Classification of heavy metals.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8580",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Rapid population growth, high standards of living, and technological development are constantly increasing the diversity and quantity of solid waste. The production of solid municipal waste associated with the high proportion of organic waste and its improper disposal lead to considerable environmental pollution due to the emission of greenhouse gases such as methane, carbon dioxide, etc. In such a challenging environment, municipal authorities need to develop more effective solutions to manage the growing urban solid waste. Most of the municipal solid waste mainly constitutes degradable materials, which represent a significant role in greenhouse gas emissions in urban localities. Integrated solid waste management approaches must be developed and improved to manage the increasing organic fractions of municipal solid waste, which helps to reduce greenhouse emissions with potential economic benefits. A sustainable management of municipal solid waste systems constitutes a promising and attractive trend to study current consumption behaviors responsible for waste generation, and to protect the global ecosystem. This book presents the management of municipal of solid waste, including recycling and landfill technologies. Moreover, composition and types of waste will be investigated. As a result, the most appropriate and feasible scenarios for the management of municipal solid waste are presented to provide the respected readership with the scientific background for sustainable development in these processes, which are increasingly supported by innovative methodologies for holistic assessment of process sustainability.",isbn:"978-1-78923-832-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-831-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-632-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79020",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management",numberOfPages:214,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"e3554c02569fe3ac8afa79cb02daae97",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Mostafa Saleh",publishedDate:"July 24th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8580.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16492,numberOfWosCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitations:20,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:6,numberOfDimensionsCitations:48,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:93,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 3rd 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 12th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/144691/images/system/144691.png",biography:"Hosam M. Saleh is a Professor of Radioactive Waste Management in the Radioisotope Department, Atomic Energy Authority, Egypt. He obtained an MSc and Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from Cairo University, Egypt. He has more than 25 years of experience in hazardous waste management with an emphasis on treatment and developing new matrixes for the immobilization of these wastes. He is also interested in studying innovative economic and environmentally friendly techniques for the management of hazardous and radioactive wastes. He has authored many peer-reviewed scientific papers and chapters and served as an editor of several books. He was selected among the top 2% of scientists in the world according to the Stanford University report for 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"15",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"15",institution:{name:"Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"891",title:"Solid Waste",slug:"solid-waste"}],chapters:[{id:"67974",title:"Introductory Chapter: Municipal Solid Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84757",slug:"introductory-chapter-municipal-solid-waste",totalDownloads:1591,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Hosam M. Saleh and Martin Koller",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67974",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67974",authors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],corrections:null},{id:"65329",title:"Towards the Recycling of Bio-Waste: The Case of Pontevedra, Spain (REVITALIZA)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83576",slug:"towards-the-recycling-of-bio-waste-the-case-of-pontevedra-spain-revitaliza-",totalDownloads:1005,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Waste management is one of the main environmental problems that municipalities have to address. The fulfilment of the recycling objectives imposed by the European Community requires the segregation and treatment of the municipal bio-waste. Pontevedra Provincial Council started in 2015 an innovative plan, called REVITALIZA, for the recycling of bio-waste through the promotion of composting in municipalities. REVITALIZA, which is developed in different phases, advocates the implementation of local composting (home and community composting) and small composting facilities, so that the generation of waste and the economic and environmental costs of its collection and transport are reduced. The plan is a pioneer in the training of technical personnel in the area of bio-waste management. Currently, 36 municipalities are participating in REVITALIZA in different phases of the plan, committed to locally managing bio-waste.",signatures:"Salustiano Mato, Carlos Pérez-Losada, María Martínez-Abraldes and Iria Villar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65329",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65329",authors:[{id:"202091",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Iria",surname:"Villar",slug:"iria-villar",fullName:"Iria Villar"},{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato"}],corrections:null},{id:"65097",title:"The Use of Composted Municipal Solid Waste under the Concept of Circular Economy and as a Source of Plant Nutrients and Pollutants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83386",slug:"the-use-of-composted-municipal-solid-waste-under-the-concept-of-circular-economy-and-as-a-source-of-",totalDownloads:1461,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The European Union (EU) is one of the major producers of municipal solid wastes and has a common policy based on circular economy to reuse the wastes. However, there are differences between countries and the methods for disposal and treatments. Municipal solid waste (MSW) can be composted and recycled as a source of plant nutrients and improves soil properties. This chapter analyzed the production in the EU and the effects on plant nutrients and environmental pollutants when MSW is added to the soil. The origin of the waste and the compost-like output (CLO) derived is important to determine the expectative of nutrient availability and other possible risks. MSW is so heterogeneous, but after a good pretreatment, an organic-rich matter mix can be composted giving a stabilized organic matter. The addition of the CLO to the soils can improve the nutrient status and favor the bioavailability of nutrients (macronutrients and micronutrients). In general, an increment of N and P was found in the soils. Moreover, important micronutrient availability (Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn) has been described. However, the presence of pollutants and their mobility should be considered as an environmental risk.",signatures:"María Belén Almendro-Candel, Jose Navarro-Pedreño, Ignacio Gómez Lucas, Antonis A. Zorpas, Irene Voukkali and Pantelitsa Loizia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65097",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65097",authors:[{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño"},{id:"137041",title:"Prof.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"Gómez Lucas",slug:"ignacio-gomez-lucas",fullName:"Ignacio Gómez Lucas"},{id:"246299",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Belén",surname:"Almendro-Candel",slug:"maria-belen-almendro-candel",fullName:"Maria Belén Almendro-Candel"},{id:"246300",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonis",surname:"Zorpas",slug:"antonis-zorpas",fullName:"Antonis Zorpas"},{id:"276761",title:"MSc.",name:"Irene",surname:"Voukkali",slug:"irene-voukkali",fullName:"Irene Voukkali"},{id:"284321",title:"MSc.",name:"Pantelitsa",surname:"Loizia",slug:"pantelitsa-loizia",fullName:"Pantelitsa Loizia"}],corrections:null},{id:"65789",title:"Management of Organic Solid Waste in Meal Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83535",slug:"management-of-organic-solid-waste-in-meal-production",totalDownloads:1100,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In Brazil, 31% of household food expenses are spent on meals eaten outside of the home. The food service sector is a major consumer of resources (water, energy, food, and other materials), and generator of solid waste (SW) food, being a focus of concern of national and international organizations, given their potential economic, social, and environmental impacts caused by the final disposal of solid waste. This work problematizes the generation of solid waste during the production of meals for collectivities and presents the study carried out in three community restaurants located in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The solid waste generated in all