Regression analysis of conversion vs. time data for the 0.9-wt% Au/γ-Al2O3 catalyst at different temperatures.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10729",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Infections and Sepsis Development",title:"Infections and Sepsis Development",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Infection is a common clinical condition that may cause local inflammation but, in some cases, can lead to systemic inflammation, with sepsis and organ dysfunction. Septic shock is a condition of inadequate tissue perfusion and cellular use of oxygen due to the cytotoxic action of bacterial toxins. There is no relationship between the pathological characteristics and the severity of the primary septic outbreak and the development of septic shock, and the time that elapses until the start of the shock is not predictable. Thus, knowledge of the pathophysiology of septic shock is fundamental for treatment. This book presents a comprehensive overview of infectious agents and their therapeutic control, pathological conditions with infective etiology such as diabetic foot osteomyelitis and infections in neurosurgery, and the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of sepsis.",isbn:"978-1-83969-458-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-457-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-459-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94701",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"infections-and-sepsis-development",numberOfPages:394,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"de8b1d035f242a8038f99d48b9069edf",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri, Lixing Huang and Jie Li",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10729.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3468,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:6,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 15th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 14th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 2nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 1st 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/170938/images/system/170938.jpeg",biography:"Vincenzo Neri is a former Professor of General Surgery (retired), Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Foggia, Italy. He also held positions such as Director of Division of General Surgery, Director of Residency School of General Surgery, Director of Department of Surgical Sciences, and President of Course of Degree of Medicine and Surgery at the same university. He also served as an assistant professor (1974–1982) and associate professor (1982–2001) at the School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Bari, Italy, where he obtained a degree in Medicine and Surgery and completed postgraduate training in General Surgery and Emergency Surgery. He obtained a diploma of 'Maitrise Universitaire en Pedagogie des Sciences de la Santè” from the University Paris-Nord Bobigny in 1995. Dr. Neri’s research interests include hepatobiliary pancreatic surgery, acute pancreatitis, and treatment of pancreatic and liver tumors. He has published research papers, reviews, congress proceedings, and book chapters. In the period 1991–2016, he attended the Hepatobiliarypancreatic Surgery Service of Beaujon Hospital, Universitè de Paris, Clichy. As part of the 2010–2011 ERASMUS Program, Dr. Neri developed a seminar on 'Cystic Tumours of the Pancreas” at Ghent University, Belgium. He is a member of several scientific associations including Società Italiana di Chirurgia (SIC), International Hepato-Pancreato Biliary Association (IHPBA), European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL), New European Surgical Academy (NESA), and Society of Laparoscopic and Robotic Surgeons (SLS).",institutionString:"University of Foggia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"9",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Foggia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"333148",title:"Dr.",name:"Lixing",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"lixing-huang",fullName:"Lixing Huang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333148/images/system/333148.jpg",biography:"Dr. Lixing Huang is an associate professor at Jimei University, China. He is engaged in research of molecular mechanisms of bacterial pathogen-host interaction, including but not limited to applying dual RNA-seq and dual iTRAQ approaches to complex infection settings comprising bacterial pathogens, their hosts, and resident gut microbiota; the interplay between host cell microRNAs/proteins and bacterial infection; the impact of bacterial pathogens on host cell RNA metabolism; the effect of bacterial non-coding RNAs/proteins on key host intracellular pathways; and nutritional immunity, the struggle for nutrient metals between hosts and pathogens. He is the author of more than sixty research articles. He is also a member of the China Society of Fisheries (CSF) and the Chinese Society of Toxicology (CST).",institutionString:"Jimei University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jimei University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"336590",title:"Dr.",name:"Jie",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"jie-li",fullName:"Jie Li",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336590/images/system/336590.png",biography:"Dr. Jie Li is an Associate Professor and Research Fellow of the Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences. He completed a Ph.D. at the Institute of Oceanology, the Chinese Academy of Science. His research is directed at the epidemiology and immunology of bacterial pathogens in farming fish, including but not limited to fish disease control, fish vaccine development, and pathogenicity mechanisms of fish pathogens. He is the author of ten research articles and a member of the China Society of Fisheries (CSF).",institutionString:"Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"78345",title:"Bactericidal and Bacteriostatic Antibiotics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99546",slug:"bactericidal-and-bacteriostatic-antibiotics",totalDownloads:268,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Of all the medications available to physicians worldwide, antibiotics play an essential role in inpatient and outpatient settings. Discovered in the early nineteenth century by Alexander Fleming, penicillin was the first antibiotic isolated from a mold. Dr. Gerhard Domagk developed synthetic sulfa drugs by altering the red dye used in chemical industries. Since then, multiple antibiotic classes have been discovered with varying antimicrobial effects enabling their use empirically or in specific clinical scenarios. Antibiotics with different mechanisms of action could be either bactericidal or bacteriostatic. However, no clinical significance has been observed between cidal and static antibiotics in multiple trials. Their presence has led to safer deep invasive surgeries, advanced chemotherapy in cancer, and organ transplantation. Indiscriminate usage of antibiotics has resulted in severe hospital-acquired infections, including nosocomial pneumonia, Clostridioides difficile infection, multidrug-resistant invasive bacterial infections, allergic reactions, and other significant side effects. Antibiotic stewardship is an essential process in the modern era to advocate judicial use of antibiotics for an appropriate duration. They play a vital role in medical and surgical intensive care units to address the various complications seen in these patients. Antibiotics are crucial in severe acute infections to improve overall mortality and morbidity.",signatures:"Sachin M. Patil and Parag Patel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78345",authors:[{id:"352750",title:"Dr.",name:"Sachin M.",surname:"Patil",slug:"sachin-m.-patil",fullName:"Sachin M. Patil"},{id:"424644",title:"Dr.",name:"Parag",surname:"Patel",slug:"parag-patel",fullName:"Parag Patel"}],corrections:null},{id:"77292",title:"Distribution and Molecular Detection of Methicilin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98655",slug:"distribution-and-molecular-detection-of-methicilin-resistant-em-staphylococcus-aureus-em-",totalDownloads:169,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Isolation of Staphylococcus aureus is quite common in both the general population and hospital environment. The heterogeneity of the disease and the unique ability of S. aureus to develop resistance to the most recently discovered antibacterial drugs points to its ability to adapt and survive in different conditions. CA-MRSA is different from hospital strains of MRSA by its epidemiological, phenotypic and genotypic characteristics. The emergence of MRSA in the community suggests the need for a new approach to managing the indications and the certification of staphylococcal infections, with special emphasis on the selection of empiric antibiotic therapy. In the study, we analised of MRSA from 4341 samples taken from patients from the general population of Sarajevo Canton in the six-month period of follow-up processed at the Public Health Institute of Sarajevo Canton. We determined the epidemiological characteristics of the isolated strains. Methicillin resistance was determined by phenotypic methods. The following molecular methods were used for the confirmation of methicillin resistance: determination of the mecA gene, PFGE profile, genetic type of MRSA being determined by spa typing, the distribution of SCCmec types being examined, and the detected gene for PVL. The study stresses the need for national monitoring of spreading of the existing epidemic strains, as well as the monitoring of emergence of new strains which would enable the inclusion of our country in the international network of monitoring bacterial resistance.",signatures:"Velma Rebić, Mufida Aljičević, Sajra Vinčević-Smajlović and Damir Rebić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77292",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77292",authors:[{id:"335553",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Velma",surname:"Rebić",slug:"velma-rebic",fullName:"Velma Rebić"},{id:"349103",title:"Prof.",name:"Mufida",surname:"Aljičević",slug:"mufida-aljicevic",fullName:"Mufida Aljičević"},{id:"349104",title:"M.D.",name:"Sajra",surname:"Vinčević-Smajlović",slug:"sajra-vincevic-smajlovic",fullName:"Sajra Vinčević-Smajlović"},{id:"349107",title:"Prof.",name:"Damir",surname:"Rebić",slug:"damir-rebic",fullName:"Damir Rebić"}],corrections:null},{id:"77570",title:"Potential Natural Product from Tropical Fruits: A Mixture Young Coconut Fruit and Kaffir Lime Fruit as Immunonutrition for the Treatment of Sepsis by Lipopolysaccaride Escherichia coli (Infectious Disease)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99005",slug:"potential-natural-product-from-tropical-fruits-a-mixture-young-coconut-fruit-and-kaffir-lime-fruit-a",totalDownloads:153,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The high number of cases reported of antibiotic resistance use and mortality due to gram-negative sepsis, triggered the development of natural agents to be used in the prevention and treatment of sepsis. Studies continue to be developed on the use of tropical fruits such as coconut fruit and kaffir lime fruit which contain high antioxidants and many potential compounds. Recent