. An oblique semicircular incision is made into the ascending aorta and three stay sutures are applied to each commissure (Figure 4) [5].
Superior view of the aortic valve [
The aortic valve is excised with a 2-mm margin-left on the aortic annulus. After flushing the left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) and ascending aorta to remove residual calcified particles, an appropriate artificial valve sizer is introduced. Interrupted Ticron 2-0 U-sutures with pledgets are placed through the annulus with pledgets on the ventricular side. Care must be taken on the commissure between the right and a coronary leaflets not to injure the AV node. When an appropriate valve size is chosen, these sutures are placed on the sewing ring and the valve is lowered into the aortic annulus. The sutures are tied either by hand or by novel artificial tying devices (e.g., Cor-Knot). Coronary ostia are carefully inspected to prevent catastrophic consequences (Figure 5).
Probing the coronary ostia (courtesy of Medical University of Graz).
The aortotomy is closed using two Prolene 4-0 running sutures, both starting at the aortotomy edges. The patient is rewarmed if needed and the heart is de-aired mostly through a needle incision in the ascending aorta, just distal to the aortotomy. After removing the aortic cross-clamp, a rhythm check is required. If ventricular fibrillation, external defibrillation is applied. When sinus rhythm occurs, an epicardial temporary pacemaker wire is placed on the right ventricle. This maneuver is facilitated when the heart is actively emptied through the venous cannula and the wire is then pulled out through the 3rd right intercostal space.
Also, during active venous drainage, the external drains are placed. Usually, one retrosternal drain is sufficient placed either through the subxiphoid area or the 3rd right intercostal space lateral to the RITA. Another viable option is also placement of transpleural drainage tubes.
Weaning from cardiopulmonary bypass follows after complete reperfusion with step-by-step decannulation and oversewing all cannulated spots with Prolene 5-0. Simultaneously with aortic decannulation, protamine is administered in a 1:1 ratio to reverse the effects of heparine. With the pericardium left open, sternal osteosynthesis is performed with one obliquely placed wire between the non-divided lower sternum and the 2nd right intercostal space and one figure-of-eight placed wire around the manubrio-sternal joint. Finally, fascia, subcutaneous tissue and skin are sutured, respectively.
To consider this approach, a preoperative chest computed tomography (CT) scan is mandatory to assess the relationship of intrathoracic structures, especially the distance of the aortic root to the right-sided rib cage. The main criteria are: (1) the position of more than half of the ascending aorta is over the pulmonary artery on the right side of the sternum and (2) the distance of the ascending aorta from the sternum is <10 cm [7, 8]. Over the 2nd right intercostal space, a <10 cm long incision is made with the medial portion at the sternal edge. The intercostal muscles are sharply divided using electrocautery. Upon entering the thoracic cavity, the superior right pulmonary lobe is retracted using selective bilateral lung intubation and prophylactic division of the RITA is necessary to prevent extensive blood loss. A small-blade retractor is inserted and the pericardium is opened in a longitudinal matter (Figure 6) [5]. It is of paramount importance to identify the phrenic nerve before pericardial incision to avoid postoperative delayed mechanical ventilation due to respiratory disturbances. Two stay sutures on both sides are applied and the intrapericardial contents are lifted upwards. We advise against routine rib resection. In most ART cases, visualization is already satisfactory after intercostal muscles’ division.
Pericardial incision through an anterior right mini-thoracotomy [
The cardiopulmonary bypass could be established centrally or peripherally. At our institutions, central cannulation remains the preferred option. The rest of the operation commences in a similar fashion as previously described in the chapter on upper mini-sternotomy [9, 10].
Both already described minimally invasive approaches to the aortic valve were developed in the 1990s. The Cleveland group developed the upper mini-sternotomy technique in 1996 [4] and the first published data on the ART are from New Delhi group from 1993 [9].
