Wildlife Vaccination Campaigns Using Raboral®*.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"681",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis - Models, Disease Biology and Experimental Therapy",title:"Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis",subtitle:"Models, Disease Biology and Experimental Therapy",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis - Models, Disease Biology and Experimental Therapy is totally focused on the model of multiple sclerosis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). 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The helicopter belongs to the flight machine category with the highest operational efficiency because it does not need special take-off and landing grounds with expensive utilities and logistics equipment. For the short and medium range, the flight efficiency of helicopters is comparable with those of the airplanes. It is able to hover, fly sideward, backward, forward, and perform other desirable maneuvers in civilian field like sea and mountain rescue, police surveillance, and firefighting; or in military missions such as battlefield surveillance, troop transport, assault, and antitank operations. So far with the help of helicopters, lives of over a million of people were saved. In the last years, the results obtained in the scientific research of many aeronautical disciplines has allowed for large increase in the flight dynamics, control, navigation, and lift capabilities of helicopters.
\nThe aerodynamic limitations imposed by the main rotor were understood better and overcome gradually so, the present helicopters are able to fly at about 370 km/h. The continued advance in the computer-aided design, manufacturing, and lightweight materials have permitted new approaches in the helicopter configuration concepts and design. The helicopter lift force is provided by the main rotor with the blades that spin about the shaft and all the flight maneuvers under the pilot’s full control suppose a significant mechanical and aerodynamic complexity.
\nThe word “helicopter” comes from two Greek words, “helliko” (spiral) and “pteron” (wing). The idea of vertical flight could be localized in time, in the years of about 400 BC, when was built so called “Chinese top,” consisted of feathers at the end of a stick which was spun between the hands to generate lift. In 1483, Leonardo da Vinci proposed a flight device, which comprised a helical surface formed out of iron wire. According to the historical sources, in about 1754, Mikhail Lomonosov of Russia had built a coaxial rotor, modeled after the Chinese top, but powered by a spring device, which flew freely.
\nA short list of the most important achievements in the historical evolution of helicopters is the following:
1843: Sir George Cayley (considered the inventor of the airplane) published a paper, where he gives some scientific details about the vertical flight of the aircraft;
1860: Ponton d”Amecourt of France built a number of small steam-powered helicopter models;
1874: Wilheim von Achenbach of Germany built a single rotor model and he had the idea to create a sideward thrusting tail rotor in order to counteract the main rotor torque reaction;
1880: Thomas Alva Edison tested several rotor configurations powered by an electric motor;
Four years after Orville Wright first successful powered flight, which took place in December 17, 1903, a French, named Paul Cornu constructed a helicopter and
1907: the French brothers Louis and Jaques Breguet built a helicopter (quad rotor, in the form of a horizontal cross) powered by a 40-hp. engine. This helicopter did not fly completely free due to its lack of stability;
1909: Igor Ivanovitch Sikorsky built a nonpiloted coaxial helicopter prototype;
1912: Boris Yuriev tried to build a helicopter with a single main rotor and tail rotor configuration. He proposed the concept of cyclic pitch for rotor control;
1914: the Danish Jen C. Ellehammer designed a helicopter with coaxial rotors. The aircraft made several short hops but never made a properly flight;
1917: Stephan Petroczy (Austrian) build and flew a coaxial rotor helicopter;
1919: Henry Berliner (USA) built a counter-rotating coaxial helicopter;
1920: Raul Pescara (Argentina) built a coaxial helicopter;
1922: Georges des Bothezat (USA) designed and built a helicopter for the USA army. He was the first specialist who described the helicopter autorotation;
1939: Igor Ivanovitch Sikorsky built the helicopter VS-300 which flew in May 13, 1940. He could be considered the most important person in the helicopter design.
The helicopter is a complex aircraft that obtains both lift and thrust from blades rotating about a vertical axis. The term “rotary wing” is often used to distinguish the helicopter from airplane, which is a “fixed wing” aircraft. The helicopter can have one or more engines, and it uses gear boxes connected to the engines by rotating shafts to transfer the power from engines to the rotors (\nFigure 1\n).
\nTypical helicopter drive train.
The most common helicopter configuration consists of one main rotor as well as a tail rotor to the rear of the fuselage (\nFigure 2a\n). A tandem rotor helicopter has two main rotors; one at the front of the fuselage and one at the back (\nFigure 2b\n). This type of configuration does not need a tail rotor because the main rotors are counter rotating. It was proposed by the Serbian man Dragoljub Ivanovich in 1953.
\nThe single main rotor (a) and the tandem rotor helicopter (b).
A variant of the tandem is the coaxial rotor helicopter (\nFigure 3a\n) which has the same principle of operation, but the two main rotors are mounted one above the other on coaxial rotor shafts. This constructive solution was developed by Nicolai Ilich Kamov. Another helicopter type is the synchropter, which use intermeshing blades (\nFigure 3b\n). This type of helicopter was proposed by Charles Kaman.
\nThe coaxial rotors (a) and the intermeshing blades (b).
If the two rotors are mounted either side of the fuselage, on pylons or wing tips, the configuration is referred to as side by side (\nFigure 4\n).
\nThe side by side rotors.
Another aircraft type that should be mentioned is the autogiro (invented by Huan de la Cievra), which is a hybrid between a helicopter and a fixed wing airplane. It uses a propeller for the forward propulsion and has freely spinning nonpowered main rotor that provides lift.
\nThe basic flight regimes of helicopter include hover, climb, descent, and forward flight, and the analysis and study of these flight regimes can be approached by the actuator disk theory, where an infinite number of zero thickness blades support the thrust force generated by the rotation of the blades [1]. The air is assumed to be incompressible and the flow remains in the same direction (one-dimensional), which for most flight conditions is appropriate. The helicopter main rotor generates a vertical force in opposition to the helicopter’s weight and a horizontal propulsive force for forward flight. Also, the main and tail rotors generate the forces and moments to control the attitude and position of the helicopter in three-dimensional space.