experimental data has proven that the high antioxidant activity found in the coconut fruit mixture, namely processed fruit flesh and coconut water and added kaffir lime juice, can be used as an immunonutrition agent that can improve body physiology and can increase the survival rate of test animals from endotoxemia lipopolysaccharide induced by Eschercia coli intraperitoneally. This chapter provides an overview of the potential of natural products that can be used as immunonutrition preparations. Finally, this provides information showing the importance of the intake of immunonutrition in conditions of sepsis infection.",signatures:"Rahmayati Rusnedy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77570",authors:[{id:"414194",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Rahmayati",surname:"Rusnedy",slug:"rahmayati-rusnedy",fullName:"Rahmayati Rusnedy"}],corrections:null},{id:"76994",title:"Empiric Antimicrobial Therapy in Critically Ill Septic Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98327",slug:"empiric-antimicrobial-therapy-in-critically-ill-septic-patients",totalDownloads:143,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis is a medical emergency and life-threatening condition due to a dysregulated host response to infection, which is time-dependent and associated with unacceptably high mortality. At the bedside of a patient with sepsis or septic shock, clinician must make immediate life-saving decisions including empirical initiation of broad-spectrum antimicrobials; the most likely to be appropriate. The empiric regimen should be initiated within the first hour of diagnosis and determined by assessing patient and epidemiological risk factors, likely source of infection based on presenting signs and symptoms, and severity of illness. Optimizing antibiotic use is crucial to ensure successful outcomes and to reduce adverse antibiotic effects, as well as preventing drug resistance. All likely pathogens involved should be considered to provide an appropriate antibiotic coverage. Herein, we tried to make suggestions of empirical therapeutic regimens in sepsis/septic shock according to most likely pathogens in cause and sepsis source based on the recent recommendations of learned societies. Some suggestions were adapted to an environment of low-resource regions where the ecology of multi drug resistant organisms is of concern.",signatures:"Ahlem Trifi, Sami Abdellatif, Sameh Trabelsi and Salah Ben Lakhal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76994",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76994",authors:[{id:"352049",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahlem",surname:"Trifi",slug:"ahlem-trifi",fullName:"Ahlem Trifi"},{id:"416660",title:"Prof.",name:"Sami",surname:"Abdellatif",slug:"sami-abdellatif",fullName:"Sami Abdellatif"},{id:"416661",title:"Prof.",name:"Salah",surname:"Ben Lakhal",slug:"salah-ben-lakhal",fullName:"Salah Ben Lakhal"},{id:"421061",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",surname:"Trabelsi",slug:"sameh-trabelsi",fullName:"Sameh Trabelsi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77791",title:"Specific Bacterial Immunotherapy in Treating Chronic Osteomyelitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98751",slug:"specific-bacterial-immunotherapy-in-treating-chronic-osteomyelitis",totalDownloads:126,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The immunological experience is treating osteomyelitis chronic forms at the Istituto Putti in Cortina starts in 1963 by introducing immunotherapy, applied by the progressive administration in growing doses of a staphylococci pool, that had been collected from some patients with bone infections by the same germ and then inactivated in an aqueous solution suspension. This therapy is coadjutant of antibiotics, surgical and hyperbaric therapy and not substitutive of these. This study ascertained indeed a reduction of the phagocytic activity as a whole, and especially the opsonisation activity It has been thought therefore that in immunotherapy more factors are involved; their principal property is to reduce the allergising effect and therefore to desensitise vs. the germ proteins and to increase the phagocytic activity. This condition, neither whose entity nor its lasting may be defined, does not appear to be unlimited. Obviously this desensitisation can be obtained also by the right antibiotic choice that, as already said mainly in acute forms, may develop their bactericidal properties and sterilise the focus. In the chronic forms it is possible to provoke this mechanism by carrying out a surgical toilette that restores the vascularization and stimulation conditions needed for a correct antibiotic action. Checks upon immuno-stimulation treatment termination clearly showed corresponding results between laboratory deficit corrected and clinical conditions bettering. The casuistry is based on 50 patients with hematogenic osteomyelitis, all under the age of 16, age at which the growth plate is still active, and 117 post-traumatic septic non-union, where this term was adopted for cases that showed a lack of non-solidification at 6 months after trauma. We have expressly made a distinction between hematogenic and post-traumatic forms, since the relationships between bacterial counts vs. host response do differ.",signatures:"Ferdinando Da Rin de Lorenzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77791",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77791",authors:[{id:"350650",title:"Prof.",name:"Ferdinando",surname:"Da Rin de Lorenzo",slug:"ferdinando-da-rin-de-lorenzo",fullName:"Ferdinando Da Rin de Lorenzo"}],corrections:null},{id:"75640",title:"Prevalence, Antimicrobial Resistance and Pathogenicity of Non-O1 Vibrio cholerae in Suburban and Rural Groundwater Supplies of Marrakesh Area (Morocco)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96696",slug:"prevalence-antimicrobial-resistance-and-pathogenicity-of-non-o1-em-vibrio-cholerae-em-in-suburban-an",totalDownloads:156,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This synthesis of research work considers the dynamic, antibiotic resistance, hemolytic, and hemagglutination activities of non-O1 Vibrio cholerae in comparison with those of fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from suburban and rural groundwater supplies in a Marrakesh area (Morocco). In addition, it assesses the influence of some chemical factors on the distribution of all these bacterial groups. The obtained results showed that the prospected well waters contain them at varying abundance degrees while undergoing generally spatial and temporal fluctuations. The total occurrence of these bacteria during the period of study was 94%. Detectable non-O1 V. cholerae was present in 81% of the samples and the mean abundances ranged from 0 to 11100 MPN/100 ml. According to WHO standards for drinking water, they were heavily contaminated and could have significant health risks for the local population consuming them. Non-O1 V. cholerae and the other studied bacteria are virulent since most of them were found to be adhesive, producers of hemolysins and multi-resistant to antibiotics. Pollution activities around the wells lead to an increase of virulence and antimicrobial resistance in groundwater. This shows the role of these bacteria in several cases of gastro-enteric and systemic pathologies noted in Marrakech local population.",signatures:"Hafsa Lamrani Alaoui, Khalid Oufdou and Nour-Eddine Mezrioui",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75640",authors:[{id:"343471",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Hafsa",surname:"Lamrani Alaoui",slug:"hafsa-lamrani-alaoui",fullName:"Hafsa Lamrani Alaoui"},{id:"347389",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Oufdou",slug:"khalid-oufdou",fullName:"Khalid Oufdou"},{id:"347390",title:"Prof.",name:"Nour-Eddine",surname:"Mezrioui",slug:"nour-eddine-mezrioui",fullName:"Nour-Eddine Mezrioui"}],corrections:null},{id:"75676",title:"Community Change and Pathogenicity of Vibrio",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96515",slug:"community-change-and-pathogenicity-of-em-vibrio-em-",totalDownloads:251,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vibrio is a rod-shaped Gram-negative bacteria, which is widely distributed in marine and estuarine environments worldwide. It is an important component of the aquatic ecosystem and plays an important role in biogeochemical cycle. Its population dynamics are usually affected by climate and seasonal factors. Most of the Vibrios in the environment are not pathogenic, but some of them are pathogenic bacteria for human and animal, such as Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio vulnificus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio anguillarum, etc., which are generally reported to be related to aquatic animal diseases and human food-borne diseases. Over the last couple of years, due to the influence of the rising seawater temperature and climate change, the incidence of diseases caused by Vibrio infection has increased significantly, which poses a great threat to human health and aquaculture. The research on pathogenic Vibrio has attracted more and more attention. The abundance and community changes of Vibrio in the environment are usually controlled by many biological and abiotic factors. The Vibrio pathogenicity is related to the virulence factors encoded by virulence genes. The process of Vibrio infecting the host and causing host disease is determined by multiple virulence factors acting together, instead of being determined by a single virulence factor. In this chapter, community changes of Vibrio, as well as the virulence factors of Vibrio and the related virulence genes of Vibiro are summarized, and their important roles in Vibrio infection are also discussed.",signatures:"Lixing Huang, Qiancheng Gao, Youyu Zhang, Wei Xu and Qingpi Yan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75676",authors:[{id:"333148",title:"Dr.",name:"Lixing",surname:"Huang",slug:"lixing-huang",fullName:"Lixing Huang"},{id:"343504",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingpi",surname:"Yan",slug:"qingpi-yan",fullName:"Qingpi Yan"},{id:"343506",title:"Dr.",name:"Youyu",surname:"Zhang",slug:"youyu-zhang",fullName:"Youyu Zhang"},{id:"351789",title:"Dr.",name:"Qiancheng",surname:"Gao",slug:"qiancheng-gao",fullName:"Qiancheng Gao"},{id:"351791",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Xu",slug:"wei-xu",fullName:"Wei Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"75818",title:"The Secretome of Vibrio cholerae",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96803",slug:"the-secretome-of-em-vibrio-cholerae-em-",totalDownloads:268,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Vibrio cholerae is a facultative human pathogen responsible for the cholera disease which infects millions of people worldwide each year. V. cholerae is a natural inhabitant of aquatic environments and the infection usually occurs after ingestion of contaminated water or food. The virulence factors of V. cholerae have been extensively studied in the last decades and include the cholera toxin and the coregulated pilus. Most of the virulence factors of V. cholerae belong to the secretome, which corresponds to all the molecules secreted in the extracellular environment such as proteins, exopolysaccharides, extracellular DNA or membrane vesicles. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge of the secretome of V. cholerae and its role in virulence, colonization and resistance. In the first section, we focus on the proteins secreted through conventional secretion systems. The second and third sections emphasize on the membrane vesicles and on the secretome associated with biofilms.",signatures:"Annabelle Mathieu-Denoncourt, Sean Giacomucci and Marylise Duperthuy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75818",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75818",authors:[{id:"342286",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Marylise",surname:"Duperthuy",slug:"marylise-duperthuy",fullName:"Marylise Duperthuy"},{id:"343168",title:"Mrs.",name:"Annabelle",surname:"Mathieu-Denoncourt",slug:"annabelle-mathieu-denoncourt",fullName:"Annabelle Mathieu-Denoncourt"},{id:"343169",title:"Mr.",name:"Sean",surname:"Giacomucci",slug:"sean-giacomucci",fullName:"Sean Giacomucci"}],corrections:null},{id:"77674",title:"Challenges in Controlling Vibriosis in Shrimp Farms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97018",slug:"challenges-in-controlling-vibriosis-in-shrimp-farms",totalDownloads:273,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recently the shrimp farming has blooming as a crucial counterpart in the aquaculture industry which contribute the remarkable role in sea food production as well economy of the country. However, this could be fluctuated every year through several circumstances such as unfavorable (Poor water and soil quality) environmental factors. The environmental factors includes disease causing bacterial pathogens in the soil and water which causes the bacterial diseases in the aquatic animals, like this hectic problems are prevented through bioaugmentation strategies. The pond environment plays a vital role in determining the healthy culture system, but there is high risk for manipulation by bacterial community which takes care of waste generated in the system through in situ bioremediation. Due to the impact of rapidly growing bacterial diseases of shrimps throughout the world, numerous studies have been carried out to find immunostimulants, immunomodulators and biotic component that can be used against vibrio causing pathogens, and can also be used as an alternative for antibiotics. Recent research focus towards the marine resources such as microalgae, seaweed, live feeds (like artemia, copepods, rotifers), bacteriophage, and probiotics have been found to have higher potential in reducing vibriosis. Eco-based shrimp farming includes green water technology, phage therapy bio-floc technology (BFT) and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), these methods hold a promising alternative to antibiotics in the near future. Bacterial diseases caused by vibrios have been reported in penaeid shrimp culture systems implicating at least 14 species and they are Vibrio harveyi, V. splendidus, V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus, V. anguillarum, V. vulnificuslogei etc.",signatures:"Hethesh Chellapandian, Jeyachandran Sivakamavalli, A. Vijay Anand and Balamuralikrishnan Balasubramanian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77674",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77674",authors:[{id:"347251",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hethesh",surname:"Chellapandian",slug:"hethesh-chellapandian",fullName:"Hethesh Chellapandian"},{id:"347284",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeyachandran",surname:"Sivakamavalli",slug:"jeyachandran-sivakamavalli",fullName:"Jeyachandran Sivakamavalli"},{id:"421444",title:"Dr.",name:"A. Vijay",surname:"Anand",slug:"a.-vijay-anand",fullName:"A. Vijay Anand"},{id:"421445",title:"Dr.",name:"Balamuralikrishnan",surname:"Balasubramanian",slug:"balamuralikrishnan-balasubramanian",fullName:"Balamuralikrishnan Balasubramanian"}],corrections:null},{id:"76988",title:"Diabetic Foot Osteomyelitis: Frequent Pathogens and Conservative Antibiotic Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98328",slug:"diabetic-foot-osteomyelitis-frequent-pathogens-and-conservative-antibiotic-therapy",totalDownloads:178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Chronic diabetic foot osteomyelitis (DFO) is a frequent complication in adult polyneuropathy patients with long-standing diabetes mellitus. Regarding the conservative therapy, there are several crucial steps in adequate diagnosing and approaches. The management should be performed in a multidisciplinary approach following the findings of recent research, general principles of antibiotic therapy for bone; and according to (inter-)national guidance. In this chapter we emphasize the overview on the state-of-the-art management regarding the diagnosis and antibiotic therapy in DFO. In contrast, in this general narrative review and clinical recommendation, we skip the surgical, vascular and psychological aspects.",signatures:"Nicolas Vogel, Tanja Huber and Ilker Uçkay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76988",authors:[{id:"349987",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",surname:"Vogel",slug:"nicolas-vogel",fullName:"Nicolas Vogel"},{id:"350000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilker",surname:"Uçkay",slug:"ilker-uckay",fullName:"Ilker Uçkay"},{id:"417116",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tanja",surname:"Huber",slug:"tanja-huber",fullName:"Tanja Huber"}],corrections:null},{id:"78056",title:"Infections in Neurosurgery and Their Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99115",slug:"infections-in-neurosurgery-and-their-management",totalDownloads:190,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Surgical site and postoperative infections are common problems in surgical wards and treating them can be challenging and very complicated. It is important to understand different types of postoperative infections and their best management. In this chapter we try to emphasis on infections which are occurring in neurosurgical units and how to approach them. Foreign body infection is another challenge that happens in neurosurgical units, and it is vital to recognize these infections in time and start the treatment as soon as possible. Atypical infections occurrence is low therefore this problem is not addressed often in textbooks or in the literature, therefore atypical infections will be discussed in this chapter too. By discussing the most common postoperative complications and their best management profile, the authors here will try to widen the perspective of readers on infections in neurosurgical units in order to understand this problem better. Untreated infections or poorly treated infections can lead to sepsis and catastrophic results.",signatures:"Seyed Arad Senaobar Tahaei, Seyyed Ashkan Senobar Tahaei, Zoltan Mencser and Pal Barzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78056",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78056",authors:[{id:"351819",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Arad",surname:"Senaobar Tahaei",slug:"seyed-arad-senaobar-tahaei",fullName:"Seyed Arad Senaobar Tahaei"},{id:"353235",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltán",surname:"Mencser",slug:"zoltan-mencser",fullName:"Zoltán Mencser"},{id:"353236",title:"Prof.",name:"Pál",surname:"Barzó",slug:"pal-barzo",fullName:"Pál Barzó"},{id:"422719",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyyed Ashkan",surname:"Senobar Tahaei",slug:"seyyed-ashkan-senobar-tahaei",fullName:"Seyyed Ashkan Senobar Tahaei"}],corrections:null},{id:"77653",title:"An Explainable Machine Learning Model for Early Prediction of Sepsis Using ICU Data",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98957",slug:"an-explainable-machine-learning-model-for-early-prediction-of-sepsis-using-icu-data",totalDownloads:168,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Early identification of individuals with sepsis is very useful in assisting clinical triage and decision-making, resulting in early intervention and improved outcomes. This study aims to develop an explainable machine learning model with the clinical interpretability to predict sepsis onset before 6 hours and validate with improved prediction risk power for every time interval since admission to the ICU. The retrospective observational cohort study is carried out using PhysioNet Challenge 2019 ICU data from three distinct hospital systems, viz. A, B, and C. Data from A and B were shared publicly for training and validation while sequestered data from all three cohorts were used for scoring. However, this study is limited only to publicly available training data. Training data contains 15,52,210 patient records of 40,336 ICU patients with up to 40 clinical variables (sourced for each hour of their ICU stay) divided into two datasets, based on hospital systems A and B. The clinical feature exploration and interpretation for early prediction of sepsis is achieved using the proposed framework, viz. the explainable Machine Learning model for Early Prediction of Sepsis (xMLEPS). A total of 85 features comprising the given 40 clinical variables augmented with 10 derived physiological features and 35 time-lag difference features are fed to xMLEPS for the said prediction task of sepsis onset. A ten-fold cross-validation scheme is employed wherein an optimal prediction risk threshold is searched for each of the 10 LightGBM models. These optimum threshold values are later used by the corresponding models to refine the predictive power in terms of utility score for the prediction of labels in each fold. The entire framework is designed via Bayesian optimization and trained with the resultant feature set of 85 features, yielding an average normalized utility score of 0.4214 and area under receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.8591 on publicly available training data. This study establish a practical and explainable sepsis onset prediction model for ICU data using applied ML approach, mainly gradient boosting. The study highlights the clinical significance of physiological inter-relations among the given and proposed clinical signs via feature importance and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) plots for visualized interpretation.",signatures:"Naimahmed Nesaragi and Shivnarayan Patidar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77653",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77653",authors:[{id:"349984",title:"Dr.",name:"Shivnarayan",surname:"Patidar",slug:"shivnarayan-patidar",fullName:"Shivnarayan Patidar"},{id:"349994",title:"Mr.",name:"Naimahmed",surname:"Nesaragi",slug:"naimahmed-nesaragi",fullName:"Naimahmed Nesaragi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77002",title:"Organ Damage in Sepsis: Molecular Mechanisms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98302",slug:"organ-damage-in-sepsis-molecular-mechanisms",totalDownloads:146,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis is one of the most common reasons for hospitalisation. This condition is characterised by systemic inflammatory response to infection. International definition of sepsis mainly points out a multi-organ dysfunction caused by a deregulated host response to infection. An uncontrolled inflammatory response, often referred to as “cytokine storm”, leads to an increase in oxidative stress as a result of the inhibition of cellular