The first large published article regarding minimally invasive aortic valve surgery was written by the Boston group. They reported their experience with 526 consecutive minimally invasive aortic valve procedures, which were mostly done through an upper mini-sternotomy (93%). Their publication has shown excellent results with short- and long-term mortality at 2% and 5%, respectively. Freedom from reoperation at 6 years was 99% [6].
Encouraged by these data, the number of minimally invasive aortic valve surgery have risen significantly in the following years. A report was recently published on the clinical trends between median sternotomy and minimally invasive approaches for aortic valve stenosis in three high volume aortic valve surgery centres in the USA (Houston, Atlanta, and Miami). In the observed three-year period, the overall number of AVRs increased by 107% owing to improved diagnostics and TAVIs for previously denied patients. Minimally invasive AVRs increased by 57% and median sternotomy AVRs decreased by 15% [11].
Outcomes of minimally invasive aortic valve surgery are similar or even superior in some reports to those of conventional median sternotomy surgery [12].
Mortality rates are similar when comparing ART [13, 14, 15] or upper mini-sternotomy [6, 16, 17] with median sternotomy, respectively. One-year survival is reported to be >95%, whereas 5-year survival ranges from 80–95%, respectively.
The incidence of re-exploration due to excessive bleeding ranges from 3.8% up to 12% [15, 16, 17, 18]. The latter high number was reported by Semsroth et al. in a subgroup of 167 patients who were operated through an ART. One explanation could be that they already experienced lots of issues with intraoperative bleeding, which resulted in the fact that bleeding was the predominant cause for conversion to median sternotomy [18]. Most often significant bleeding occurs on the aortotomy edges, on cannulation sites, especially the right superior pulmonary vein, on sternotomy edges or if the RITA is injured.
Blood product transfusion is reported to be significantly lower in minimally invasive aortic valve surgery compared to traditional median sternotomy. Reported incidences are from 21.3% to 48.8% [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. The highest reported incidence was by Stolinski et al. in a series of 211 patients who undergone an ART, which is still significantly lower than in the median sternotomy group (67.3%, p < 0.001) [15].
Rhythm disturbances often accompany cardiac valvular procedures. The reported incidences of postoperative atrial fibrillation (POAF) are from 12.8% to 32.2% [13, 15, 16, 17].
Mechanical ventilation is significantly shorter in patients undergoing minimally invasive aortic valve surgery (5 vs. 6 h; p = 0.04) [17] and only 4.3% required prolonged ventilation >24 h [16].
Intensive care unit (ICU) and hospital length of stay are perhaps the most evident advantages of minimally invasive aortic valve surgery. Both parameters are shorter in comparison to median sternotomy aortic valve surgery [15]. Semsroth et al. reported a mean duration of ICU to stay 22 h for upper mini-sternotomy and 21 h for ART patients [18]. Although, Ghanta et al. reported longer ICU stays, early discharge defined by discharge by the 4th postoperative day (POD) was achieved in 15.8% in the minimally invasive group compared to only 4.2% in the median sternotomy group (p < 0.01) [17]. About 52.8% of minimally invasive surgery patients are discharged by the 6th POD and only 7.9% have a prolonged stay over 12 days [16].
Acute kidney injury (AKI) incidence ranges from 1% to 4.7% [16, 17] with hemodialysis from 0.5% to 13.2% [15, 18]. The large differences are a consequence of different AKI definitions and acquired protocols for renal replacement therapy. The highest reported incidence of hemodialysis comes from the report by Semsroth et al. Their explanation lies in the necessity of a preoperative CT imaging for patients receiving minimally invasive aortic valve surgery through ART, as contrast enhancement is nephrotoxic and might increase the risk for AKI [18].
However, a word of caution is proper. Not all patients are suitable for minimally invasive approaches, especially for ART which is technically more demanding. The reported exclusion criteria for ART are concomitant ascending aortic aneurysms, ascending aorta located completely retrosternal or relatively left lateral, pathological calcification of the ascending aorta (soft plaques) or prior cardiac surgery, history of right-sided pleuritis, a deep chest or women with large breasts [10, 19]. On the other hand, this approach is highly beneficial for disabled patients on crutches or those with deformed sternum due to radiation or injury.