stages of the meal production process was weighed. Food leftovers and food scraps were the solid waste generated in greater quantity in the three restaurants studied, showing the need for better planning of the menus and the quantities of preparations produced, since these residues are closely related to the acceptance of the menu and to the waste of food. An organic solid waste management plan has been proposed based on environmental performance evaluation during large-scale meal production.",signatures:"Luciléia Granhen Tavares Colares, Gizene Luciana Pereira de Sales, Aline Gomes de Mello de Oliveira and Verônica Oliveira Figueiredo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65789",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65789",authors:[{id:"203294",title:"Prof.",name:"Luciléia",surname:"Granhen Tavares Colares",slug:"lucileia-granhen-tavares-colares",fullName:"Luciléia Granhen Tavares Colares"},{id:"276706",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",surname:"Gomes de Mello de Oliveira",slug:"aline-gomes-de-mello-de-oliveira",fullName:"Aline Gomes de Mello de Oliveira"},{id:"276707",title:"Dr.",name:"Gizene Luciana",surname:"Pereira de Sales",slug:"gizene-luciana-pereira-de-sales",fullName:"Gizene Luciana Pereira de Sales"},{id:"276708",title:"Dr.",name:"Verônica",surname:"Oliveira Figueiredo",slug:"veronica-oliveira-figueiredo",fullName:"Verônica Oliveira Figueiredo"}],corrections:null},{id:"66950",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Management and the Inland Water Bodies: Nigerian Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84921",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-management-and-the-inland-water-bodies-nigerian-perspectives",totalDownloads:1707,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Municipal solid waste (MSW) composition, natural transformation, dynamics and impacts on inland water bodies in Nigeria were examined, using dumpsites and landfills as the common markers. Nigeria is estimated to have over 178.5 million people and kg/capita/day of 0.26–1.02 MSW, projected to increase with the expansion of the economy which is in need of better articulated MSW management strategies. The enormous natural inland surface and groundwater resources are daily challenged directly and indirectly, through decline in physical, chemical and biological quality. Solid waste disposal along the waterways and leachates from natural activities on materials at dumpsites and landfills was strongly identified and recognized as the source of pollutant inputs. The immediate and projected public health consequences in changes in inland waters were provided for resident aquatic organisms, some of which serves as food for resident human populations that are largely dependent on these water bodies for their daily water requirements.",signatures:"Akindayo A. Sowunmi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66950",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66950",authors:[{id:"277197",title:"Dr.",name:"Akindayo",surname:"Sowunmi",slug:"akindayo-sowunmi",fullName:"Akindayo Sowunmi"}],corrections:null},{id:"65542",title:"Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) Modeling of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Management Systems in Kosodrza, Community of Ostrów, Poland: A Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84347",slug:"life-cycle-inventory-lci-modeling-of-municipal-solid-waste-msw-management-systems-in-kosodrza-commun",totalDownloads:1172,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this study is to perform the life cycle assessment (LCA) limited to life cycle inventory (LCI) related to municipal solid waste operating in Kosodrza, community of Ostrów, in Poland. The current LCI is a representative for year 2015 by application of PN-EN ISO 14040. The system boundary was labeled as gate-to-gate. The data used in this study, involving consumption of energy and fuels, water, materials, and waste, is obtained from (i) site-specific measured or calculated data and (ii) secondary data taken from integrated permit issued by Marshal of the Podkarpackie region in Rzeszów for the establishment of municipal services in Ostrów by entering the records concerning the waste landfill in Kosodrza. This study is based on the deterministic approach to LCI. Hence, uncertainty analysis is not carried out. The LCI model can be used in full LCA study.",signatures:"Dariusz Sala and Bogusław Bieda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65542",authors:[{id:"115411",title:"Dr.",name:"Boguslaw",surname:"Bieda",slug:"boguslaw-bieda",fullName:"Boguslaw Bieda"},{id:"258743",title:"Dr.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Sala",slug:"dariusz-sala",fullName:"Dariusz Sala"}],corrections:null},{id:"65485",title:"Urban Management Model: Municipal Solid Waste for City Sustainability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82839",slug:"urban-management-model-municipal-solid-waste-for-city-sustainability",totalDownloads:2120,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The population growth arises the increase of municipal solid waste production in urban areas causing daily hundreds of tons of waste. Moreover, its composition characteristics comprise toxic and polluting elements that require infrastructure and enormous local resources for its treatment. The final disposition of this waste is an important issue; it is the key element to control the environmental contamination of soil and pollution of local water sources. Urban Management Model: municipal solid waste for city sustainability, it is based on the Government-Society-Academia alliance. Through a social and technological approach, this model holds the importance of knowledge transfer and its connection with key social actors. The study opens several future alternative solutions such as: biotechnology, technological development, marketing and trading materials to be reused and recycled, special studies for the final disposition destinations, and studies of companies’ organization. Essential elements to provide a solution for the high production of waste problem in cities were conducted.",signatures:"Claudia E. Saldaña Durán and Sarah Messina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65485",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65485",authors:[{id:"272666",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Saldaña",slug:"claudia-saldana",fullName:"Claudia Saldaña"}],corrections:null},{id:"64270",title:"Decentralization and Solid Waste Management in Urbanizing Ghana: Moving beyond the Status Quo",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81894",slug:"decentralization-and-solid-waste-management-in-urbanizing-ghana-moving-beyond-the-status-quo",totalDownloads:2153,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Waste management is competing with more pressing economic and social issues such as social protection programs, education, and health. The government of Ghana has therefore decentralized the waste management system in the country. With this development, local government authorities and private sector actors are now playing key roles in waste management in the country. This study sought to examine decentralized solid waste management in the Berekum and Dormaa Municipalities in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. Specifically, it analyzed the involvement of the private sector in solid waste management, and the quality of waste management services in the two selected municipalities. Through a survey of 312 households, the study analyzed the performance improvement, regulatory policy, and sustainable service delivery of solid waste management in the municipalities. The study found that there were no mechanisms for full cost recovery to include majority of the residents, who patronize communal collection service. The study therefore recommends the adherence to normative standards and agreed rules, adoption, and use of appropriate cost recovery strategies for low-income groups as well as the restructuring of institutional arrangements to ensure user involvement and enforcement of legislation to improve municipal solid waste management in Ghana.",signatures:"Richard Kyere, Michael Addaney and Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64270",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64270",authors:[{id:"273978",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Michael",surname:"Addaney",slug:"michael-addaney",fullName:"Michael Addaney"},{id:"273981",title:"Mr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Kyere",slug:"richard-kyere",fullName:"Richard Kyere"},{id:"273982",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas Ayaribilla",surname:"Akudugu",slug:"jonas-ayaribilla-akudugu",fullName:"Jonas Ayaribilla Akudugu"}],corrections:null},{id:"65405",title:"Household Willingness to Pay for Improved Solid Waste Management Services: Using Contingent Valuation Analysis in India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83598",slug:"household-willingness-to-pay-for-improved-solid-waste-management-services-using-contingent-valuation",totalDownloads:1281,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Solid waste management is one of the crucial problems in India. An increasing population, industrialization and urbanization have major sources for increasing solid waste in India. The per capita waste generation in India is between 0.6 and 1 kg per day also expected