antioxidant systems. Oxidative stress, as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines, initiate vascular endothelial dysfunction and, in consequence, impair microcirculation. Microcirculation damage leads to adaptive modifications of cell metabolism. Moreover, mitochondrial dysfunction takes place which results in increased apoptosis and impaired autophagy. Non-coding RNA, especially miRNA and lncRNA molecules, may play an important role in the pathomechanism of sepsis. Altered expression of various ncRNAs in sepsis suggest, that these molecules can be used not only as diagnostics and prognostic markers but also as the target points in the pharmacotherapy of sepsis. The understanding of detailed molecular mechanisms leading to organ damage can contribute to the development of specific therapy methods thereby improving the prognosis of patients with sepsis.",signatures:"Grażyna Sygitowicz and Dariusz Sitkiewicz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77002",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77002",authors:[{id:"351353",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Grażyna",surname:"Sygitowicz",slug:"grazyna-sygitowicz",fullName:"Grażyna Sygitowicz"},{id:"351355",title:"Prof.",name:"Dariusz",surname:"Sitkiewicz",slug:"dariusz-sitkiewicz",fullName:"Dariusz Sitkiewicz"}],corrections:null},{id:"78035",title:"Inflammatory Mediators Leading to Edema Formation through Plasma Membrane Receptors",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99230",slug:"inflammatory-mediators-leading-to-edema-formation-through-plasma-membrane-receptors",totalDownloads:118,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Edema is a swelling from liquid accumulation in body tissues. Injuries in tissues or organs may cause this disorder leading to chemical mediators releasing and triggering the inflammatory process. Inflammatory mediators, when released in response to injuries, promote biological reactions at the affected site. Furthermore, plasma membrane receptors modulate the inflammatory chemical agent synthesis and release. Pattern recognition receptors, such as Toll Like is an example of plasma membrane receptors associated with chemical agents recognizing and cascade amplification. Therefore, these plasma membrane proteins exhibit essential roles during injuries and immunologic response. Thus, this review discusses the plasma membrane receptors modulation in the inflammatory area, focusing on edema formation.",signatures:"Guilherme Teixeira and Robson Faria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78035",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78035",authors:[{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria"},{id:"345859",title:"Mr.",name:"Guilherme",surname:"Teixeira",slug:"guilherme-teixeira",fullName:"Guilherme Teixeira"}],corrections:null},{id:"78075",title:"Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction, Bacterial Translocation and Inflammation: Deathly Triad in Sepsis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99554",slug:"intestinal-barrier-dysfunction-bacterial-translocation-and-inflammation-deathly-triad-in-sepsis",totalDownloads:181,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sepsis, as a complex entity, comprises multiple pathophysiological mechanisms which bring about high morbidity and mortality. The previous studies showed that the gastrointestinal tract is damaged during sepsis, and its main symptoms include increased permeability, bacterial translocation (BT), and malabsorption. BT is the invasion of indigenous intestinal bacteria via the gut mucosa to other tissues. It occurs in pathological conditions such as disruption of the intestine’s ecological balance and mucosal barrier permeability, immunosuppression, and oxidative stress through transcellular/paracellular pathways and initiate an excessive systemic inflammatory response. Thereby, recent clinical and preclinical studies focus on the association between sepsis and intestinal barrier dysfunction. This chapter overviews the current knowledge about the molecular basis of BT of the intestine, its role in the progress of sepsis, detection of BT, and actual therapeutic approaches.",signatures:"Bercis Imge Ucar and Gulberk Ucar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78075",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78075",authors:[{id:"251368",title:"Prof.",name:"Gulberk",surname:"Ucar",slug:"gulberk-ucar",fullName:"Gulberk Ucar"},{id:"415028",title:"Dr.",name:"Bercis Imge",surname:"Ucar",slug:"bercis-imge-ucar",fullName:"Bercis Imge Ucar"}],corrections:null},{id:"77454",title:"Assessment and Management of Hypoperfusion in Sepsis and Septic Shock",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98876",slug:"assessment-and-management-of-hypoperfusion-in-sepsis-and-septic-shock",totalDownloads:228,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Diagnosis of organ hypoperfusion in patient with sepsis is not always straightforward which makes septic shock definition, diagnosis, and early treatment are major challenges that emergency physicians and intensivist must deal with in their daily practice. Normal blood pressure does not always mean good organ perfusion, which means patient might develop septic shock, yet they are not hypotensive. There are several indices that could be used in combination to diagnose and manage hypoperfusion in patients with septic shock. Fluid resuscitation and vasopressor administration along with infection sources control are the cornerstones in septic shock management. This chapter will cover indices that can be used to diagnose hypoperfusion, type and amount of fluid and vasopressor that can be used in resuscitating septic shock patients.",signatures:"Zohair Al Aseri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77454",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77454",authors:[{id:"350564",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Zohair",surname:"Al Aseri",slug:"zohair-al-aseri",fullName:"Zohair Al Aseri"}],corrections:null},{id:"76836",title:"Sepsis Associated Acute Kidney Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97609",slug:"sepsis-associated-acute-kidney-injury-1",totalDownloads:267,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"AKI is a syndrome consisting of several clinical conditions, due to sudden kidney dysfunction. Sepsis and septic shock are the causes of AKI and are known as Sepsis-Associated AKI (SA-AKI) and accounted for more than 50% of cases of AKI in the ICU, with poor prognosis. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is characterized by a sudden decline in kidney function for several hours/day, which results in the accumulation of creatinine, urea and other waste products. The most recent definition was formulated in the Kidney Disease consensus: Improving Global Outcome (KDIGO), published in 2012, where the AKI was established if the patient’s current clinical manifestation met several criteria: an increase in serum creatinine levels ≥0.3 mg/dL (26.5 μmol/L) within 48 hours, an increase in serum creatinine for at least 1.5 times the baseline value within the previous 7 days; or urine volume ≤ 0.5 ml/kg body weight for 6 hours. The AKI pathophysiology includes ischemic vasodilation, endothelial leakage, necrosis in nephrons and microtrombus in capillaries. The management of sepsis associated with AKI consisted of fluid therapy, vasopressors, antibiotics and nephrotoxic substances, Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) and diuretics. In the analysis of the BEST Kidney trial subgroup, the likelihood of hospital death was 50% higher in AKI sepsis compared to non-sepsis AKI. Understanding of sepsis and endotoxins that can cause SA-AKI is not yet fully known. Some evidence suggests that renal microcirculation hypoperfusion, lack of energy for cells, mitochondrial dysfunction, endothelial injury and cycle cell arrest can cause SA-AKI. Rapid identification of SA-AKI events, antibiotics and appropriate fluid therapy are crucial in the management of SA-AKI.",signatures:"Titik Setyawati, Ricky Aditya and Tinni Trihartini Maskoen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76836",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76836",authors:[{id:"352148",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tinni",surname:"Maskoen",slug:"tinni-maskoen",fullName:"Tinni Maskoen"},{id:"352152",title:"Dr.",name:"Titik",surname:"Setyawati",slug:"titik-setyawati",fullName:"Titik Setyawati"},{id:"352159",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricky",surname:"Aditya",slug:"ricky-aditya",fullName:"Ricky Aditya"}],corrections:null},{id:"78742",title:"Atrial Fibrillation during Septic Shock",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100317",slug:"atrial-fibrillation-during-septic-shock",totalDownloads:187,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Atrial Fibrillation (AF) is an early and common occurrence during septic shock, accounting for 25–30% of admissions. Conventional cardiovascular risk factors do not generally increase its incidence, especially in cases of new-onset AF. Inflammation during the sepsis process has been postulated as a possible trigger. Detrimental effects of AF result in prognosis worsening, even when the probability for a negative outcome has been adjusted for severity of illness. New-onset AF (NOAF) has been associated with greater mortality rate than preexisting chronic AF. Early cardioversion has not uniformly improved hospital outcomes. In this review, the incidence, prognosis and management of AF in septic shock patients are summarized.",signatures:"Manuel Vélez-Gimón",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78742",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78742",authors:[{id:"415055",title:"M.D.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Vélez-Gimón",slug:"manuel-velez-gimon",fullName:"Manuel Vélez-Gimón"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7920",title:"Infectious Process and Sepsis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"15ab9e0f38bdfb589c1dd56f8211a860",slug:"infectious-process-and-sepsis",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7920.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6352",title:"Gastrointestinal Surgery",subtitle:"New Technical Proposals",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f75fc66eb312d3a8a6be8256c5ffb279",slug:"gastrointestinal-surgery-new-technical-proposals",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6352.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10314",title:"Esophagitis and Gastritis",subtitle:"Recent Updates",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"018c77c0b435770edd232fbdf706d573",slug:"esophagitis-and-gastritis-recent-updates",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri and Monjur Ahmed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206355",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Monjur",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"monjur-ahmed",fullName:"Monjur Ahmed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206355/images/system/206355.jpeg",biography:"Monjur Ahmed, MD, FRCP, is an Associate Professor of Medicine at Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. He has been a practicing gastroenterologist for twenty-two years. He has a special interest in inflammatory bowel disease, eosinophilic esophagitis, gastrointestinal motility, and dysphagia. Dr. Ahmed also serves as an editor in chief for the World Journal of Gastrointestinal Oncology.",institutionString:"Thomas Jefferson University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Thomas Jefferson University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8443",title:"Gastrointestinal Stomas",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2e8dfeaf7ef41c96a76cb124dccbac94",slug:"gastrointestinal-stomas",bookSignature:"Vincenzo Neri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8443.