\nThe cross sections in \nFigure 5\n denote: the plane far upstream of the rotor, where in the hovering case the air velocity is null (section 0–0); the planes just above and below the rotor disk (sections 1–1, and 2–2); the far wake section, denoted by ∞. At the plane of rotor, the velocity through the rotor disk is
The helicopter in hovering flight.
where \n
\n
This equation requires the condition that the total amount of mass entering a control volume equals the total amount of mass leaving it. For steady-flow processes, we are not interested in the amount m of mass that flows in or out the control volume, but we are interested in amount of mass flowing per unit time, that is the mass flow rate, \n
Therefore,
\n\n
The principle of conservation of fluid momentum gives the relationship between the rotor thrust and the time rate of change of fluid momentum out of the control volume. The left part of Eq. (6) represent the sum of all forces that operate upon the control volume, namely the helicopter rotor thrust force, T. In projection on rotational axis, Eq. (6) becomes
\nwhere \n
\n
The work done on the helicopter rotor is equal to the gain in energy of the fluid per unit time, and
Taking into account that \n
From the equation of continuity
Replacing the velocity
The induced velocity at the plane of the rotor disk is
This expression shows that induced velocity is dependent explicitly on the disk loading
The power required to hover is the product between thrust
This power, called the ideal power, forms the majority of the power consumed in hover, which is itself a high power-consuming helicopter flight regime.
\nIn assessing rotor performance and compare calculations for different rotors, nondimensional quantities are useful. The induced velocity is normalized using the rotor tip speed,
The parameter
The thrust force is also normalized like the lift for the fixed-wing, that is, the product of a pressure and an area, where the pressure is the dynamic pressure, considered at the rotor blade tips and the area is the total disk area,
The inclusion on the half in the denominator is consistent with the lift coefficient definition for a fixed-wing aircraft. The rotor power,
Taking into account that power is related to torque by
Starting from the definition of the induced inflow ratio in hover,
\n\n
The rotor power coefficient can be represented as
\nConsidering the helicopter in climb, one can see that the flow enters the stream tube far upstream of the rotor and then passes through the rotor itself, finally passing away from the rotor forming the wake (\nFigure 6\n). When the helicopter leaves the hovering condition and moves in a vertical direction, the flow remains symmetrical about the thrust force line, which is normal to the rotor disk. The flow becomes very complex in a medium descent rate condition, but in climb, the mathematical approach is close to that used in the hover conditions.
\nThe axial climbing flight.
The air enters the stream tube with velocity
Therefore, \n
The left part of the above equation represents the square of induced velocity in hover, \n
The ratio
The power consumed is given by the product of the thrust and the total velocity through the rotor disk, that is
\nIn the vertical descent, the air enters the stream tube from below the rotor with velocity
The stream tube in descent.
Even if the sign of thrust is negative, that does not mean that the thrust is negative, because the assumed sign convention consists of positive velocity
Replacing the expression of thrust
therefore, \n
Similarly, to climb case, having the expression of the mass flow rate \n
so
\nDividing by \n
with the solutions
\nIn order to have real solutions, the following condition must be accomplished
\nThat means, |
In the region of flight that corresponds to −2 ≤
with
\n\nFigure 8\n shows the graphical results from this analysis, made in the Maple soft program.
\nInduced velocity variation.
In the normal working state of the rotor, if the climb velocity increases, the induced velocity decreases and also, in the windmill brake state if the descent velocity increases the induced velocity decreases and asymptotes to zero at high descent rates. In the vortex ring region, the induced velocity is approximated, because momentum theory cannot be applied. The flow in this region is unsteady and turbulent having upward and downward velocities. During normal powered flight, the rotor generates an induced airflow going downward and there is a recirculation of air at the blade tips, having the form of vortices, which exist because higher pressure air from below the rotor blade escapes into the lower pressure area above the blade. The rate of descent that is required to get into the vortex ring state varies with the speed of the induced airflow. Although vortices are always present around the edge of the rotor disk, under certain airflow conditions, they will intensify and, coupled with a stall spreading outward from the blade root, result in a sudden loss of rotor thrust. Vortex ring can only occur when the following conditions are present: power on, giving an induced flow down through rotor disk; a rate of descent, producing an external airflow directly opposing the induced flow; low forward speed.
\nIn a climb or descent, the power ratio is
\nUsing Eqs. (20) and (30), and substituting in the above equation, it follows that
For a climb: \n
For a descent: \n
For the vortex ring state, we can use the approximation (31) for the induced velocity ration, therefore in this case, the power ratio is
\nUsing the same Maple soft program like for induced velocity, we obtain the following picture for the power ratio,
According to the power to power in hover ratio values, shown in \nFigure 9\n, the power required to climb is always greater than the power required to hover, namely this ratio is greater than unity. In descent flight, the rotor extracts power from the air and uses less power than to hover.
\nPower required as a function of climb and descent velocity.
In forward flight, the rotor must be tilted (\nFigure 10\n) in order to have a propulsive force to propel the helicopter forward, with a velocity
Rotor in forward flight.
The rotor thrust,
In order to get an analytical solution for the induced velocity, it is necessary to define two coefficients:
Dividing Eq. (34) to
This expression leads to the following equation for the inflow ratio,
The above equation can be very easy to be solved in Maple soft. In \nFigure 11\n, three curves are shown, in coordinates \n
Inflow ratio
The inflow ratio,
The primary way to distinguish between different main rotor systems is represented by the movement of the blade relative to the main rotor hub. The main categories are fully articulated, semi rigid, and rigid. In hovering flight, the blades flap up and lag back with respect to the hub and reach equilibrium position under the action of aerodynamic and centrifugal forces. In forward flight, the asymmetry of the dynamic pressure over the disk produces aerodynamic forces that are the functions of the blade azimuth position. The hinges allow each blade to independently flap and lead or lag with respect to the hub plane. The lead-lag hinge allows in-plane motion of the blade due to the Coriolis and radius of gyration changing in flapping movement. Transition from hover to forward flight introduces additional aerodynamic forces and effects that are not found when the helicopter is in stationary hover. Due to the difference in relative airspeed between the advancing and retreating blades, the lift is constantly changing through each revolution of the rotor.