to increase in future. This chapter has discussed two important aspects first; there is lack of study on economic analysis India, second most of the studies have focused on urban solid waste management in India. The present study has used household willingness to pay through the contingent valuation method for improved solid waste management of 150 household in semi-urban areas in Madurai, India. The study has found that the household respondents are willingness to pay Rs 24 (US$ 0.34) for clean environment in the semi-urban area. This study has also found more than 95% of household respondents are willing to pay for solid waste management in Madurai. Most of the household respondents are felt improper solid waste management has one of the important reasons for health issue particularly for children and elderly people in the study area. The main policy implication of the study is to design proper solid waste management plan for collection, transportation, disposal and segregation of solid waste in semi-urban areas in India.",signatures:"Muniyandi Balasubramanian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65405",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65405",authors:[{id:"275432",title:"Dr.",name:"Muniyandi",surname:"Balasubramanian",slug:"muniyandi-balasubramanian",fullName:"Muniyandi Balasubramanian"}],corrections:null},{id:"65314",title:"Municipal Solid Waste Disposal in Mangrove Forest: Environmental Implication and Management Strategies in the Niger Delta, Nigeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83809",slug:"municipal-solid-waste-disposal-in-mangrove-forest-environmental-implication-and-management-strategie",totalDownloads:1085,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Niger Delta is an oil rich region situated in the southern part of Nigeria. It is made up of nine states which hosts oil industries. There are a handful of businesses (super market, manufacturing companies, etc.) that service the over 40 million people living in the cities. This situation had led to the increase in solid waste in the city. Because of the problem of over population, and poor waste management strategies (e.g., lack of recycling habit and lack of equipment) the mangrove forest had become a dumping ground for waste. This action has impacted the health of aquatic and terrestrial organisms, and has created a public health disaster for citizens because of increase in heavy metal concentration up the food chain. This chapter therefore, identifies poverty, lack of planning, poor behavior and poor technology as key factors affecting effective waste management in the Niger Delta. It suggests that good waste management system can be worked out if there is coordination between research institution and government in the implementation of recommendation by research institutes. Attitudinal change is also necessary on the part of citizens and government to enable a healthy interaction for the purpose of managing waste effectively.",signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65314",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65314",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",surname:"Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. Numbere"}],corrections:null},{id:"64364",title:"Improper Disposal of Household Hazardous Waste: Landfill/Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81845",slug:"improper-disposal-of-household-hazardous-waste-landfill-municipal-wastewater-treatment-plant",totalDownloads:1818,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Household hazardous waste (HHW) is not always separated for proper handling before disposal. When disposed improperly to landfills and municipal treatment plants, these products can have significant impact on the environment. Although HHW is a small portion of municipal solid waste, the presence of HHW in solid management facilities that are not equipped to handle them can have problematic effects, resulting in environmental pollution, damage to facilities, and even injury to workers. In many countries, HHW is not subject to legislation unless separated from other household waste because of its small percentage and the challenge in enforcement. In addition, there is no standard definition of HHW globally; therefore, what constitutes to HHW in one country may not be in another. Government legislation and schemes such as Extended Producer Responsibility play a vital role in encouraging proper disposal among consumers, especially when they are convenient and accessible. In this chapter, hazardous household products in different countries are considered along with common improper and acceptable disposal methods. Furthermore, the impacts of improper disposal on the environment are explored with an emphasis on landfill leachate and wastewater treatment plant effluent. Finally, current legislation and programs that encourage proper disposal are discussed.",signatures:"Elsayed Elbeshbishy and Frances Okoye",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64364",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64364",authors:[{id:"187816",title:"Dr.",name:"Elsayed",surname:"Elbeshbishy",slug:"elsayed-elbeshbishy",fullName:"Elsayed Elbeshbishy"},{id:"189802",title:"Ms.",name:"Frances",surname:"Okoye",slug:"frances-okoye",fullName:"Frances Okoye"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9873",title:"Strategies of Sustainable Solid Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59b5ceeeedaf7449a30629923569388c",slug:"strategies-of-sustainable-solid-waste-management",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9873.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6534",title:"Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7573426a162c18f39acc575c1e69f67",slug:"heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din M. Saleh and Refaat F. Aglan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6534.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. 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\r\n\tConventional drug administration has several issues and challenges such as full doses absorption and efficient targeting, some produce undesirable secondary effects and promote damage to organs such as the liver and kidneys, others trigger inflammation and immune response. Hence, drug carriers help to promote drug absorption, enhance targeting, and avoid or decrease secondary effects, others possess the ability to camouflage the drug from immune cells and proteins. Moreover, permit controlled release which provides prolonged delivery of a drug while maintaining its blood concentration within therapeutic limits.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book project will discuss different novel and traditional strategies to create and characterize systems to be used as drug carriers from the use of nanotechnology through the use of viruses and living organisms.
\r\n\r\n\tBook chapters aim to clearly describe, discuss in detail, compare and review the state of the art in drug carriers. physicochemical, mechanical characterization, tissue, and immune response to the drug carrier are also welcome.
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Based on density the metals which are having a density values greater than 5 g/cm3 are considered as heavy metals [1]. According to this study, the heavy metals which would consider as most threat to human beings are lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic. Duffs [2] reviewed the usage of the term heavy metals from the history and finally, he concluded that using the term “heavy metals” is meaningless. He established that there is no relation between the density of the metal and to the usage of the term. In the case of heavy metals, metalloid arsenic also included, from this the term heaviness means may be toxicity.
Some of the heavy metals are having so much of biological importance in trace amounts [3] particularly the elements that are present in the 4th period in the modern periodic table. The biological importance of these metals is enzyme functioning (vanadium and manganese), hormone functioning, production (selenium), cellular growth (nickel), and metabolic growth (arsenic). But these metals are required for the human in trace amounts only if their amount in the body increases they cause adverse effects on human health. Overall the heavy metal should be considered as having high density and also biological importance in trace amounts.
There is a lot of importance for the determination of heavy metals in the various environmental segments, such as air, water, and soil due to their carcinogenic and toxic nature. The IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) declared arsenic, hexavalent chromium, cadmium, and nickel and their compounds as group 1 carcinogens (proven carcinogens). Arsenic and their compounds cause urinary bladder, liver, and lung cancers. Hexavalent chromium causes lung cancer and nickel and its compounds cause nasal cavity and lung cancers. All these elements cause cancers to human beings by the route of exposure is through inhalation and ingestion [4]. Regarding the availability of various heavy metals in the earth’s crust is about 5%, among which iron occupies nearly 95% [5].
Due to their toxicity and carcinogenic nature, most of the researchers all over the world are reported about the determination and health implications of heavy metals in the environment. Some of them are discussed hereunder.