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"170938",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincenzo",surname:"Neri",slug:"vincenzo-neri",fullName:"Vincenzo Neri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/825.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"799",title:"Salmonella",subtitle:"A Dangerous Foodborne Pathogen",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ba452d8a24ef16b1267d2854b28f6e6a",slug:"salmonella-a-dangerous-foodborne-pathogen",bookSignature:"Barakat S. M. Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/799.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2068",title:"Understanding Tuberculosis",subtitle:"New Approaches to Fighting Against Drug Resistance",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"077a11a53e4b135020092b8c1143f93c",slug:"understanding-tuberculosis-new-approaches-to-fighting-against-drug-resistance",bookSignature:"Pere-Joan Cardona",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2068.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78269",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Pere-Joan",surname:"Cardona",slug:"pere-joan-cardona",fullName:"Pere-Joan Cardona"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"322",title:"Flavivirus Encephalitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"269535b3a2f21a46216f4ca6925aa8f1",slug:"flavivirus-encephalitis",bookSignature:"Daniel Růžek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/322.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33830",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Ruzek",slug:"daniel-ruzek",fullName:"Daniel Ruzek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3842",title:"Leishmaniasis",subtitle:"Trends in Epidemiology, Diagnosis and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"861f3ca84eede677ba6cd863093d62f8",slug:"leishmaniasis-trends-in-epidemiology-diagnosis-and-treatment",bookSignature:"David M. Claborn",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3842.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169536",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Claborn",slug:"david-claborn",fullName:"David Claborn"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"65367",slug:"corrigendum-to-review-of-liquid-filled-optical-fibre-based-temperature-sensing",title:"Corrigendum to Review of Liquid-Filled Optical Fibre-Based Temperature Sensing",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65367.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65367",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65367",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65367",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65367",chapter:{id:"63471",slug:"review-of-liquid-filled-optical-fibre-based-temperature-sensing",signatures:"Fintan McGuinness, Gabriel Leen, Elfed Lewis, Gerard Dooly, Daniel Toal\nand Dinesh Babu Duraibabu",dateSubmitted:"May 22nd 2018",dateReviewed:"August 1st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"April 24th 2019",book:{id:"8271",title:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",slug:"applications-of-optical-fibers-for-sensing",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8271.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220902",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadrado-Laborde",slug:"christian-cuadrado-laborde",fullName:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"27036",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Toal",fullName:"Daniel Toal",slug:"daniel-toal",email:"daniel.toal@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"85846",title:"Prof.",name:"Elfed",middleName:null,surname:"Lewis",fullName:"Elfed Lewis",slug:"elfed-lewis",email:"Elfed.Lewis@ul.ie",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"259703",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh Babu",middleName:null,surname:"Duraibabu",fullName:"Dinesh Babu Duraibabu",slug:"dinesh-babu-duraibabu",email:"dineshbabu.duraibabu@ul.ie",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"269578",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Leen",fullName:"Gabriel Leen",slug:"gabriel-leen",email:"Gabriel.Leen@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269579",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Fintan",middleName:null,surname:"McGuinness",fullName:"Fintan McGuinness",slug:"fintan-mcguinness",email:"Fintan.McGuinness@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269580",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerard",middleName:null,surname:"Dooly",fullName:"Gerard Dooly",slug:"gerard-dooly",email:"Gerard.Dooly@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63471",slug:"review-of-liquid-filled-optical-fibre-based-temperature-sensing",signatures:"Fintan McGuinness, Gabriel Leen, Elfed Lewis, Gerard Dooly, Daniel Toal\nand Dinesh Babu Duraibabu",dateSubmitted:"May 22nd 2018",dateReviewed:"August 1st 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"April 24th 2019",book:{id:"8271",title:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",slug:"applications-of-optical-fibers-for-sensing",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8271.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220902",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadrado-Laborde",slug:"christian-cuadrado-laborde",fullName:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"27036",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Toal",fullName:"Daniel Toal",slug:"daniel-toal",email:"daniel.toal@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"85846",title:"Prof.",name:"Elfed",middleName:null,surname:"Lewis",fullName:"Elfed Lewis",slug:"elfed-lewis",email:"Elfed.Lewis@ul.ie",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"259703",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh Babu",middleName:null,surname:"Duraibabu",fullName:"Dinesh Babu Duraibabu",slug:"dinesh-babu-duraibabu",email:"dineshbabu.duraibabu@ul.ie",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Limerick",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}},{id:"269578",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriel",middleName:null,surname:"Leen",fullName:"Gabriel Leen",slug:"gabriel-leen",email:"Gabriel.Leen@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269579",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Fintan",middleName:null,surname:"McGuinness",fullName:"Fintan McGuinness",slug:"fintan-mcguinness",email:"Fintan.McGuinness@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null},{id:"269580",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerard",middleName:null,surname:"Dooly",fullName:"Gerard Dooly",slug:"gerard-dooly",email:"Gerard.Dooly@ul.ie",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"8271",title:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Applications of Optical Fibers for Sensing",slug:"applications-of-optical-fibers-for-sensing",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",bookSignature:"Christian Cuadrado-Laborde",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8271.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited 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\r\n\tCytokeratins are the most diverse and, arguably least understood components of the cytoskeleton. Comprising the intermediate filaments of epithelial cells, cytokeratins have roles in tissue integrity, in signaling, attachment to a substrate, and providing scaffolding to cytoplasmic organelles including, presumably, the nucleus. Essentially insoluble filamentous structures, these assemblies disappear during mitosis, to re-assemble immediately afterward. Beyond the confines of epithelial cells, keratins provide the bulk material to the epidermal stratum corneum, hair, nails and other rigid elements of the integument. Cytokeratins are obligate heteropolymers, consisting of equal amounts of Type I, acidic, and Type II neutral to basic proteins. In mammals, the Type I keratin genes are clustered in a single chromosomal region, and so are the Type II keratin genes. Different cytokeratins are characteristic molecular marker for specific epithelia, e.g., epidermis, cornea, tongue, hair etc. Mutations in keratin genes have dominant inheritance, in accordance with their obligate polymerization, and can cause severe disorders. Lately, first successes in correcting the mutant phenotype have been achieved using DNA-targeted therapies. Recent progress in studies of these fascinating proteins warrants a recap at this moment, which this volume aims to provide.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5b6f7c428ae46faa9e16125459bedbff",bookSignature:"Dr. Miroslav Blumenberg",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9775.jpg",keywords:"Cytoplasm, Cytokeratin-associated Proteins, Signal Transduction, Actin, Tubulin, Integrins, Extracellular Matrix, Disruptions and Diseases, Promoters, Transcription Factors, Tissue Specificity, Keratinopathies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 8th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 5th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 24th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Blumenberg pioneered the use of DNA microarrays in skin biology. His H-index of 35 is a clear indicator of his merit and impact as a researcher. He serves on editorial boards of BMC Genomics, Acta Dermatovenerologica APA, and World Journal of Biological Chemistry and holds three patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70485",slug:"oxidation-of-glycerol-to-lactic-acid-by-gold-on-acidified-alumina-a-kinetic-and-dft-case-study",body:'\nLactic acid (LAC), as noted by Wee et al. [1], is one of the most valuable chemicals in industry today and is widely used in the food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries. In the food industry, for example, it may be used as a preservative, an acidulant, or for flavouring, while in the textile, pharmaceutical and chemical industry it is used as a raw material for the production of lactate ester, propylene glycol, 2,3-pentanedione, propanoic acid, acrylic acid, acetaldehyde and dilactide. In fact, LAC continues to receive increased attention for its potential use as a monomer in the production of biodegradable poly lactic acid. It can be produced by either biotechnological fermentation or chemical synthesis, but the former route is receiving considerable interest due to environmental concerns and the limited nature of petrochemical feedstocks. However, fermentation is inherently a slow process. An alternative route to LAC is by processing a ‘renewable’ resource such as glycerol by means of heterogeneous catalysis. Haruta [2] has reported that gold with particle diameters below 10 nm are surprisingly active for many reactions, such as CO oxidation and propylene epoxidation.