\n\n\nFigure 12\n shows the flapping, lead-lag, and feathering motion of a rotor blade.
\nBlade movement axis.
In a fully articulated rotor, each main rotor blade is free to move up and down (flapping), to move forth and back (dragging), and to twist about the spanwise axis (feathering). Semi rigid rotor has, normally, two blades attached rigidly to the main rotor hub and is free to tilt and rock independently of the main rotor mast, one blade flaps up and other flaps down.
\nThe rigid rotor system cannot flap or drag, but it can be feathered. The natural frequency of the rigid rotor is high, so the stability is difficult to be achieved.
\nThe single rotor helicopters require a separate rotor to overcome the effect of torque reaction, namely the tendency for the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction to that of the main rotor. The anti-torque pedals are operated by the pilot’s feet and vary the force produced by the tail rotor to oppose torque reaction.
\nIt has the purpose to transmit cyclic and collective control movements to the main rotor blades and consists of a stationary plate and a rotating plate. The stationary plate is attached to the main rotor mast and the rotating plate is attached to the stationary plate by a bearing surface and rotates at the same speed as the main rotor blades.
\nThe neutral position of the cyclic stick changes as the helicopter moves off from to hover in forward flight. Trim control can adjust the mechanical feel in flight by changing the neutral position of the stick.
\nCollective pitch lever controls the lift produced by the rotor, while the cyclic pitch controls the pitch angle of the rotor blades in their cyclic rotation. This tilts the main rotor tip-path plane to allow forward, backward, or lateral movement of the helicopter.
\nThe power required for flight is the second work that must be transmitted to the shaft of the rotor.
\nIn general, for a helicopter in forward flight, the total power required at the rotor,
where
Inductive power is consumed to produce lift equal to the weight of the helicopter. From the simple 1-D momentum theory the induced power of the rotor,
where
The profile power required to overcome the profile drag of the blades of the blades of the rotor is
\nwhere
The parasite power,
The climb (or descend) power can be written as
\nwhere
In addition, when calculating the power required of the helicopter, the required power of the tail rotor must also be calculated. The power required by the tail rotor typically varies between 3 and 5% of the main rotor power in normal flight, and up to 20% of the main rotor power at the extremes of the flight envelope [1]. It is calculated in a similar way to the main rotor power, with the thrust required being set equal to the value necessary to balance the main rotor torque reaction on the fuselage. The use of vertical tail surfaces to produce a side force in forward flight can help to reduce the power fraction required for the tail rotor, albeit at the expense of some increase in parasitic and induced drag.
\n\n\nFigure 13\n shows the net power required for a given helicopter in straight-and-level flight.
\nPower required and power available in straight-andlevel flight.
The power needed to rotate the main rotor transmits to the main rotor from the engine through the transmission (\nFigure 13\n). But the main rotor cannot get all the power, which is developed from the engine, as part of it is spent for other purposes and does not go to the main rotor.
\nFor rotating of the tail rotor about 8% is lost from the consumed power of the engine, for fan rotation about 5%, for friction about 7% in transmission, for auxiliary drive units about 1%, and for blowing parts of the helicopter about 2%.
\nThis part of the power of the motor that is transmitted to the main rotor is called available power. It is defined as the difference between effective power and total loss.
\nExcess power—this is the difference between the available and the power required. The greater the excess power is, the greater the speed range is and the better the helicopter’s maneuvering characteristics are (\nFigure 13\n).
\nWhen the helicopter flies near the earth’s surface, the efficiency of the rotor system increases because of the interference of the airflow with the ground [2, 3, 4]. The rotor downwash is unable to escape as readily as it can when flying higher and creates a ground effect. When the rotor downwash reaches the surface, the induced flow downwash stops its vertical velocity, which reduces the induced flow at the rotor disk (\nFigure 14\n).
\nInfluence of ground effect on the induced flow.
\n\nFigure 15\n shows the effects of this on the power required to hover. If the hover height in ground effect must be maintained, the aircraft can only be kept at this height by reducing the angle of attack (AoA) so that the total reaction produces a rotor lift exactly equal and opposite to weight. It shows that the angle of attack is slightly less, the amount of total rotor thrust is the same as the gross weight, the blade angle is smaller, the power required to overcome the reduced rotor drag (or torque) is less and the collective control lever is lower than when hovering out of ground effect. Therefore, there is better lift/drag ratio.
\nInfluence of ground effect on the rotor drag.
These conclusions are also true to flight in ground effect other than the hover, but the effect is smaller.
\nAutorotation is an emergency mode. It can arise if the engine stops in flight (usually without the pilot’s desire), when the rotor is not driven by the engine and begins to rotate by aerodynamic forces resulting from rate of oncoming airflow through the rotor [1, 3].
\nIn the case of vertical autorotative descent (without forward speed) without wind, the forces that cause a rotation of the blades are similar for all blades, regardless of their azimuth position [2].
\nDuring vertical autorotation, the rotor disk is divided into three regions (as illustrated in \nFigure 16a\n): driven region, driving region, and stall region. \nFigure 17\n shows the blade sections that illustrate force vectors. Force vectors are different in each region, as the relative air velocity is lower near the root of the blade and increases continually toward its tip. The combination of the inflow up through the rotor with the relative air velocity creates different aerodynamic forces in each section along the blade [2].
\nAutorotation regions in (a) vertical descend and (b) forward autorotation descend.