Jyothi and Mohamed Farook [6] reported the sources, exposure, and toxicity of mercury. Suvarapu et al. [7] reviewed the heavy metal concentrations in ambient air. This study is limited to the estimation of toxicity of heavy metals in the Indian atmosphere and another study [8] they reviewed the heavy metal determination in ambient air all over the world. Kim et al. [9] reviewed heavy metal toxicity and chelating therapeutic strategies. Giller et al. [10] reviewed the toxicity of heavy metals in microorganisms in agricultural soils. This study found that the microorganisms in soil are much sensitive to heavy metal toxicity than animals and plants. Yabe et al. [11] summarized heavy metal pollution and its impact on the environment and the human population in Africa. Das et al. [12] reviewed the toxicity of cadmium in plants. Proshad et al. [13] reviewed the toxicity of heavy metals in soils of Bangladesh. In this study, they concentrated on the impact of industrialization on the concentration of heavy metals in soil. Su et al. [14] reported the heavy metal contamination in soil worldwide. In this study, they mentioned the current situation of contamination and remediation methods.
The present chapter describes the heavy metal sources, exposure, and the impact of their toxicity on various environmental segments. Based on the toxicity and non- biodegradable nature of lead, cadmium, mercury, and arsenic, the present study mainly focused on these metals.
Based on the survey of literature the metals that are considered as heavy metals are chromium, lead, cadmium, iron arsenic, cobalt, mercury, copper and zinc are the Heavy metal. According to Kim et al. [9] studies heavy metals have been classified in to two types as essential and non- essential (Table 1). Essential Heavy metals are less toxic at low concentrations and they act as coenzyme in biological process. For example Hemoglobin and Myoglobin consist of Iron, Vitamin B12 consist of cobalt. Non-essential heavy metals are highly toxic even at very low concentrations, they are non -biodegradable and cause severe toxic effects to living organisms.
Some heavy metals are essential to the human biological process, but depending upon their dosage intake leads some unexpected hazardous effects on health and the physiological system. According to [9] studies shows that despite of its beneficiary health effects, heavy metals are acting as carcinogenic agents. Dissolved forms of these metals through different forms as soil pollutants, water pollutant and air pollutants entering into food chain and finally ending in humans, these are leading to severe damage to the cellular system and leading to expose towards cancer. According to the reports of the International agency for research on cancer non-essential heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr) are major cancer- causing agents [9].
The sources of lead varies with different countries based on old and new usage of lead products. It is not limited to the processing of gold ore and recycling of used lead products. It is found that the decrease in blood lead levels in the population of the countries in which unleaded gasoline is in usage [15].
A recent study [16] has reported elevated blood levels in pregnant women in a rural village in Bangladesh. In this study, they found more than 30% of women they sampled were had lead levels in blood in the range of above 5 μg/dL. They found the major source of lead exposure to these women were identified as food storage cans. Nearly 18% of food storage cans (out of the tested) were having lead soldering insides and are responsible for lead contamination in these women. Another study in China [17] determined the blood lead levels (BLL’s) in children who are taking treatment in lead specialty clinics. In this study, they found the BLL’s ranging from 5 to 126 μg/dL. The major reasons they found for the higher lead levels in their blood as industrial sources and folk medicine which is popular in China. Another important thing was determined as it is difficult to find lead poisoning in children due to non-specific symptoms. A very recent study from Australia [18] determined the higher lead levels in children due to the high concentration of lead in soil and pretty dish dust at their premises. This study found that the population who are living in old houses built before 1940 are diagnosed with higher lead levels due to pretty dish dust.
In Nigeria, lead poisoning in the population was observed in the area of Zamfara state which contains gold mining activities. Mahuta [19] reported that in Nigeria, the sources of the lead include mining of gold, lead pipes used for drinking water, and cultural usage of lead.
Based on the studies in all parts of the world it is assumed that the sources of lead are historical usage of lead, industrial activities, and leaded gasoline. Major studies reported that children are the most common victims of lead poisoning. The way of exposure includes the inhalation through the nose and ingestion through drinking water and soil.
There are several ways to minimize the lead levels in the environment such as remediation techniques (in soil), using adsorbents (in water), and using unleaded gasoline (the air). After the identification of leaded gasoline as a source of lead poisoning by US EPA, a major decline in their levels was found by replacing it with unleaded gasoline. Dongre [20] reported the toxicological profile, remedial solutions for lead levels in water by using polymeric materials, such as chitin and chitosan.
Zaltauskaite and Kniuipyte [21] reported the impact of lead concentration in soil on
Carcinogenic effect of Lead.
The major exposure of cadmium by human beings is through contaminated food and water. Cigarette smoke is the way of exposure through the inhalation route. The toxicity of cadmium is due to accumulation in plants and animals for nearly 25–30 years. Microbial fermentation is one of the effective methods to remove cadmium from food [23]. Another major source of cadmium in the environment is phosphate fertilizers and the waste incineration process. Blood cadmium levels are having a huge difference between smokers and non-smokers of cigarettes [1].
The presence of lead and cadmium in the human body can reach the brain and can cause Alzheimer’s disease [24]. After the exposure to the cadmium, in human, it can accumulate at the kidney, due to this reason urinary cadmium levels has been considered as biomarkers for cadmium levels in humans [25].
In case of occupational exposure to cadmium includes the workers at battery production, pigment industries, and electroplating. Because of long time accumulation in the human body even in small quantities is toxic and carcinogenic [26]. Another important source of cadmium in the soil is sewage sludge which can make the cadmium almost the same amount as fertilizers consumption (https://www.osti.gov/biblio/5478006, accessed on 1st October/2020). The types of carcinogenic effects of cadmium toxicity were explained in Figure 2. Cadmium shows its toxic effects on the gastric system and leads to gastric cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, and it also affects the excretory system and leads to renal cancer.
Carcinogenic effect of cadmium.
Mercury is the metal widely studied all over the world due to its toxic nature and easily entering into the food chain. An extensive review report was published by Jyothi and Mohamed Farook [6] regarding the sources, exposure, and toxicity of mercury. The toxicity of mercury depends on its chemical composition. Methyl mercury is more toxic than inorganic mercury. Due to its toxic nature and historical incidents like Minamata so many authors were published various facts regarding the sources, transport, and fate of mercury in the environment. Both volcanoes and forest fires are natural sources of mercury in the atmosphere. The burning of fossil fuels in power plants is one of the major anthropogenic sources of mercury (https://www.epa.gov/mercury/basic-information-about-mercury; accessed on 15th October/2020). Because of easy transportation, it is considered a global pollutant [27].
Even exposure to small quantities, shows toxic effects on various physiological systems, such as nervous and digestive systems and organs like lungs and kidneys. Due to this reason WHO declares mercury as one of the top most priority toxic metals (https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health; accessed on 20th October/2020). When it enters into water it largely affects the aquatic animal’s life and through them, it can enter into the food chain to reach human beings.