\nMany aspects of glycerol oxidation by Au have been studied. Ketchie et al. [3] have looked at the effect of Au particle size, particularly on supports such as carbon [4] and titania [5], while Wang et al. [6] have examined the effect of particle shape, and Villa et al. [7] have investigated the role of stabilizers in gold sols as catalysts in the liquid-phase oxidation of glycerol. In addition, Demirel et al. [8] have probed the promotional effect of Pt on Au/C catalysts, and Royker et al. [9] have investigated the promotional effect of Pt on Au/Al2O3 catalysts, while other authors have studied the effect of base in the reaction. For example, Chornaja et al. [10] examined the oxidation of glycerol to glyceric acid using Pd catalysts that worked in alkaline media, and Ketchie et al. [5] reported the promotional effect of hydroxyl ions over Au catalysts, while Carretin et al. [11] have analysed the effect of base as a reaction initiator, proving that for Au/C catalysts, the presence of OH− was mandatory for any meaningful glycerol oxidation to occur. However, there was seemingly very limited study on the effect of surface acidity for this reaction using alumina supports, for which this work is dedicated.
\nCommercial γ-Al2O3 support (denoted as Degussa 2010, BET specific surface area of 260 m2 g−1), ammonium molybdate (NH4)6·Mo7O24·4H2O from Associated Chemical Enterprises (ACE), chloroauric acid HAuCl4·3H2O from Rand Refinery (South Africa), NaOH (98%) and nitric acid (65%) from ACE, and glycerol (99.5%) from Rochelle Chemicals were used.
\nA mass of 4.6 g of γ-Al2O3 support with a measured BET specific surface area of 245 m2 g−1 was weighed and placed in a beaker. About 100 ml solution of 0.1 M ammonium molybdate salt was measured, enough to form MoO3 monolayer coverage at surface concentration of 5 atoms of metal nm−2 or 0.2 nm2 atom−1 according to Stobbe-Kreemers et al. [12] and Raubenheimer and Cronje [13]. The pH of the solution was then adjusted to a value below 1 by addition of dilute (0.25 M) HNO3 acid, with agitation to ensure equal distribution of the acid to a stable pH. The support was then added to the ammonium molybdate solution and left to stand for 8 h, after which, it was filtered and left to oven dry in air at 120°C for 16 h. The dried catalyst precursor was then calcined in air at a flow rate of 300 SCCM at 500°C for 4 h to decompose any residual ammonium and nitrate ions from the support, effectively reducing the molybdate ion to MoO3, thereby anchoring it to the alumina support. Gold was loaded onto the supports as described elsewhere [14].
\nCatalyst testing for glycerol oxidation was performed at 90°C (with temperature optimised at 60 and 90°C) and oxygen pressure kept at 8.5 bar using a glass-lined Parr reactor (model 4563), in batch mode under agitation with stirrer speed kept constant at 1000 rpm, using 0.5 g of catalyst for 10 g of glycerol dissolved in 90 g of de-ionized water. To this solution, NaOH pellets were added such that the mole ratio of glycerol to the base was always 1:2. In-depth details are provided elsewhere [14].
\nHRTEM analysis was conducted on a field emission microscope, the JEM2100F electron microscope from JEOL Ltd., fitted with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), wavelength dispersive spectroscopy (WDS) and electron beam backscattered diffraction (EBSD) operating on Oxford Instruments software. The instrument was operated at an accelerating electron beam of 200 kV and images captured in the bright field mode. The Nano-measurer 1.2 ‘Scion Imager’ software was used for particle size analysis.
\nThe acidity of the materials was qualitatively measured by temperature programmed desorption (TPD) of NH3 on a micromeritics automated catalyst characterisation system: model AutoChem II 2920 chemisorption analyser. NH3-TPD studies were performed by loading 0.25 g catalyst in a U-tube reactor and cleaning the sample in a gas stream of helium at 120°C for an hour at a ramping rate of 10°C min−1 to remove moisture and other adsorbed species. A mixture of 10% NH3 balanced in He was flushed over the sample isothermally at 120°C. After adsorption was achieved at 120°C, the NH3 desorption measurements ensued at 120°C using the thermo-conductivity detector (TCD) and data collected up to 500°C at a ramping rate of 15°C min−1.
\nThe regression analysis of the experimental data was performed by use of Easy Regression Analysis (ERA 3.0) software [15, 16]. The software uses the sum of the square of residual deviations as the objective function. All the kinetic parameters were estimated at a 95% confidence limit using a modified adaptive random search algorithm.
\nUnless otherwise stated, all electronic energies of reactants, products and transition states were determined by density functional theory (DFT) using the DMol3 code [17, 18] within the BIOVIA Materials Studio 2016 environment using the generalised gradient approximation (GGA), with a double numerical basis set (DNP) and the Perdew-Becker-Ernzerhof (PBE) exchange-correlation functional. All electrons were included in the calculations with unrestricted spin-polarization. A fine integration grid was used together with a Fermi smearing of 0.005 Hartree (Ha). The energy convergence tolerance was set to 1.0 × 10−5 Ha; the maximum force was 0.002 Ha/Å and maximum displacement was set at 0.005 Å. The self-consistent field (SCF) density convergence was set 1.0e − 6.
\nThe complete linear synchronous transit and quadratic synchronous transit (LST/QST) method [19] was used to locate the transition state structures according to the optimised structures of reactants and products. The nudged elastic band (NEB) method [20], as implemented in DMol3, was used to confirm that the transition state structures lead to the expected reactant and product molecular structures. Frequency calculations were performed to confirm the nature of all stationary points as either minima or transition states (TSs).
\nWhen investigating a reaction that takes place on the surface of a heterogeneous catalyst by quantum chemical methods, one of the main difficulties is modelling an infinite catalyst system as highlighted by Handzlik and Ogonowski [21], and a viable approach with the capacity of solving this problem is by the application of cluster models. Song et al. [22] claim that, ideally, cluster models are appropriate if a suitable boundary condition is obtained such that charges are in reasonable distribution on the surface. In this study, we chose a Al3MoO7H cluster to represent an active site of Mo on MoO3/γ-Al2O3. Assuming that the oxidation states of the elements in the model are distributed as follows: Al = 3+, Mo = 4+, H = 1+ and O = 2−; then the overall charge of the cluster would be zero. From this point of view it can be assumed that when the substrate adsorbs on Al3MoO7H, it occupies the vacant sites on Mo to form a cluster model in which the Mo is in an approximate octahedral environment with a 6+ oxidation state. This adsorption mode is consistent with the work of Kong et al. [23] who indicated how LAC could be formed from adsorbed intermediates such as pyruvaldehyde (PA).