Force vectors in vertical autorotation.
In the driven region, illustrated in \nFigure 17\n, the section aerodynamic force T acts behind the axis of rotation. This force has two projections: the drag force D and lift force L. In this region, the lift is offset by drag, and the result is a deceleration of the blade rotation. There are two sections of equilibrium on the blade—the first is between the driven area and the driving region, and the second is between the driving region and the stall region. At the equilibrium sections, the aerodynamic force T coincides with the axis of rotation. There are lift and drag forces, but neither acceleration nor deceleration is induced [2].
\nIn the driving region, the blade produces the forces needed to rotate the blades during the autorotation. The aerodynamic force in the driving region is inclined slightly forward with respect to the axis of rotation. This inclination provides thrust that leads to an acceleration of the blade rotation. By controlling the length of the driving region, the pilot can adjust the autorotative rpm [2].
\nIn the stall region, the rotor blade operates above its stall angle (maximum angle of attack), causing drag, which tends to slow rotation of the blade.
\nAutorotative force in forward flight is produced in exactly the same scheme as when the helicopter is descending vertically in still air. However, because of the forward flight velocity there is a loss of axial symmetry in the induced velocity and angles of attack over the rotor disk. This tends to move the distribution of parts of the rotor disk that consume power and absorb power, as shown in \nFigure 16b\n. A small section near the root experiences a reversed flow; therefore, the size of the driven region on the retreating side is reduced [1].
\nHelicopter stability means its ability in the conditions of external disturbances to keep the specified flight regime without pilot management [3, 5].
\nLet us consider the longitudinal motion of a helicopter on the hovering regime (\nFigure 18\n). The weight of the helicopter
Longitudinal motion of the helicopter in hover.
Recall that a helicopter, like any aircraft, is considered statically stable, if it after a deviation from the steady flight regime tends to return to its original position. Suppose, for example, that as a result of the action of a wind gust
Both effects: both the translational velocity and the rotation of the fuselage, and hence the axis of the rotor, will cause the resultant forces
Consider, however, the further movement of the helicopter. The inclination of the resultant in the direction of parrying disturbance is too great because of the presence of velocity stability. It leads to the fact that the helicopter in its movement to the initial position skips the equilibrium position and deviates in the opposite direction, but already by a large magnitude. The motion of the helicopter takes the character of oscillation with increasing amplitude. The aircraft, which in the free disturbed motion ultimately leave the initial equilibrium state, is called dynamically unstable. Thus, a helicopter on a hovering regime is dynamically unstable.
\nThe given case relates to the helicopter’s movement on the pitch angle on the hover. The roll motion on the hover has a similar character. The difference here is manifested only in the period and the degree of growth of oscillation, which depend on the moments of inertia of the helicopter, different in pitch and roll.
\nThe helicopter is neutral in the yaw angle and the altitude on the hover. This means that the helicopter does not tend to keep a given course angle or a given flight altitude. At the corresponding disturbances these parameters will change. But their change will continue only as long as the perturbation is working. At the end of the disturbance, the course angle and altitude will not change.
\nIt can be said that the helicopter is stable with respect to the yaw rate and the vertical speed. This stability is explained by the fact that the main rotor at an increase of the airspeed in a direction opposite to the thrust reduces its thrust, and conversely, when this speed decreases—increases the thrust, thus creating a damping force in the direction of the axis of rotation. Therefore, the tail rotor creates a large damping yaw moment on the helicopter, and the main rotor—a damping force for vertical helicopter movements.
\nIn forward flight, the efficiency of helicopter control and the derivatives of the damping moments and moments of stability with respect to the main rotor speed vary insignificantly. However, the moment derivative with respect to the angle of attack, which for the main rotor corresponds to the instability, begins to play an important role. This instability can be compensated if the fuselage of the helicopter has a stabilizer, which improves the desired degree of stability in the angle of attack. But it is difficult to provide satisfactory longitudinal stability even with well-designed stabilizer. That’s why the modern helicopters are equipped with electronic stabilization.
\nIn the forward flight, the roll movement is strongly connected with the yaw movement, just as it does on the airplane. These two movement types are therefore referred to as one, “lateral” movement of the helicopter. The own lateral motion of a single-rotor helicopter during a forward flight, as a rule, is periodically stable. In the low-speed modes, while the relationship between the roll and yaw movements is still small, and the roll motion, like the hovering, is unstable, the lateral motion of a single-rotor helicopter is unstable.
\nStatic stability of helicopters with two main rotors differs slightly from the stability of the helicopter with one main rotor. The tandem main rotor helicopter has a significantly greater longitudinal static stability, and the coaxial main rotor helicopter has a greater lateral stability. This is explained by the change of main rotors thrust at a disruption of the equilibrium.
\nSo, the helicopter, essentially, cannot maintain a steady flight regime. The pilot, piloting the helicopter, continuously has to act on the helicopter’s controls and create control moments, under which the helicopter to maintain the specified flight regime.
\nControl characteristics refer to a helicopter’s ability to respond to control inputs and so move from one flight condition to another [6]. There are four basic controls used during flight. They are the collective pitch control, the throttle, the cyclic pitch control, and the antitorque pedals (\nFigure 19\n).
\nBasic helicopter controls.
The collective pitch control changes the pitch angle of all main rotor blades. The collective is controlled by the left hand (\nFigure 19\n). As the pitch of the blades is increased, lift is created causing the helicopter to rise from the ground, hover or climb, as long as sufficient power is available.
\nThe variation of the pitch angle of the blades changes the angle of attack on each blade. The change in the angle of attack causes a change in the drag, which reflects the speed or rpm of the main rotor. When the pitch angle increases, the angle of attack increases too, therefore the drag increases, and the rotor rpm decreases. When the pitch angle decreases, the angle of attack and the drag decrease too, but the rotor rpm increases. To maintain a constant rotor rpm, which is specific to helicopters, a proportional alteration in power is required to compensate for the drag change. This is achieved with a throttle control or a correlator and/or governor, so that the engine power can be regulated automatically [2].