Yokoyama [28] reported the methylmercury poisoning control measures and the current situation of its effects on fetuses and infants particularly. In this study, they addressed the global cycle of methyl mercury also. Strode et al. [29] studied the emission of mercury into the North American atmosphere due to gold and silver mining in the 19th century. The types of carcinogenic effects of mercury toxicity was explained in Figure 3. Mercury toxicity effects on the rectal system and leads to colorectal cancer. It shows vast effects on the central nervous system leads to brain cancer and lung cancer.
Carcinogenic effect of mercury.
Arsenic is a metalloid but due to its toxic and carcinogenic nature, it is discussed under the heading of heavy metal toxicity. Abdul et al. [30] reviewed the health effects of arsenic exposure to human beings. According to this study, the majority of the population expose to this toxic metal through atmospheric air, groundwater, and certain kind of foods. The health effects are not limited to damage to cardiovascular, endocrine, renal, and reproductive systems. In various parts of the world such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh it was observed that major exposure to the arsenic is through groundwater. Shahid et al. [31] reported about the sources and health effects of arsenic through the exposure of groundwater in Pakistan. This study predicts nearly 47 million people of Pakistan at risk due to arsenic contamination in groundwater. They found that over 50% of the well they studied are having higher arsenic levels than WHO recommended levels in drinking water. A recent study [32] describes the occurrence and mobilization of arsenic in the groundwater of Bangladesh. In this study, they found that intensive usage of land for agriculture and usage of agrochemicals are the major reasons for arsenic contamination in groundwater of Bangladesh. Ahmed et al. [33] reported the situation of arsenic contamination in groundwater in a village in Bangladesh. For this purpose, they discussed 20 years situation of its exposure. Based on their results they found that the cancer risk to the population who are exposing to arsenic has 40% more than the non-exposures. The Types of carcinogenic effects of arsenic toxicity was explained in Figure 4. Sources and health effects of all the above discussed heavy metals are summarized in Table 2. Arsenic has its toxic carcinogenic effect on prostate glands and cause prostate cancer, leukemia and cause lesions in hepatic regions leads to cause of cancer of the liver.
Carcinogenic effect of arsenic.
ESSENTIAL (Harmless) | NON ESSENTIAL (Toxic) |
---|---|
Zinc (Zn) | Chromium (Cr) |
Copper (Cu) | Lead (Pb) |
Iron (Fe) | Arsenic (As) |
Cobalt (Co) | Mercury(Hg) |
Cadmium (Cd) |
Classification of heavy metals.
Heavy metal | Sources | Health Effects | |
---|---|---|---|
Zinc (Zn) | Oil Refining Plumbing Brass manufacturing | Gastrointestinal disorders, Kidney & Liver abnormal functioning | |
Copper (Cu) | Copper polishing Plating Printing | Abdominal disorders, Metabolic activity abnormalities | |
Iron (Fe) | High intake of iron supplements & oral consumption | Vomiting Diarrhea Abdominal pain Dehydration & lethargy | |
Cobalt (Co) | Hip alloy replacement case | Haemotological Cardiovascular Hepatic Endocrine | |
Chromium (Cr) | Steel fabrication Electroplating Textile | Lung disorders (bronchitis,cancer), Renal and reproductive system | |
Lead (Pb) | Batteries Coal combustion Paint industry | Serious effect on mental health (Alzheimer s disesase), Nervous system | |
Arsenic (As) | Atmospheric deposition Mining pesticides | Highly effects dermal region (Cancer), Brain & Cardiac problems | |
Mercury (Hg) | Coal combustion Fish Mining Paint industry Paper industry Volcanic eruption | Sclerosis Blindness Minamata disease Deafness Gastric problems Renal disorders | |
Cadmium (Cd) | Plastic Fertilizers pesticides | Osteo related problems Prostate cancer Lung diseases Renal issues |
Sources and health effects of heavy metals.
The permissible limits of lead, cadmium, arsenic, and mercury in different environmental matrices suggested by various international reputed agencies such as US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), WHO (World Health Organization), and OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) are presented in Table 3.
US EPA | WHO | OSHA | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ambient Air | Drinking Water | Soil | Ambient Air | Drinking Water | Soil | Air at work place | Blood | |
Pb | 0.151 μg/m3 | 151 μg/L | 400 ppm1 (play areas); 1200 ppm non-play areas | — | 152 μg/L | — | 301 μg/m3 | 401 μg/dL |
Cd | 6.5–1306 ng /m3 | 0.0053 mg/L | 854 mg/Kg | — | 0.0033 mg/L | — | 54 μg /m3 | — |
As | 506 μg/m3 | 0.012 mg/L | — | — | 0.012 mg/L | — | 105 μg /m3 | — |
Hg | 57 mg /m3 | 0.0022 mg/L | 4–167 mg/Kg | — | 0.0012 mg/L | — | — | — |
Permissible limits of different toxic elements in environmental matrices.
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=34&po=8#:~:text=EPA‘s%20action%20level%.
Ebrahimi et al. [34].
https://www.wqa.org/portals/0/technical/technical%20fact%20sheets/2015_cadmium.pdf
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=6&po=7#:~:text=OSHA%20has%20established %20workplace%20levels,people%20occupationally%20exposed%20to%20cadmium.&text = Permissible%20Exposure%20Limit%2D%20TWA%20 (PEL, %2Fm3%20(fumes).
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=1&po=8#:~:text=The%20permissible%20 exposure%20limit%20for, OSHA%202,001%3B%20NIOSH%202,005%5D.
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/air/pdf/pp_as_cd_ni.pdf
Ye et al. [35].
20for%20lead, systems%20is%2015%20%C2%B5g%2FL.
The heavy metal toxicity and their environmental impact is a global issue due to their transportation through air, soil, and water. Based on various factors such as concentration and different major sources are the possible ways of entering the heavy metals through drinking water, air and foods. In minimum traces these metals are required for cellular, metabolic and hormonal functioning in humans but if the limitation exceeds its leads to the cause of severe hazardous effects in health. The toxicity of these metals is affecting the soil vastly by killing microorganisms present in soil which are very helpful to enhance fertility and nutrition levels of soils. According to the IARC, arsenic toxic effects are the cause of cancers in prostate glands, liver, blood, and skin. Mercury is the major reason for causing carcinogenic effects on the brain, lung, skin, and colorectal parts. The adverse effects of lead are the reason for intestinal, central nervous system, and lung cancers. The toxic effects of cadmium cause gastric, breast, lung, and renal cancers in humans.
Another diagnosis was identified in china, extreme high levels of lead toxicity in children were due to the pretty dish and in women, high lead levels in the blood is due to the usage of food storage cans. Cadmium is the major cause of Alzheimer disease and due to high usage of phosphate fertilizers they are accumulating in soils and entering into food chains. WHO states that mercury is hazardous toxic metal affecting aquatic life severely and consumption such mercury affected foods by human leads to several harmful diseases such as Minamata and cause several physiological effects.