All of the information on minimally invasive approaches so far have been regarding AVR. In recent years, some authors have published their experience with performing aortic valve repair or aortic valve-sparing procedures through minimally invasive approaches.
The Beijing group reported their results in upper mini-sternotomy aortic root surgery. A relatively small sample of 18 patients was matched with an equally large median sternotomy group. There were no differences in the categories of surgery, as aortic root surgery was combined with ascending aorta replacement or aortic arch replacement. Aortic cross-clamp was significantly longer in the minimally invasive group. Regarding postoperative outcomes, fewer transfusions, lower drainage volume, shorter mechanical ventilation time as well as shorter ICU and hospital stay were observed [20].
The ART approach was tested for the treatment of ascending aortic pathology. The Houston group compared 74 patients who operated through an ART with 103 patients with median sternotomy. In a matched cohort, a trend towards longer aortic cross-clamp time as well as significantly higher numbers of the bicuspid aortic valves in the ART group was observed. Again, fewer transfusions, shorter ventilation time, shorter ICU and hospital stay were experienced. Interestingly, short-term mortality was similar between the two groups [21].
A systematic review of the results of the minimally invasive aortic root, ascending aorta or aortic arch performed by the Bristol group revealed similar mortality, decreased length of cardiopulmonary bypass, shorter ICU and hospital stay, fewer reoperations due to bleeding and lower incidence of postoperative AKI in the minimally invasive group. A major limitation of this review is very low-quality non-randomized evidence [22].
The Warsaw group reported their experience with 167 upper mini-sternotomy aortic root or ascending aorta operations. About 49% undergone ascending aortic replacement, 26% a combination of ascending aortic and aortic valve replacement and 25% one of the aortic valve-sparing procedure (reimplantation/remodeling). Short- and long-term mortality was 1% and 5%, respectively. Seven % reoperations for bleeding, 1.7% prolonged ICU stays and 4.8% postoperative AKIs were observed [23].
As already mentioned in the text above, there are some specific pitfalls encountered in minimally invasive aortic valve surgery. Let us summarize and emphasize the most frequently seen:
injury to the RITA (prophylactic division is recommended in ART, sharp tissue division and electrocautery use should prevent RITA injury in upper mini-sternotomy),
poor exposure (excision of the prepericardial fatty tissue),
difficult ascending aortic cannulation (always be prepared for peripheral cannulation, most often through the femoral artery),
difficult de-airing (using a gauze-covered long instrument and additional CO2 inflation during the procedure can help aid against air embolisms),
reoperation (we strongly advocate against using minimally invasive approaches for redo surgery),
do not jeopardize the patient’s safety—if severe difficulties occur during a minimally invasive approach, do not hesitate to convert it into full median sternotomy.
Minimally invasive aortic valve surgery carries substantial benefits to patients with aortic valve disease. Fewer transfusions, shorter ICU and hospital stay, shorter mechanical ventilation alongside similar survival, POAF and AKI incidence are the main advantages when compared to conventional median sternotomy. The cardiac surgery society should aim at providing additional training to all cardiac surgeons to implement minimally invasive approaches in the majority of patients. Only by doing so, the cardiac surgery society can offer a counter-balance to ever-increasing numbers of TAVI, which will undoubtedly spread also in moderate or even low-risk patients in the following years [24].
The authors report not received funding.
The authors report no conflicts of interest.