\nThe purpose of the throttle is to regulate engine rpm if the system with a correlator or governor does not maintain the necessary rpm when the collective is raised or lowered, or if those devices are not installed, the throttle has to be moved manually with the twist grip to maintain desired rpm. Twisting the throttle outboard increases rpm; twisting it inboard decreases rpm [2].
\nThe correlator is a device that connects the collective lever and the engine throttle. When the collective lever raises, the power automatically increases and when lowers, the power decreases. The correlator maintains rpm close to the desired value, but still requires an additional fine tuning of the throttle. The governor is a sensing device that recognizes the rotor and engine rpm and makes the necessary settings to keep rotor rpm constant. Under normal operation, once the rotor rpm is set, the governor keeps the rpm constant, and there is no need to make any throttle settings. The governor is typical device used in turbine helicopters and is also used in some helicopters with piston engines [2].
\nThe rotor control is performed by the cyclic pitch control, which tilts the main rotor disk by changing the pitch angle of the rotor blades. The tilting rotor disk produces a cyclic variation of the blade pitch angle. When the main rotor disk is tilted, the horizontal component of thrust moves the helicopter in the tilt direction.
\n\n\nFigure 20\n shows the conventional main rotor collective and cyclic controls. The controls use a swash plate. The collective control applies the same pitch angle to all blades and is the main tool for direct lift or thrust rotor control. Cyclic is more complicated and can be fully appreciated only when the rotor is rotating. The cyclic operates through a swash plate (\nFigure 20\n), which has non-rotating and rotating plates, the latter attached to the blades with pitch link rods, and the former to the control actuators [7].
\nRotor control through a swash plate.
Two anti-torque pedals are provided to counteract the torque effect of the main rotor. This is done by increasing or decreasing the thrust of the tail rotor (\nFigures 19\n and \n21\n). The torque varies with changes in main rotor power; therefore, the tail rotor thrust is necessary to change too. The pedals are connected to the pitch change device on the tail rotor gearbox and enable the pitch angle of the tail rotor blades to increase or decrease [2].
\nTail rotor pitch angle and thrust in relation to pedal positions during cruising flight.
The pilot’s ability to determine, in advance, the helicopter’s flying characteristics is of utmost importance. It is very important to determine what maximum weight the helicopter can carry before take-off, if the helicopter can safely hover at a given altitude and temperature, what distance is needed to climb above the obstacles, and what is the maximum climb rate [2].
\nThere are many factors that influence a helicopter’s performance in flight. The most important ones are: altitude, including pressure altitude and density altitude, helicopter gross weight, and the wind.
\nOne of the most important factors in helicopter performance is the air density, which decreases with a gain in altitude. The effect of altitude is shown in \nFigure 22a\n. Increasing density altitude increases the power required in hover and lower airspeeds. At higher airspeeds, the results of lower air density result in a lower power requirements because of the reduction of parasitic drag. A higher density altitude also affects the engine power available. The power available at a higher density altitude is less than that at a lower one. As a result there is a decrease in the excess power at any airspeed [1].
\nPower required and power available at (a) different altitudes, and (b) different weights.
Increases in aircraft gross weight go hand in hand with requirements for higher angles of attack and more power. As shown in \nFigure 22b\n, by increasing the weight, the excess power becomes less, but it is particularly affected at lower airspeeds because of induced drag [1].
\nHigh gross weight also affects of the maximum height at which the helicopter can operate in ground effect for a given power available. Under these conditions, the heavier the helicopter is, the lower the maximum hover altitude is [3].
\nWind direction and velocity also affect hovering, takeoff, and climb performance. Translational lift occurs any time when there is relative airflow over the rotor disk. This explains whether the relative airflow is caused by helicopter movement or by the wind. With the increase in the wind speed, the translational lift increases, therefore less power is required in hovering [2].
\nBesides the magnitude of wind velocity, its direction is essential. Headwind is the most desirable because it gives the greatest increase in performance. Strong crosswind and tailwind require the more tail rotor thrust to maintain the directional control. The increased tail rotor thrust takes away a power from the engine, and therefore will have less power available to the main rotor, which produces the required lift. Some helicopters have a critical wind azimuth limits and the manufacturer presents maximum safe relative wind chart. If the helicopter operates above these limits, it can cause a loss of tail rotor control [2].
\nWhen developing performance charts, aircraft manufacturers make some assumptions about the operating helicopter conditions and the pilot’s ability. It is supposed that the helicopter is in good operating condition and the engine is able to develop its rated power. It is assumed that the pilot performs normal operating procedures and he has average flying abilities [2].
\nWith these assumptions, the manufacturer develops performance data for the helicopter taking into account the flight tests. But the helicopter is not tested under all conditions shown on the performance chart. Instead, an evaluation of the specific data is performed and the remaining data are obtained in mathematical way [2].
\nGenerally, the charts present graphics related to hover power: in ground effect (IGE) hover ceiling vs. gross weight, and out of ground effect (OGE) hover ceiling vs. gross weight. The exact names of these charts may vary by different helicopter manuals. These are not the only charts, but these charts are perhaps the most important charts in each manual—they help to understand the amount of power which the helicopter have to have under specific operating conditions (altitude, gross weight, and temperature).
\nIn this chapter, an analysis for defining the helicopter’s performance was performed. It has been shown that the performance characteristics can be derived by using simple models as the momentum and blade elements theories. The impact of weight and altitude on the required power and the available power has been presented. The effect of near the ground operation on the helicopter’s performance is discussed. Also, the case when the engine stops in flight and the main rotor performs autorotation is presented. Some elementary analysis of the stability characteristics has been done. The impact of different helicopter parts on the stability has been considered. Finally, it has been shown how the helicopter can be controlled.