Large scale hazard indication maps of avalanche protection provide an overview of areas potentially endangered by snow avalanches [1]. Such hazard maps serve in Switzerland also as a basis to define the extent of avalanche protection forests [2]. The first available hazard indication maps of avalanche protection at the beginning of the 21st century [2, 3] were based on a relatively coarse 25-m digital elevation model and simple forest vs. non-forest scenarios. In the meantime, we have increasingly advanced remote sensing data such as airborne LiDAR data and, in particular, highly resolved digital elevation models [4, 5], and additional and refined knowledge on avalanche-forest interactions [6, 7]. In this contribution we outline how we can take advantage of newly available process knowledge, refined spatial data and numerical modeling to improve avalanche protection forest maps, related applications and visualizations.
The main effects of avalanche protection forests are that avalanches do generally not release in sufficiently dense forest and that smaller avalanches can be slowed down or stopped by forest [6, 7, 8]. These effects are not only influenced by the forest structure but also by topographical factors and the properties and thickness of the snow cover. Critical thresholds for the spontaneous release of avalanches can be different inside the forest compared to the open field. For example, avalanches in forests mainly occur on slopes with an inclination of at least 35° [9], whereas in open areas, they may also occur in less steep terrain below 30° [10]. The surface roughness of the terrain is a crucial factor, at least as long as the snow cover thickness in the forest does not exceed the effective height of the dominant objects such as trees, root plates, logs or deposited rocks [11].
There are essentially four physical processes that contribute to the stabilization of the snow cover in forests: (1) Interception of falling snow: Snow is partly intercepted on branches and sublimated back into the atmosphere [12]. Intercepted snow, which is not sublimated, enters the snowpack in the form of snow lumps or meltwater [13]. (2) More balanced radiation regime: The duration of solar radiation and the long-wave radiation during the night are reduced in forests compared to open field [14, 15]. (3) Reduced wind speeds: Within the forest, near-surface wind speeds are lower than in the open [16]. (4) Direct mechanical support: Standing trees, but also lying dead wood, stumps, and root plates help to stabilize the snow cover with their reinforcing effect and increase the roughness of the terrain [6, 17].
As a result of these four processes, crown coverage, gap sizes and slope angle are considered the most essential characteristics for avalanche prevention in forests (see also chapter [18] of this book). Critical thresholds can be estimated from the retro analysis of events in relation to the topographical factors and snow properties [19, 20]. Based on such studies, critical lengths of forest gaps in the fall line are usually given in the range between 25 and 60 m, depending on slope inclination [18, 21]. Some authors also propose to use the height of the trees for defining the length and width of these gaps [22]. The size of gaps is also decisive in determining whether a small-medium scale avalanche (< 10′000 m3) that starts in the forest can potentially develop into a large avalanche (≥10′000 m3). The minimum gap width required to form avalanches is generally smaller in deciduous forests (approx. 5–10 m) than in evergreen forests (approx. 15–20 m), with considerable variation depending on steepness, terrain roughness and snow conditions. Smaller avalanches, which start in the forest or 100–200 m above the forest line, can come to a stop depending on the forest structure, topography and snow characteristics in the forest. The braking effect of the forest is a consequence of various interactions between avalanches and trees [6, 7] but is for large-scale hazard mapping usually simplified and modeled with a friction approach [8].
In order to create large-scale and applicable maps of forests with a protective effect and/or protective function (protection forest maps), it is necessary to deduce criteria from existing process knowledge and combine them with appropriate remote sensing and other available GIS-Data. For a hazard indication mapping project in the Canton of Grisons (eastern Switzerland) we consequently aimed at the following criteria for the delineation of avalanche protection forest (Figure 1 and Table 1):
Based on existing data: We used data on 150 avalanches released in forested terrain of the Swiss Alps and deduced a logistic regression model to quantify the effect of topographical and forest structural variables ([19, 20], Table 1).
Comprehensive and automatized: We aimed for a completely automatized and comprehensible delineation of the protection forest for the whole area of the Canton Grisons. Thus, it is necessary that all variables and criteria used to delineate the forest with an avalanche protective function and effect could be spatially deduced from newly available remote sensing data and/or additional GIS data, which are available for the whole Canton of Grisons and can potentially be repeated later with updated forest data.
Verified and optimized: The delineation of the avalanche protection forest had to be verified and further adapted by knowledge from scientists and local natural hazard and forest experts. In order to verify the effect of the forest structure on avalanche runout, an additional optimization loop had to be conducted after the simulation with the avalanche simulation software RAMMS [8, 23].
Schematic structure of the model for calculating the spatial extend of avalanche protection forest. The core of the disposition model is a logistic model based on avalanche releases in forested terrain [
Considered variables and threshold | Definition |
---|---|
Crown cover | The higher the crown cover, the lower the likelihood of an avalanche release. The crown cover is calculated based on a percentual proportion of pixels with a higher VHM value than the crown cover threshold. This procedure is done within a 5 m and 25 m environment, and the arithmetical mean is calculated. |
Gap width | Pixels that have a lower VHM value than the Gap-threshold (see definition below) are considered as a gap. If multiple gap pixels are adjacent to each other, a polygon is drawn, which represents the gap. The gap polygon is intersected with the contour lines to extract gap width. The length of the contour line represents the width of the gap. Gaps smaller than 500 m2 were neglected after verification of avalanche runout with RAMMS simulations To get homogeneous results, the mean over a 10 m environment is calculated. |
Slope angle | The angle of the slope was calculated based on a 10-m DTM. Values lower than 28° and higher 48° are considered as constant. In the range within 28 and 48° an increase of inclination is expected to lead to a higher potential for an avalanche release. |
Forest cover-threshold | In order to take into account the coverage at different spatial scales and to optimize the detection of trees, especially in a critical range between 3 and 5 m, the following VHM limits have been set.
|
Gap-threshold | The local snow depth for a 100-years event was calculated according to [28] and corrected by a factor of 0.85 for frequent and 1.14 for rare events. The calculated snow heights multiplied by the factor 1.5 according to Protect-Bio [29] result in the respective tree height limit. To compensate for underestimations of tree heights within the VHM, a constant height was subtracted from the VHM raster value. |
Surface roughness | The surface roughness influences on the likelihood of an avalanche release, especially when the snow height is low. The roughness was calculated with the “Vector Ruggedness Measure” (VRM) according to [27] based on a 2-m DTM (SwissAlti3D) and a moving window of 5 × 5 m. Based on empirical comparisons, areas with a value > 0.02 are considered as rough. For rough areas that do not show lateral convex curvature an increase of 10% of the avalanche disposition is accounted for. |
Shrub forest | Shrub forests tend to protect less against an avalanche release. Trees such as green alder |
Avalanche disposition | Statistically deduced disposition of each pixel to be part of an avalanche release area, given as a value from 0 to 1 according to a logistic model with following formula: Logit(release 1/0) = −6.17 + 0.18 * slope angle [Degrees] – 0.03 * crown cover [%] – 0.05 * gap width [m]. |
Protection forest index | Index calculated from avalanche disposition and additional parameters (roughness, shrub forest) (may have values from −10 to 110) |
Protection forest-threshold | The threshold for the protection forest index, based on validation in well-documented areas. Threshold values for fulfilled protective effect were:
|
Variables, threshold values and definitions for delineating avalanche protection forest for a frequent (ca. 10–30 years event) and extreme (ca. 100–300 years event).