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Intermetallic compounds are usually formed when alloying elements, such as Fe, Cu, Mn, Mg and Sr. are added to Al-Si based alloys. These elements are depicted by X in the alloys formation expression. The chapter noted that the most common intermetallics are iron (Fe) based, and several of these Fe-phases, including the most harmful Fe-phase, β-Al5SiFe, are listed and discussed. Fe-phase intermetallics are deleterious to the mechanical properties of Al-alloys; however, addition of <0.7% Fe helps prevent soldering in die casting mould. The effects of Fe-phase and other intermetallics formed by Cu, Mg and Mn were examined. Further, some techniques of eliminating or mitigating the negative influences of intermetallics were discussed.",book:{id:"6134",slug:"intermetallic-compounds-formation-and-applications",title:"Intermetallic Compounds",fullTitle:"Intermetallic Compounds - Formation and Applications"},signatures:"Williams S. Ebhota and Tien-Chien Jen",authors:[{id:"206268",title:"Dr.",name:"Williams",middleName:"S.",surname:"Ebhota",slug:"williams-ebhota",fullName:"Williams Ebhota"},{id:"214786",title:"Prof.",name:"Tien-Chien",middleName:null,surname:"Jen",slug:"tien-chien-jen",fullName:"Tien-Chien Jen"}]},{id:"54395",doi:"10.5772/67514",title:"Fundamentals of Chemical Vapor Deposited Graphene and Emerging Applications",slug:"fundamentals-of-chemical-vapor-deposited-graphene-and-emerging-applications",totalDownloads:3548,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Graphene, the atomically thin sheet of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms arranged in honeycomb structure, is becoming the forefront of material research. The chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process has been explored significantly to synthesis large size single crystals and uniform films of monolayer and bilayer graphene. In this prospect, the nucleation and growth mechanism of graphene on a catalytic substrate play the fundamental role on the control growth of layers and large domain. The transition metals and their alloys have been recognized as the active catalyst for growth of monolayer and bilayer graphene, where the surface composition of such catalysts also plays critical role on graphene growth. CVD-synthesized graphene has been integrated with bulk semiconductors such as Si and GaN for the fabrication of solar cells, photodetectors, and light-emitting diodes. Furthermore, CVD graphene has been integrated with hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs) for the fabrication of van der Waals heterostructure for nanoelectronic, optoelectronic, energy devices, and other emerging technologies. The fundamental of the graphene growth process by a CVD technique and various emerging applications in heterostructure devices is discussed in detail.",book:{id:"6215",slug:"graphene-materials-advanced-applications",title:"Graphene Materials",fullTitle:"Graphene Materials - Advanced Applications"},signatures:"Golap Kalita and Masaki Tanemura",authors:[{id:"17333",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Tanemura",slug:"masaki-tanemura",fullName:"Masaki Tanemura"},{id:"195869",title:"Dr.",name:"Golap",middleName:null,surname:"Kalita",slug:"golap-kalita",fullName:"Golap Kalita"}]},{id:"39648",doi:"10.5772/51514",title:"Fundamental Aspects of Silicon Carbide Oxidation",slug:"fundamental-aspects-of-silicon-carbide-oxidation",totalDownloads:4371,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"3129",slug:"physics-and-technology-of-silicon-carbide-devices",title:"Physics and Technology of Silicon Carbide Devices",fullTitle:"Physics and Technology of Silicon Carbide Devices"},signatures:"Heiji Watanabe and Takuji Hosoi",authors:[{id:"153696",title:"Prof.",name:"Heiji",middleName:null,surname:"Watanabe",slug:"heiji-watanabe",fullName:"Heiji Watanabe"}]},{id:"37701",doi:"10.5772/50748",title:"Thermal Oxidation Mechanism of Silicon Carbide",slug:"thermal-oxidation-mechanism-of-silicon-carbide",totalDownloads:3525,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3129",slug:"physics-and-technology-of-silicon-carbide-devices",title:"Physics and Technology of Silicon Carbide Devices",fullTitle:"Physics and Technology of Silicon Carbide Devices"},signatures:"Yasuto Hijikata, Shuhei Yagi, Hiroyuki Yaguchi and Sadafumi Yoshida",authors:[{id:"18137",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasuto",middleName:null,surname:"Hijikata",slug:"yasuto-hijikata",fullName:"Yasuto