\nThe sample of the NH3-TPD profiles is displayed in Figure 1 shows that the Au-MoO3/γ-Al2O3 catalyst was more acidic than the original γ-Al2O3 support. All the materials displayed noticeable Lewis acidity (that is, electron accepting sites as opposed to the Brønsted acidity, which are regarded as proton donating sites) since the ammonia desorption occurred at the lower temperatures (below 300°C). The γ-Al2O3 support indicated Lewis acidity having different strengths with the weaker sites desorbing NH3 at about 180°C while the stronger sites desorbed NH3 at about 300°C.
\nQualitative analysis of the catalyst’s acidity by the NH3-TPD method.
On the addition of gold, the Au/γ-Al2O3 catalyst showed a shift in the two peaks to the higher temperatures, that is, 220 and 450°C, respectively. However, the addition of MoO3 on γ-Al2O3 support exhibited only the (weaker) Lewis acid sites that desorbed NH3 at the lower temperatures, peaking at 220°C. This finding is in agreement with a number of researchers who have recorded the absence of Brønsted acid sites in similar alumina systems, results which were further confirmed by their infrared studies, for example, by Lianecki et al. [24] and by XRD studies by Heracleous et al. [25]. It has been proposed by Gong et al. [26] that as long as the loading of MoO3 on
Catalyst testing commenced with investigating the effect of NaOH as a reaction initiator on the kinetics of glycerol oxidation using Mintek’s 0.9-wt% Au/γ-Al2O3 (AUROliteTM) commercial catalyst. Figure 2 displays a plot depicting glycerol conversion as a function of time indicating that higher base concentrations led to greater glycerol conversions thereby shortening reaction time. It has indeed been previously reported that the base acts an initiator for this reaction [5].
\nThe effect of base concentration as a reaction initiator on glycerol oxidation using 0.5 g of 0.9-wt% Au/γ-Al2O3 catalyst at 90°C and O2 pressure of 8.5 bar.
In order to optimise the reaction conditions for mass transfer, a number of influencing parameters, e.g. stirring speed, oxygen partial pressure, amount of catalyst and the initial educt concentrations, were varied to arrive at the kinetic regime. The commercial 0.9-wt% Au/γ-Al2O3 (AuroliteTM) catalyst was used to establish the mass transfer regime. The stirring rate was fixed at 1000 rpm and the amount of catalyst varied as shown in Figure 3. In theory, if the rate doubles with the doubling of the weight of the catalyst, then the reaction is controlled by kinetics; if this is not the case, then the reaction is controlled by mass transfer. The curve in Figure 3 indicates that, under the defined experimental conditions, the ideal amount of catalyst necessary to achieve kinetic control was between 0.5 and 1.2 g. This ‘reaction-limited’ situation was ideal for the determination of intrinsic reaction kinetic parameters.
\nInitial rate as a function of catalyst mass for glycerol oxidation over 0.9-wt% Au/γ-Al2O3 (106–150 mμ): 1000 rpm, NaOH/glycerol = 2:1, at 60°C, under 8.5-bar O2 pressure.
In this work, the activation energy for the oxidation of glycerol over Au/γ-Al2O3 catalyst was experimentally determined. For a zero-order reaction, it can be shown that fractional conversion is linearly dependent on time and temperature through the relationships shown in Eq. (1) and Eq. (2):
\nwhere
and that,
where
Figure 4 shows the plot of glycerol conversion as a function of time for experiments that were carried out at 60 and 90°C. Usually,
Conversion of glycerol over time by 0.9-wt% Au/γ-Al2O3 (106−150 mμ) catalyst; 1000 rpm, NaOH/glycerol = 2:1, at 60 and 90°C, under an O2 pressure of 8.5 bar.
The rate constants,
Model# | \nParameter | \nTemperature | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n\n | \n|||||||
0.0059 | \n0.0058 | \n0.0061 | \n0.018 | \n0.017 | \n0.019 | \n||
\n\n | \nEA | \n||||||
37.4 | \n\n | 36.1 | \n\n | 38.1 | \n\n |
Regression analysis of conversion vs. time data for the 0.9-wt% Au/γ-Al2O3 catalyst at different temperatures.
R = 8.314 J K−1 mol−1.
Parameter values estimated at 95% confidence level; k = mol L−1 min−1 and EA = kJ mol−1.
By the use of a two-point Arrhenius equation with catalyst activity being measured at 60 and 90°C, the pre-exponential factor,
The experimentally obtained
As a control, both the bulk γ-Al2O3 and MoO3/γ-Al2O3 supports did not show any activity towards glycerol oxidation at 90°C.
\nThe effect of Au particle size on the kinetics of glycerol conversion was also investigated. Figure 5 shows TEM images of three Au/γ-Al2O3 catalysts with different Au particle sizes. When screened for glycerol oxidation under the same reaction conditions, the catalysts surprisingly revealed that the kinetics of this reaction strongly depend on the metal particle size, as shown in Figure 6. Big Au nanoparticles,
TEM images of Au/γ-Al2O3 catalysts prepared by various reducing agents: (A) reduced with 5% H2 (~4 nm); (B) reduced with THPC (~17 nm); and (C) reduced with PVA–citrate (~21 nm). Catalyst preparation details were outlined elsewhere [
Glycerol consumption plots over Au/γ-Al2O3 catalysts prepared by various reducing agents: (a) Small gold nanoparticles (ca 4 nm) show zero-order kinetic behaviour by linearly fitting conversion as a function of reaction time; (b) big gold nanoparticles (ca 17 and 21 nm) show first-order kinetics by linearly fitting the log of concentration of glycerol as a function of reaction time. The catalysts were reduced with 5% H2 (~4 nm), THPC (~17 nm) and PVA–citrate (~21 nm). Catalyst preparation details were outlined elsewhere [
So far we have only concentrated on the depletion kinetics of the reactant. In this section, we explore the global kinetics of the reaction, i.e. we set-up a kinetic model that takes into account the full mass balance of the reaction. At full substrate penetration and surface coverage, conversion is not limited by mass transfer; it is a fixed quantity set by the zero-order kinetics. Accordingly, mass transfer terms have not been explicitly expressed in the kinetic model used in this study since kinetic data was collected under the kinetic control regime. Therefore, Figure 7 presents the reaction network on which the kinetic modelling was based. The concentrations of all the compounds in the figure were taken into account in the calculations. Since the partial pressure (hence concentration) of O2 was maintained high in excess, its surface coverage was assumed constant and the surface reactions were modelled as pseudo-monomolecular in the tested model.
\nReaction network used for the kinetic modelling of the glycerol oxidation. FOP* = further oxidation products (tartronic, oxalic, glycolic and formic acids).
The complete mass balance, based on Figure 7, is represented by Eqs. (4)–(8). The model is pseudo-zero-order overall and contains five parameters in total.
\nEach rate constant,
where
The concentrations
Comparison of computed and experimental data for glycerol oxidation assuming zero-order kinetics over Au-MoO3/γ-Al2O3 (top) and Au/γ-Al2O3 (bottom); Glycerol (
Parameter* | \nCatalyst | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Au/γ-Al2O3 | \nAu/MoO3-γ-Al2O3 | \n|||||
Value | \nConfidence limits | \nValue | \nConfidence limits | \n|||
0.019 | \n0.018 | \n0.02 | \n0.035 | \n0.032 | \n0.038 | \n|
0.021 | \n0.019 | \n0.023 | \n0.023 | \n0.018 | \n0.028 | \n|
0.008 | \n0.007 | \n0.01 | \n0.009 | \n0.006 | \n0.013 | \n|
0.004 | \n0.002 | \n0.006 | \n0.023 | \n0.019 | \n0.028 | \n|
0.001 | \n0.000 | \n0.003 | \n0.005 | \n0.002 | \n0.008 | \n
Regression analysis of global kinetic model assuming pseudo-zero-order kinetics.
*Parameter values were estimated at 95% confidence level; k = mol L−1 min−1.
From Table 2, one of the most intriguing results was the ‘jump’ in the rate of formation of LAC (
As far as we are aware, no formation of LAC from Au-based catalysts (our work included) has been reported at 60°C except when Pd-based catalysts were used, which also gave very low turnover frequency (TOF) values (~60 h−1) [10]. The TOF is the best measure of comparing catalytic performance as argued by Boudart [29]. TOF is regarded as the number of times that the overall catalytic reaction takes place per catalytic site per unit time for a fixed set of reaction conditions. Boudart has asserted that even though it may not be rigorous, a TOF measure leads to values that can be reproduced from one laboratory to another, besides catalysts of different characteristics being likened. We have therefore simplified TOF to mean the number of glycerol moles converted per the total number of moles of Au used per unit time of reaction, in hours, assuming that all the gold present in the catalyst was active. We have also assumed that the reaction occurred at constant temperature (90°C), O2 pressure (8.5 bar), concentration (1.1 M of glycerol at
For example, the TOF of the AuroliteTM commercial catalyst (0.9-wt% Au/γ-Al2O3) after half an hour was calculated to be 4.971 h−1, compared to that of Au-MoO3/γ-Al2O3 catalyst (
It is generally accepted that LAC is formed from glycerol (GLY) via the intermediates as depicted in Figure 9 [5, 30–32]. Under the reaction conditions employed in this study, dihydroxyacetone (DHA) was formed at 60°C and could be isolated; however, at 90°C, LAC was formed instead.