A central component within this framework is the logistic regression model calculated with the most important variables “slope inclination”, “percentage of crown cover” and “gap width”, adapted from [20]. Those variables were implemented within a GIS approach. The algorithm is described in detail in Table 1. Based on spatial input data sets (e.g., vegetation height model [VHM] and digital terrain model [DTM]) [24] and various GIS operations, we calculated an “avalanche disposition” between 0 (no disposition) and 100% (very high avalanche release probability). To minimize the calculation time, a forest mask was used to delimit the calculation domain of the model. This forest mask consists of a combination of forest areas defined by the Federal Office of Topography (Swisstopo) and the Swiss National Forest Inventory, NFI [4, 25]. We defined different threshold values for tree heights to assign forest gaps (“Gap-threshold”) and forest cover (“Forest cover-threshold”) for different avalanche scenarios (frequent scenario vs. extreme scenario according for regionally expected snow-heights according to [28]). Additionally, we accounted for two factors which could not be quantitatively deduced from the original logistic model, but which turned out to be of additional relevance and for which spatial data were available for the whole canton: (1) a scrub forest area layer [26] helped to assign an adequately higher avalanche disposition to areas covered by shrubs. (2) We delineated areas with a high surface roughness from a high resolution DTM, and which do not show lateral convex curvature. With this combined requirement, we could exclude vertical gullies with high terrain roughness, as they are known for frequent avalanche release. Based on (1) and (2), we assigned higher values to the protection forest index for areas with considerable terrain roughness and lower values for areas that are covered by shrub forests (Figure 1). The resulting “protection forest index” builds the basis for the protection forest maps. The exact threshold values defining a sufficient protection forest index for frequent (ca. 10–30 years return period), and extreme (ca. 100–300 years return period) scenarios could then be defined in an iterative process after validating avalanche simulations with former avalanche events and after discussing different scenarios (with and without forests) together with the responsible regional natural hazard experts [31].
The avalanche protection forest map for the Canton of Grisons (Figure 2) is thus the result of an iterative process starting with an empirical statistical model of avalanche releases in forested terrain and was subsequently improved in several working and validation loops. The iterative process allowed us, for example, to better account for the stopping behavior of small and very small avalanches in forested terrain and how these processes are simulated with the avalanche dynamics software RAMMS [8]. In the applied model, the turbulent friction ξ (Xi) is set to a very high value, simulating the braking effect of the forest. Other adaptations introduced after validation loops included a stronger representation of surface roughness, leading to an increase in the protection forest index of forests with high surface roughness and may shift the categorization for some forests with a relatively open forest structure but a high surface roughness. Additionally, we considered differences between actual tree heights and how these tree heights were assessed with the available vegetation height models [3, 30]. Besides validating the forest cover map after the simulation of avalanches and besides the feedback of regional experts, it was also essential to validate the delineation of the avalanche protection forest maps specifically in well-investigated areas with known tree heights and avalanche history.
Protection forest map for the Canton Grisons for a frequent avalanche scenario (corresponding to avalanche events with a 10–30-year return period, displayed in blue and red combined) and for an extreme snow cover scenario (corresponding to a ca. 100–300-year avalanche event, displayed in red).
While all these validation procedures improved the quality and applicability of our map, more progress is possible during the following years by applying the map in practice and by introducing additional spatial data sets on forest characteristics. Therefore, the map will be updated once (i) reliable tree species maps are available in order for better consideration of the protective capacity of different forest types (e.g., forests dominated by evergreen coniferous trees, deciduous conifers or broadleaved trees) or (ii) after an improved understanding of the effect and the assessment of different surface roughness categories.
Two-dimensional protection forest, hazard indication or risk maps are still the standard application in the administration and consulting offices. Nevertheless, modern cartographic visualization strategies go far beyond showing a static portray of reality at a given point in time. Especially new advances in web technologies and multimedia integration, known as “web mapping”, make it possible to create easily shareable, user-friendly and robust web applications via different (mobile) devices such as smartphones, tablets or personal computers.
As forests undergo permanent and often abrupt changes in time, protection forest maps should be updated when more data or better process knowledge is available and after relevant changes in the forest structure. Map updates are particularly important with expected changes due to climate change and important legacies of past land use and expected increases in the frequency and severity of natural disturbances [30]. The development from static, two-dimensional maps to dynamic, interactive maps in a 3-D environment with possibilities to regularly update the visualization of protective effects in response to different forest scenarios would not only be a logical response to the increasing availability of spatial data, cartographic capabilities and computing capacity, but also a response to increasing practical needs. Compared to existing maps, dynamic maps enable to track effects of changes to the forest cover due to natural disturbances and different management scenarios on the protective capacity and other forest functions.
Based on the avalanche protection forest layer presented in this contribution, the avalanche hazard indication map for the canton of Grisons [32] was compiled and mapped for the first time with an interactive visualization platform (maps.wsl.ch), which is currently being developed at the WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF in Davos, Switzerland. In a first step, the latest findings on protection forests, RAMMS simulations of various avalanche scenarios and topographical and asset data such as buildings or roads were combined into an interactive user experience.
For the implementation, basic criteria were defined for the cartographic representation and the functional scopes of the interactive maps. In addition to a traditional two-dimensional map view, the user is offered a three-dimensional, spatial form of representation. Within this 3-D representation, all functions of “traditional” web mapping and other functions beyond are available. This means that the map reacts directly to the user, attributes and geometric data are linked, and interactive legends and diagrams are available. This encompasses the well-known functions of zooming, panning, perspective, 3-D navigation and flights through digital elevation models and three-dimensional objects like buildings or snow avalanche release areas, selection, print or an extended search function. The latest functions include the individual selection of layers, the retrieval of information via pop-ups, the creation of own bookmarks for quick navigation, the measurement of distances and areas in three-dimensional space as well as the personal editing of certain layers and the integration of shapefiles. The integration of shapefiles allows the user to upload recorded field data, for instance, and thus to overlay this data with the map content for visual analysis or prints. The functionality and design of the application will be improved in the future depending on the needs of the users and the progress in avalanche modeling.