Hijikata"},{id:"18271",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Yaguchi",slug:"hiroyuki-yaguchi",fullName:"Hiroyuki Yaguchi"},{id:"18272",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadafumi",middleName:null,surname:"Yoshida",slug:"sadafumi-yoshida",fullName:"Sadafumi Yoshida"},{id:"152822",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuhei",middleName:null,surname:"Yagi",slug:"shuhei-yagi",fullName:"Shuhei Yagi"}]},{id:"60330",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74176",title:"Preclinical Aspects on Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Interventions as Anticancer Agents: Enucleation, Apoptosis and Other Mechanism",slug:"preclinical-aspects-on-magnetic-iron-oxide-nanoparticles-and-their-interventions-as-anticancer-agent",totalDownloads:1325,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The broad area of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (M-IONP) applications and their exclusive physico-chemical characteristics (superparamagnetic properties per se, solubility and stability in aqueous solutions, and high bioavailability in vivo) make these nanoparticles suitable candidates for biomedical uses. The most employed magnetic iron oxides in the biomedical field are magnetite and maghemite. Cancer represents a complex pathology that implies multiple mechanisms and signaling pathways, this complexity being responsible for the increased resistance to therapy and the lack of an effective curative treatment. A potential useful alternative was considered to be the use of magnetic iron nanoparticles. The M-IONPs proved to be effective as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging, as drug delivery carriers for different therapeutic agents, in magnetic cell separation assays, and are suitable to be engineered in terms of size, targeted delivery and substance release. Moreover, their in vivo administration was considered safe, and recent studies indicated their efficiency as anticancer agents. This chapter aims to furnish an overview regarding the physico-chemical properties of M-IONPs (mainly magnetite, maghemite and hematite), the synthesis methods and their in vitro biological impact on healthy and cancer cell lines, by describing their potential mechanism of action—enucleation, apoptosis or other mechanisms.",book:{id:"6335",slug:"iron-ores-and-iron-oxide-materials",title:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials",fullTitle:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials"},signatures:"Elena-Alina Moacă, Elena Dorina Coricovac, Codruta Marinela\nSoica, Iulia Andreea Pinzaru, Cornelia Silvia Păcurariu and Cristina\nAdriana Dehelean",authors:[{id:"141027",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Dehelean",slug:"cristina-dehelean",fullName:"Cristina Dehelean"},{id:"173283",title:"Dr.",name:"Dorina",middleName:null,surname:"Coricovac",slug:"dorina-coricovac",fullName:"Dorina Coricovac"},{id:"186678",title:"Dr.",name:"Codruta",middleName:null,surname:"Soica",slug:"codruta-soica",fullName:"Codruta Soica"},{id:"217849",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Iulia Andreea",middleName:null,surname:"Pinzaru",slug:"iulia-andreea-pinzaru",fullName:"Iulia Andreea Pinzaru"},{id:"219727",title:"Mrs.",name:"Elena Alina",middleName:null,surname:"Moaca",slug:"elena-alina-moaca",fullName:"Elena Alina Moaca"},{id:"219728",title:"Prof.",name:"Cornelia Silvia",middleName:null,surname:"Pacurariu",slug:"cornelia-silvia-pacurariu",fullName:"Cornelia Silvia Pacurariu"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58868",title:"Iron Ore Pelletizing Process: An Overview",slug:"iron-ore-pelletizing-process-an-overview",totalDownloads:4575,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The iron ore production has significantly expanded in recent years, owing to increasing steel demands in developing countries. However, the content of iron in ore deposits has deteriorated and low-grade iron ore has been processed. The fines resulting from the concentration process must be agglomerated for use in iron and steelmaking. This chapter shows the status of the pelletizing process with a special focus on binders. Bentonite is the most used binder due to favorable mechanical and metallurgical pellet properties, but it contains impurities especially silica and alumina. The importance of many researches concerning alternative binders is also discussed in this chapter. Better quality wet, dry, preheated, and fired pellets can be produced