\nRabies is a devastating disease that is inexorably fatal, unless – as Louis Pasteur demonstrated [1] – it is rapidly treated by immunization. Even so, the vaccination regimen that Pasteur recommended is punishing, and brought its own risks of hyperinflammation. In the mid-20th century rabies was widespread among wildlife (principally foxes in Europe and raccoons in North America), and even in developed countries the bite of an infected animal was a death warrant if not immediately and intensively treated.
With the advent of genetic engineering (GE) technologies in the 1980s, the renowned Institut Mérieux in Lyon, France – established in 1897 by Marcel Mérieux, one of Louis Pasteur’s assistants – brought a new task to the newly established GE company Transgène in Strasbourg: make a rabies vaccine. This chore was handed down to ourselves, two young postdoctoral scientists in the company.
Transgène, founded by Pierre Chambon and Philippe Kourilsky in 1979/1980, although being allocated half a floor in Pierre Chambon’s institute at the University of Strasbourg (Figure 1), was not quite ready: all available resources, at the very beginning, were allocated to setting up all the essential GE ingredients – oligonucleotide synthesis, DNA sequencing (done manually on thin polyacrylamide gels using radiophosphorus), basic sequence analysis, simple expression vectors in bacteria, yeast, and mammalian cells, even making our own restriction enzymes. Other GE companies were well ahead, and had cloned and expressed key molecules such as growth hormone, interferons, and hepatitis B surface antigen. We were both over-optimistic and underweight.
Transgène and the Wistar Institute. (Left) The Laboratoire de Génétique Moléculaire des Eukaryotes (LGME) under Pierre Chambon at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Strasbourg (founded 1538), France, where Transgène was housed (6th floor) during the development of the rabies vaccine (1980s). The building was constructed in 1964 and was demolished in 2011 {
But we set to. The Scientific Director of Transgène, Jean-Pierre Lecocq, established a collaboration with researchers at the Wistar Institute (Figure 1) under Hilary Koprowski (Philadelphia) who had obtained, for the first time, a cDNA copy of rabies virus glycoprotein at the end of 1981 [2, 3] – the key antigenic determinant of this virus. Beginning in early 1982, we expressed the cDNA in
Rabies, Pasteur, and Alsace.
It is singularly appropriate that the recombinant rabies vaccine should have been developed in Strasbourg, the central town of the province of Alsace, France. Louis Pasteur, famed for the first rabies vaccine, was born in the Jura hills (the southern extension of the Vosges – the hills of Alsace) and was Professor of Chemistry at Strasbourg University (formerly known as the Université Louis Pasteur) from 1849 to 1854, where he married Marie (also known as Louise) Laurent (the daughter of the Rector of the University), who for many years acted as his scientific assistant. The first patient to be treated against rabies, Joseph Meister (9 years old), traveled from Alsace to Pasteur’s laboratory (then in Paris) for treatment [1]. The first fox to be inoculated with the new recombinant vaccine was in Malzéville, over the Vosges hills just 100 km from Strasbourg.
We were dismayed, and ready to give up. Two developments changed everything. First, at a chance meeting with Peter Curtis (Wistar) he advised that there was a possible problem with his cDNA sequence – there appeared to be a mutation. Second, we were impressed by the growing achievements of recombinant vaccinia virus (the basis of the smallpox vaccine), inspired by Enzo Paoletti in 1983 [5], in eliciting immunity beyond what could be obtained with bacteria, yeasts, or even mammalian cells.
The mutation in the rabies glycoprotein cDNA was indeed suspect – a Pro to Leu mutation near the beginning of the mature protein sequence at a position that (to our minds) seemed to resemble known mutations at the beginning of the oncoprotein RAS (Gly to Asp, or Gly to Val) that entirely transform the structure and activity of the protein. The first thing we did was to correct the mutation. Something we had never done before, and this took months. In the key
Construction and Activity of the Vaccinia-Based Recombinant Rabies Virus Raboral® VR-G. The recombinant was variously known as VR-G, VVTGgRAB-26D3, and VR-Gpro8. (A) Correction of a mutation in the N-terminus of the rabies glycoprotein coding sequence. Panel adapted, with permission, from [
The second thing we did was to get vaccinia up and running as a vehicle. We got into collaboration with Robert Drillien and Danièle Spehner at the Institut de Virologie on the same campus, and they supplied us with a microgram of vaccinia virus DNA. The key thymidine kinase gene – required for recombinational exchange with the vaccinia genome – had already been cloned by Robert, but we lacked a promoter to drive expression. We wanted the 7.5 K gene promoter, that had been worked up by researchers in the USA, but starting with only 1 microgram of DNA (the vaccinia genome is ~190 kb in length), given the state of the technology, cloning was near to impossible. In the event we turned to calculations of insert size, vector size, and absolute concentrations based on the physicochemistry of ligation [8, 9], and brewed up an optimum ligase mix. Only four clones were obtained. Two were 7.5 K in one orientation, and two were the same promoter in the other orientation! Were we lucky? No, in retrospect we would have got nothing had we not used the mathematics of the ligation reaction to get what we needed.
From there it moved quite rapidly. Ligate the promoter to the modified rabies G coding sequence, insert the construct into the vaccinia TK gene on a plasmid – then transfect the recombinant (TK-negative) plasmid into vaccinia virus-infected cells, and select chemically using bromodeoxyuridine (that kills TK-positive viruses). And we had our first vaccinia–rabies recombinant (‘26D3’).
This sped off to Tad Wiktor in Philadelphia. We waited what seems like an eternity, but he reported quickly back with his preliminary results: ‘this is the best rabies vaccine I have ever seen’ – it protected mice against severe rabies challenge (Figure 2B–D) better than any other rabies vaccine. And so it turned out – first published in September 1984 ([6, 7]; reviewed in [10, 11, 12]).