The development of interactive web maps can broadly be categorized into three parts: 1) data preparation and visualization, 2) user interface design, and 3) application development. Hence, the map itself is only one element in a more prominent programmatically framework of digital cartography. For the detailed analysis and necessary transformations of the geospatial data that will be part of the application (step 1), conventional GIS software is used. Most of the layers are also being visualized at this stage. In order to keep the application lightweight in storage, all map data is being uploaded to a cloud or, respectively, a hosting data server. The user interface design is carried out with HTML and CSS (step 2), while for most of the application development, including all the functional parts, the programming language JavaScript is the main component. Finally, the application has to be run through a web server (maps.wsl.ch) responsible for distributing all necessary files to the client’s web browser (step 3).
In addition to the existing range of functions, the interactive maps are made to be increasingly dynamic. This is an updating of the map contents, which the user can also do. For example, a forester may digitize, edit and upload areas where forest disturbances such as windthrow, insect outbreaks or forest fires occurred or where a forest intervention is planned or implemented. However, providing modeling software as RAMMS via web service is neither possible nor planned so far.
Drone images or other collected data such as forest inventory data or climate data can provide additional information on selected sites (hotspots). Such dynamic, interactive maps will not only allow a user-friendly way to represent different forest scenarios or changes in forests, natural hazards or resulting risk but can also be used as a tool for (forest) planning or for consulting issues as well as for teaching and research (Figure 3).
Insight into the interactive map platform, which is currently being developed at WSL (
Automatically produced protection forest maps (showing protective effects and functions of forests) based on a sound scientific framework and reliable spatial data are an important basis for prioritizing management interventions and for deducing hazard indication maps or even legally binding hazard maps. In view of further optimizing such maps and their application in different regions, it is important to carefully validate the mapping procedure after the simulation of avalanches with regional experts. Furthermore, as the technology to assess spatial data, and the forest cover and its ability to reduce avalanche risks are changing with time, it is necessary to regularly update such maps and calculate them for different scenarios. Thus, we propose and currently develop web-based interactive maps as a new planning and visualization tool.
The protection forest map of Grisons has been supported by the Cantonal office for forest and natural hazards of the canton of Graubünden (Grisons). Additional funding has been provided by the WSL research program Climate Change Impacts on Alpine Mass Movements – CCAMM (ccamm.slf.ch) and by the prevention foundation of the Swiss cantonal building insurance (KGV). We thank in particular Roderick Kühne, Stephan Wohlwend, Andreas Stoffel and Stefan Margreth for support and feedback which helped to improve the maps. The map is still in evaluation. We also thank Frank Graf, Michaela Teich, Frank Perzl and Frédéric Berger for valuable comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\n\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\\n\\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Subtle changes that occur over time in periodontal tissues that are below the detection limit of visual examination or periodontal probing can be found and tracked accurately over time using 3D imaging, fluorescence spectroscopy, and optical coherence tomography. During debridement of teeth and dental implants, the effective removal of subgingival microbial biofilms and dental calculus deposits can be enhanced using magnifying loupes and operating microscopes and by novel methods based on the interactions of light with bacterial deposits, such as differential reflectometry and light-induced fluorescence. While such techniques can also be used using initial case assessment, their primary purpose is for checking debridement procedures, since the point when bacterial deposits are no longer present represents an endpoint for treatment. The concept of real-time feedback has been developed, using fluorescence readings to control the removal of deposits. Overall, optical methods can support traditional periodontal diagnosis and improve treatment planning and clinical periodontal care.",book:{id:"7244",slug:"periodontology-and-dental-implantology",title:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology",fullTitle:"Periodontology and Dental Implantology"},signatures:"Fardad Shakibaie and Laurence Walsh",authors:[{id:"179467",title:"Prof.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Walsh",slug:"laurence-walsh",fullName:"Laurence Walsh"},{id:"235443",title:"Dr.",name:"Fardad",middleName:null,surname:"Shakibaie",slug:"fardad-shakibaie",fullName:"Fardad Shakibaie"}]},{id:"24363",title:"Biomechanics of Tooth-Movement: Current Look at Orthodontic Fundamental",slug:"biomechanics-of-tooth-movement-current-look-at-orthodontic-fundamental",totalDownloads:26821,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"277",slug:"principles-in-contemporary-orthodontics",title:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics",fullTitle:"Principles in Contemporary Orthodontics"},signatures:"Joanna Antoszewska and Nazan Küçükkeles",authors:[{id:"50158",title:"Prof.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Antoszewska",slug:"joanna-antoszewska",fullName:"Joanna Antoszewska"}]},{id:"71271",title:"Flap Techniques in Dentoalveolar Surgery",slug:"flap-techniques-in-dentoalveolar-surgery",totalDownloads:2638,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Most dentoalveolar procedures involve the reflection of mucosal flaps. This step is crucial for exposure or removal of impacted teeth, implant bed preparation, exposure of the alveolar bone for augmentation, periodontal surgeries, and repair of mucosal soft tissue defects, such as oroantral fistula. Because of the rich vascularity of the oral mucosa, great freedom is allowed for flap design, but it tends to result in carelessness and lack of thoughtful planning, which may lead to uneventful outcomes or/and complications. In this chapter, we review oral anatomy, classification, indications, and complications of common oral flap techniques; common flap designs are illustrated, and their fundamental principles are highlighted. The review has covered various flap designs based on their indications. Yet the common flap’s principles are fundamental for all types of flaps regardless of their application, namely, it should provide wide exposure, clear vision, good access, and assure rich vascularity and good final aesthetic outcome.",book:{id:"9387",slug:"oral-diseases",title:"Oral Diseases",fullTitle:"Oral Diseases"},signatures:"Randa Abdulmoein AlFotawi",authors:[{id:"308701",title:"Dr.",name:"Randa",middleName:"Abdulmoein",surname:"Alfotawi",slug:"randa-alfotawi",fullName:"Randa Alfotawi"}]},{id:"65088",title:"Evaluation and Management of Mandibular Fracture",slug:"evaluation-and-management-of-mandibular-fracture",totalDownloads:2911,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The mandibular bone is an important component of the facial bone, which has a unique role in digestive system, speech, and facial esthetics. For these important functions of mandibular bone, it is vital that surgeons should not only treat function but also consider the esthetics together. Mandibular fractures are among the most common traumatic injuries of the maxillofacial region. Even though treatment modalities are well established and being practiced for a long time, untreated and postoperative complications still decrease the patient’s quality of life. 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Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"10",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Physiology",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development",scope:"Physiology, the scientific study of functions and mechanisms of living systems, is an essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11406,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"306970",title:"Mr.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Tamadon",slug:"amin-tamadon",fullName:"Amin Tamadon",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002oHR5wQAG/Profile_Picture_1623910304139",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bushehr University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón 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