with combined binders, such as organic and inorganic salts, when compared with bentonite-bonded pellets. While organic binders provide sufficient wet and dry pellet strengths, inorganic salts provide the required preheated and fired pellet strengths.",book:{id:"6335",slug:"iron-ores-and-iron-oxide-materials",title:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials",fullTitle:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials"},signatures:"Sandra Lúcia de Moraes, José Renato Baptista de Lima and Tiago\nRamos Ribeiro",authors:[{id:"216788",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:"Lúcia",surname:"De Moraes",slug:"sandra-de-moraes",fullName:"Sandra De Moraes"},{id:"233466",title:"Prof.",name:"José Renato Baptista",middleName:null,surname:"De Lima",slug:"jose-renato-baptista-de-lima",fullName:"José Renato Baptista De Lima"},{id:"233467",title:"MSc.",name:"Tiago Ramos",middleName:null,surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"tiago-ramos-ribeiro",fullName:"Tiago Ramos Ribeiro"}]},{id:"58937",title:"Intermetallics Formation and Their Effect on Mechanical Properties of Al-Si-X Alloys",slug:"intermetallics-formation-and-their-effect-on-mechanical-properties-of-al-si-x-alloys",totalDownloads:1854,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:22,abstract:"This study focuses on primary impurities, called intermetallics, in the microstructure of Al-Si-X alloys, their formation, effects and treatments to eliminate or ameliorate their deleterious effects. Intermetallic compounds are usually formed when alloying elements, such as Fe, Cu, Mn, Mg and Sr. are added to Al-Si based alloys. These elements are depicted by X in the alloys formation expression. The chapter noted that the most common intermetallics are iron (Fe) based, and several of these Fe-phases, including the most harmful Fe-phase, β-Al5SiFe, are listed and discussed. Fe-phase intermetallics are deleterious to the mechanical properties of Al-alloys; however, addition of <0.7% Fe helps prevent soldering in die casting mould. The effects of Fe-phase and other intermetallics formed by Cu, Mg and Mn were examined. Further, some techniques of eliminating or mitigating the negative influences of intermetallics were discussed.",book:{id:"6134",slug:"intermetallic-compounds-formation-and-applications",title:"Intermetallic Compounds",fullTitle:"Intermetallic Compounds - Formation and Applications"},signatures:"Williams S. Ebhota and Tien-Chien Jen",authors:[{id:"206268",title:"Dr.",name:"Williams",middleName:"S.",surname:"Ebhota",slug:"williams-ebhota",fullName:"Williams Ebhota"},{id:"214786",title:"Prof.",name:"Tien-Chien",middleName:null,surname:"Jen",slug:"tien-chien-jen",fullName:"Tien-Chien Jen"}]},{id:"54372",title:"Photoinduced Pseudospin Dynamical Effects in Graphene-Like Systems",slug:"photoinduced-pseudospin-dynamical-effects-in-graphene-like-systems",totalDownloads:1644,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this chapter, we describe some of our recent results on the laser-induced manipulation of the energy band structure of graphene-like systems. We present numerical results on the quasi-energy spectrum as well as detailed calculations of semi-analytical approximations to other physical quantities of interest. The main message we would like to convey to the interested reader of the chapter is that by properly tuning the perturbation parameters of the radiation field one can control the size and shape of the photoinduced gaps. These in turn would allow the realization of new electronic phases on graphene and its related materials such as silicene.",book:{id:"5722",slug:"graphene-materials-structure-properties-and-modifications",title:"Graphene Materials",fullTitle:"Graphene Materials - Structure, Properties and Modifications"},signatures:"Alexander López and Benjamin Santos",authors:[{id:"195536",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"López",slug:"alexander-lopez",fullName:"Alexander López"},{id:"204551",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"benjamin-santos",fullName:"Benjamin Santos"}]},{id:"58482",title:"Calcination and Pelletizing of Siderite Ore",slug:"calcination-and-pelletizing-of-siderite-ore",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In the present study, calcination properties of Hekimhan-Deveci siderite (FeCO3) ore and the effect of calcination process before the pelletization on strength of pellet were investigated and evaluated. Two different calcination processes were followed. One