What lessons can be drawn, if any? Our first thought is that we worked as a team, there was no academic infighting, no bickering about authorships that is too common today, and we all worked day and night to see the project through. Even technical staff were there late in the evening and at weekends. Second, collaboration is essential: we could not have done this project without the participation of scientists both near (Robert Drillien and Danièle Spehner) and far {Tadeusz Wiktor (Figure 3A), Peter Curtis, and Hilary Koprowski}. Third, we wonder whether Martha Argerich and J.S. Bach played a role. In this day of
Pioneering Rabies Vaccination. (A) Tadeusz J. Wiktor (1920–1985), rabies expert, Wistar Institute, who first tested the recombinant for efficacy. Photo courtesy of the Wistar Institute. (B) Loading vaccine baits into a helicopter during the first wildlife vaccination campaigns (Belgium, ca 1988; image collection M.P.K.).
The vaccine was originally envisaged for human use, and steps were taken in this direction in collaboration with the Institut Mérieux. However, there was reluctance to introduce a new vaccinia-based vaccine for human use because smallpox, the original target of vaccinia, had recently been declared eradicated by the World Health Organization (WHO) [13]. A committee of international experts including WHO representatives, who met in Bethesda, MD, in November 1984, did not envisage early human use [14]. However, because rabies is transmitted to humans principally from domestic dogs – that themselves acquire the infection from foxes (in Europe), and from raccoons and coyotes (in North America) – the next step was to try the new vaccine out for efficacy in animals. With support from Philippe Desmettre at the Institut Mérieux, Transgène was in touch with Pierre-Paul Pastoret in Belgium and colleagues at the French Ministry of Agriculture Rabies Research Station in Malzéville close to Nancy, and this was soon followed by the demonstration that oral administration of the vaccine (108 pfu) to foxes (Figure 4) gave complete protection against lethal challenge, and almost complete protection following administration in home-made bait [15], quickly followed by oral protection of raccoons in the USA by colleagues at the Wistar Institute [16].
Experimental vaccination of foxes, Malzéville, France, ca 1986 (image collection M.P.K.).
This was expanded to small-trials followed by large-scale campaigns to eradicate sylvatic rabies in Europe and North America by dropping baits (e.g., chicken heads or artificial baits) seeded with live recombinant virus from helicopters (Figure 3B) according to a carefully planned routine (taking in mind the number of wildlife species per square kilometer, and the transmission factor R – what percentage of animals do we need to vaccinate to block propagation? – of current interest given the COVID pandemic). It worked. The first trials (Figure 5) demonstrated wide uptake by foxes and downturn of rabies cases. Using this vaccine, rabies has now been widely eliminated in many European countries; substantial reductions in rates of rabies in wildlife have been achieved in several areas of Eastern USA and Canada (Table 1) where active vaccination campaigns are ongoing (http://www.raboral.com/about-rabies/raboral-v-rg). Over 250 million doses of Raboral® have been distributed worldwide [19]. Although highly successful in Europe [18], campaigns in the USA and Canada are constrained because of rabies re-emergence through long-distance movements of carrier species such as arctic foxes [19].
First wildlife vaccination campaigns. Baits containing VRG were prepared from fish oil and protein. (A) Test areas in Belgium, 1987–1988. Vaccines were distributed at 15–50 baits per km2; uptake ranged from 27% at day 4 to 94% at day 223 (image collection M.P.K.). (B) Larger-scale field trial in a 2200 km2 area of Belgium; distribution was at 15 baits per km2; the area was vaccinationed three times (1990–1991). Baits contained a tetracycline biomarker, and uptake determined from the presence of tetracycline (Tet; UV fluorescence in jaw) was 81% after the third phase. The single rabid fox detected after the campaign, at the periphery of the baited area, was Tet-negative. Image adapted, with permission, from [
Austria | Eliminated (2006) |
Belgium | Eliminated (1999) |
Bulgaria | Reduction in seeded areas |
Czech Republic | Eliminated (2002) |
Estonia | Eliminated (2009) |
France | Eliminated (1998) |
Germany | Eliminated (2006) |
Hungary | Reduction in seeded areas |
Italy | Eliminated (1986/1995); then reduction |
Latvia | Reduction in seeded areas |
Lithuania | Reduction in seeded areas |
Luxembourg | Eliminated (1999) |
Poland | Reduction in seeded areas |
Kaliningrad (Russia) | Reduction in seeded areas |
Russia | Experimental |
Slovakia | Eliminated (2006) |
Slovenia | Reduction |
Switzerland | Eliminated (1996) |
Ukraine | Reduction |
Canada | Reduction in seeded areas |
United States | Reduction in seeded areas |
Israel | Reduction in seeded areas |
Tunisia | Experimental |
India | Experimental |
China | Experimental |
Wildlife Vaccination Campaigns Using Raboral®*.
In many cases Raboral® was used in conjunction with conventional attenuated viruses, although Raboral® is the only vaccine licensed for use in the USA (http://www.raboral.com/about-rabies/raboral-v-rg). Data: key reviews are by Freuling
The vaccina–rabies recombinant has never been approved for human use, even though vaccinia virus has been used widely across the world in our populations to eradicate smallpox, and the vaccinia–rabies recombinant is very much attenuated compared to standard strains of vaccinia. Notwithstanding, intense efforts have been made to develop vaccinia as an anticancer agent for direct prophylactic or curative use in human [20, 21, 22, 23], but for recombinants expressing viral antigens few clinical trials have been carried out (with some exceptions; e.g., [24]). Efforts in the 1990s were invested into the development of viral vectors based on vaccinia derivatives such as modified virus Ankara (MVA) [25], or fowlpox or canarypox [26]. More recently., high levels of protective antibodies have been obtained against SARS coronavirus using vaccinia recombinants in experimental animals (e.g., [27, 28, 29]), and, given the threat of COVID-19, MVA-based recombinants are being actively explored in California [30] and Germany (https://www.vfa.de/de/englische-inhalte/vaccines-to-protect-against-covid-19) as potential vaccines against SARS-COV-2, the etiologic agent of COVID-19.
One potential way to circumvent safety concerns may be to employ inactivated recombinant vaccinia virions that display viral antigens at their surface: very substantial levels of protection were observed with chemically inactivated recombinant vaccinia–rabies virus [7], and this might afford an entry route for new human vaccines based on vaccinia – perhaps even at some stage including Raboral® or further attenuated derivatives, given that rabies in human remains a major concern in several regions such as India [31].
We acknowledge with appreciation the pivotal contributions of all our colleagues who made this work possible, notably Peter Curtis, Bill Wunner, Algis Anilionis, and Hilary Koprowski who provided the first rabies glycoprotein cDNA, Robert Drillien and Danièle Spehner for key help with vaccinia, Doris Schmitt and Karin Dott for superb technical assistance, all the teams at Transgène who helped with DNA sequencing, oligonucleotide synthesis, microbial gene expression systems, Tadeusz Wiktor for performing all the
The views expressed herein are solely those of the authors and do not reflect the views of the WHO, Transgène SA, the INSERM, or of any other institution with which the authors are or have been associated.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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Here the word “asymmetric” means that the available information of the follower is some sub-\n\nσ\n\n-algebra of that available to the leader, though they play as different roles in the classical literatures. Stackelberg equilibrium is represented by the stochastic versions of Pontryagin’s maximum principle and verification theorem with partial information. A linear-quadratic (LQ) leader-follower stochastic differential game with asymmetric information is studied as applications. If some system of Riccati equations is solvable, the Stackelberg equilibrium admits a state feedback representation.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Jingtao Shi",authors:[{id:"147959",title:"Dr.",name:"Jingtao",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",slug:"jingtao-shi",fullName:"Jingtao Shi"}]},{id:"62516",title:"The Game Theory: Applications in the Wireless Networks",slug:"the-game-theory-applications-in-the-wireless-networks",totalDownloads:1424,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent years have witnessed a lot of applications in the computer science, especially in the area of the wireless networks. The applications can be divided into the following two main categories: applications in the network performance and those in the energy efficiency. The game theory is widely used to regulate the behavior of the users; therefore, the cooperation among the nodes can be achieved and the network performance can be improved when the game theory is utilized. On the other hand, the game theory is also adopted to control the media access control protocol or routing protocol; therefore, the energy exhaust owing to the data collision and long route can be reduced and the energy efficiency can be improved greatly. In this chapter, the applications in the network performance and the energy efficiency are reviewed. The state of the art in the applications of the game theory in wireless networks is pointed out. Finally, the future research direction of the game theory in the energy harvesting wireless sensor network is presented.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Deyu Lin, Quan Wang and Pengfei Yang",authors:[{id:"258432",title:"Dr.",name:"Deyu",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"deyu-lin",fullName:"Deyu Lin"},{id:"259049",title:"Prof.",name:"Quan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"quan-wang",fullName:"Quan Wang"},{id:"261098",title:"Dr.",name:"Pengfei",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"pengfei-yang",fullName:"Pengfei Yang"}]},{id:"63373",title:"Infinite Supermodularity and Preferences",slug:"infinite-supermodularity-and-preferences",totalDownloads:929,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"This chapter studies the ordinal content of supermodularity on lattices. This chapter is a generalization of the famous study of binary relations over finite Boolean algebras obtained by Wong, Yao and Lingras. We study the implications of various types of supermodularity for preferences over finite lattices. We prove that preferences on a finite lattice merely respecting the lattice order cannot disentangle these usual economic assumptions of supermodularity and infinite supermodularity. More precisely, the existence of a supermodular representation is equivalent to the existence of an infinitely supermodular representation. In addition, the strict increasingness of a complete preorder on a finite lattice is equivalent to the existence of a strictly increasing and infinitely supermodular representation. For wide classes of binary relations, the ordinal contents of quasisupermodularity, supermodularity and infinite supermodularity are exactly the same. In the end, we extend our results from finite lattices to infinite lattices.",book:{id:"6756",slug:"game-theory-applications-in-logistics-and-economy",title:"Game Theory",fullTitle:"Game Theory - Applications in Logistics and Economy"},signatures:"Alain Chateauneuf, Vassili Vergopoulos and Jianbo Zhang",authors:[{id:"248905",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianbo",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"jianbo-zhang",fullName:"Jianbo Zhang"},{id:"248908",title:"Prof.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Chateauneuf",slug:"alain-chateauneuf",fullName:"Alain Chateauneuf"},{id:"248910",title:"Dr.",name:"Vassili",middleName:null,surname:"Vergopoulos",slug:"vassili-vergopoulos",fullName:"Vassili Vergopoulos"}]},{id:"60809",title:"Game Theory Application in Smart Energy Logistics and Economy",slug:"game-theory-application-in-smart-energy-logistics-and-economy",totalDownloads:997,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In many parts of the world, energy sectors are transformed from conventional to the smart deregulated market structures. In such smart deregulated market environment, cooperative game theory can play a vital role for analyzing various smart deregulated market problems. As an optimization tool, cooperative game theory is very useful in smart energy logistics and economy analysis problem. The economy associated with smart deregulated structure can be better optimized and allocated with the help of cooperative game theory. Initially, due to regulated structure, there is no cooperation between different entities of energy sector. But after new market structure, all the entities are free to take their own decisions as an independent entity. Transmission open access of energy logistics is also comes into the picture, as all the generators and demands have the same right to access the transmission system. In this market situation, multiple utilities are using the same energy logistic network. This situation can be formulated as a cooperative game in which generators and demands are represented by players. This chapter deals with energy logistic cost allocation problems for a smart deregulated energy market. 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