of them is the traditional calcination process and the other one is microwave assisted calcination process which is a new process for siderite ore. The characterization of the calcined and uncalcined siderite ore was done using X-ray diffraction, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and thermogravimetric analysis. The physical and mechanical properties of pellets which were obtained using the raw siderite and the calcined siderite were compared with each other. As a result of experimental studies, it was found that the calcination process decreased the milling time, causing the significant energy saving and the most suitable calcination process for siderite ore was found as 15 min at 700°C temperature. It was the first time that the calcination process of the siderite ore was achieved by microwave by adding 30 wt% sucrose as a thermal auxiliary. The microwave conditions were determined as 900 W at 3 min. In 3 min, the temperature of the siderite ore increased up to 1100°C and 32.14% weight loss for the sample was achieved.",book:{id:"6335",slug:"iron-ores-and-iron-oxide-materials",title:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials",fullTitle:"Iron Ores and Iron Oxide Materials"},signatures:"Mehmet Celikdemir, Musa Sarikaya, Tolga Depci, Ramazan\nAydogmus and Aysegul Yucel",authors:[{id:"212301",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Çelikdemir",slug:"mehmet-celikdemir",fullName:"Mehmet Çelikdemir"},{id:"213405",title:"Prof.",name:"Musa",middleName:null,surname:"Sarikaya",slug:"musa-sarikaya",fullName:"Musa Sarikaya"},{id:"213412",title:"Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Depci",slug:"tolga-depci",fullName:"Tolga Depci"},{id:"213413",title:"MSc.",name:"Ramazan",middleName:null,surname:"Aydoğmuş",slug:"ramazan-aydogmus",fullName:"Ramazan Aydoğmuş"},{id:"227119",title:"MSc.",name:"Ayşegül",middleName:null,surname:"Yücel",slug:"aysegul-yucel",fullName:"Ayşegül Yücel"}]},{id:"69224",title:"Introductory Chapter: Cobalt Compounds and Applications",slug:"introductory-chapter-cobalt-compounds-and-applications",totalDownloads:761,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8886",slug:"cobalt-compounds-and-applications",title:"Cobalt Compounds and Applications",fullTitle:"Cobalt Compounds and Applications"},signatures:"Aynur Manzak and Yasemin Yildiz",authors:[{id:"208129",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Yıldız",slug:"yasemin-yildiz",fullName:"Yasemin Yıldız"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"950",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:48,paginationItems:[{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104978",signatures:"Richa Rai",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103935",signatures:"Douglas Penaforte Cruz, Marinna Garcia Repossi and Lucianne Fragel Madeira",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"81756",title:"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104950",signatures:"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska",slug:"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"81681",title:"Immunomodulatory Effects of a M2-Conditioned Medium (PRS® CK STORM): Theory on the Possible Complex Mechanism of Action through Anti-Inflammatory Modulation of the TLR System and the Purinergic System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104486",signatures:"Juan Pedro Lapuente",slug:"immunomodulatory-effects-of-a-m2-conditioned-medium-prs-ck-storm-theory-on-the-possible-complex-mech",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:27,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013. She relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the National Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to October 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is currently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology – Kandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) Ambassador to Sri Lanka.",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. 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After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 15th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfPublishedBooks:27,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRqB9QAK/Profile_Picture_1626163237970",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/326171",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"326171"},fullPath:"/profiles/326171",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()