\nProposed intermediates in the conversion of glycerol to LAC.
It is plausible that at the latter temperature, DHA still forms but reacts further with LAC, thus assuming the role of an (unstable) intermediate. In the presence of base, DHA can form from glycerol via the isomerisation of GLA [31]. Assary et al. [33] have reported that a Lewis acid-base pair catalyses this isomerisation reaction and it is conceivable that the enhanced formation of LAC over Au-MoO3/γ-Al2O3 could have been a direct consequence of the increased Lewis acid-base pair sites on the catalyst. In this section, we apply transition state theory principles [34–36] via DFT simulations to extract thermodynamic and kinetic parameters for this isomerisation reaction. Experimentally, Rasrendra et al. [37] suggested that, under catalytic conditions, GLA can be successfully isomerised to LAC. The rest of this chapter discusses the potential role played by Mo in the formation of LAC over supported bi-functional Au catalysts at low temperatures, assuming the reaction occurs according to Eq. (12).
\nDFT calculations have been done only for the second part of the reaction, since the calculations for GLY to GLA over Au have been discussed in detail elsewhere [31, 38]. The mechanism shown in Figure 10 proposes that a crucial part of the isomerisation of GLA to LAC could be an adsorbed pyruvaldehyde (PA) molecule on the molybdenum Lewis acid site forming a five membered ring C–C–O–Mo–O. The adsorbed PA is then hydrated by a surface hydroxyl, as advanced by Kong et al. [23]. The intermediate product then undergoes a hydride shift rearrangement. Finally, a proton is then transferred from a water molecule to complete the isomerisation and form a LAC molecule. Similar mechanisms have been proposed by numerous authors [5, 30, 33, 39–40], although none of these studies have modelled the mechanism at the DFT level of theory. The DFT predicted kinetic and thermodynamic parameters are summarised in Table 3. The reaction kinetics tool within BIOVIA Materials Studio 2016 was used to automate the calculations of all the parameters. Tunnelling corrections were included in all calculations. The protonation step is thermodynamically downhill, but has the highest activation barrier (229 kJ mol−1) for the forward reaction as shown in the mentioned table. The magnitude of this barrier is in the order of the bond-dissociation energy of HO–H bond of a water molecule (H2O) which requires about 268 kJ mol−1 at 298 K. Assuming that the reaction is controlled by kinetics, this step is the rate-limiting step. The high energy barrier for the rate-limiting step probably explains why LAC forms at 90°C under the reaction conditions employed, but none was observed at 60°C. A higher temperature is needed to overcome the barrier (−Ea/R) in order to get appreciable rates of the formation of the final product.
\nPossible Lewis acid-base pair dual site involved in the isomerisation of PA to LAC.
DFT predicted kinetic and thermodynamic parameters for the Mo–OH catalysed isomerisation of PA to LAC. The direction of normal mode of vibration of the transition state is shown by the pointed arrow.
Both Au/γ-Al2O3 and Au-MoO3/γ-Al2O3 showed zero-order kinetics under kinetic controlled glycerol oxidation. The apparent
The authors would like to thank both Mintek and Anglo-gold Ashanti through Project AuTek for granting the permission to publish this work and for financial support. In addition, we express gratitude to the South African Centre for High Performance Computing (CHPC) for their support in availing to us the infrastructure used in DFT modelling.
\nEnamel and dentin constitute different concentrations of organic, water and mineral contents. This accounts for their specific physical-mechanical properties and their integration allow the tooth to be functionally stable in adverse oral conditions [1]. Dentin tissue underlines the enamel and constitutes the bulk of the tooth. The inorganic to organic ratio is different in various tissues, these variations affect the properties of these tissues. The enamel is tougher and most highly resistant to force in comparison to other hard tissue in the body owing to its high inorganic content. On the other hand the dentin with high organic content serves as a resilient layer under enamel and cementum [2]. Enamel shows higher mineralization than cementum as there is more carbon 49% (wt) in cementum than enamel 3% (wt). Enamel being the hardest tissue and dentin being softer whereas X-ray diffraction (XRD) shows cementum has poorest crystallinity. Following decalcification process for separation of organic and inorganic content the organic components of the dentin are retained thereby maintaining the dentin shape. However due to 90% mineral content of the enamel it is lost after decalcification.
Tooth enamel possess remarkable structural and mechanical properties making it an unique tissue. Tooth enamel is a complex mineralized tissue comprising of long and parallel apatite crystals configured into decussating enamel rods [3, 4]. The enamel consists of 96% inorganic and 4% organic and water content and is the most mineralized tissue. The organic content of enamel is less than that of dentin. The organic content consist of some unique proteins present only in enamel and lipids [5]. The enamel is formed only once before the eruption of the tooth. Following eruption the tooth organ permanently loses the ability to form new enamel [3].
Being highly mineralized enamel could be expected to be brittle and have low fracture resistance. However, the experimental studies proved that the fracture toughness of enamel is equivalent to or even better than some tough ceramics [6, 7].
During the development of enamel, ameloblasts secrete enamel matrix protein. Proteins are large complex molecules that are required for the structure, function and regulating body’s tissues and organs. Enamel matrix proteins bind to the hydroxyapatite structuring the enamel and modulating crystal growth [8, 9]. Initial developing enamel matrix constitutes 60-70% water, 20-30% proteins and 15-20% of mineral ions. Mineralization process leads to resorption of enamel proteins and water leaving very little amount of organic content in matured enamel [3]. Major components of the enamel matrix protein (EMP) are the amelogenins constituting greater than 90% of all the organic content in the enamel [10, 11]. The other type of protein group is the non – amelogenin including enamelins, tuftelin and sheathlins. Other than these two enzymes, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-20 and enamel matrix serine proteinase (EMSP)-1 are also present in the EMP (Figure 1) [10].
Types of enamel matrix proteins.
Enamel proteins consist of 1-2% of the total composition. These proteins are located mainly at the enamel rods interface. The proteins play a role in modulation of the stress in enamel and contributes to the elastic and viscoelastic behavior [12]. Any kind of damage or denaturation of the enamel or dentin non-collagenous proteins can decrease the durability of the tooth [12]. Tooth whitening procedures or treatment with potassium hydroxide leads to loss of enamel proteins causing enamel to be more prone to fracture [12, 13]. Radiation therapy for treatment of oral cancers is also known to damage the enamel proteins [12]. In a study the enamel proteins were extracted using potassium hydroxide treatment from the enamel sections of the molar cusps. The results showed a 40% reduction in fracture toughness in comparison with a fully proteinized control. The organic content of the enamel is very small, but it is of importance crack growth toughening. This is because it helps in forming unbroken ligament and fortify its efficacy [14].
The synthesis and secretion of the organic extracellular matrix is controlled by ameloblasts and deposited along the dentino-enamel junction which eventually controls enamel biomineralization [15].
Amelogenins are hydrophobic in nature, they are rich in proline (25%), glutamine (14%), leucine (9%) and histidine (7%) amino acid residues [4, 15]. Amelogenin functions in regulating orientation, shape and length of enamel crystals [16]. Tuftelin is suggested to function at the level of ameloblast differentiation, it may play a role in extracellular matrix secretion. Tuftelin is also expressed in different soft tissues, which suggest it may have multifunctional role [17]. Ameloblastin also known as sheathlin and amelin present in Tomes’ processes of the secretory ameloblasts the sheath space between rod and inter-rod enamel suggest that this protein may play a role in biomineralization. Enamelin is also believed to play a role in enamel biomineralization. Enamelin is hydrophilic and an acidic protein rich in glycine, aspartic acid and serine [4]. The enamel proteins with unique properties requires specific proteases for their removal during enamel maturation whose spatiotemporal expression is impeccably regulated. This requirement is met by serine protease kallikrein-4 and MMP20 [18]. Enamel proteases processes secreted amelogenins, ameloblastin and enamelin in the matrix and eventually degrades and remove them from the mineralizing matrix when maturation of amelogenesis occurs. The sulfated enamel proteins are present in very small amount in the enamel matrix [15].
Enamel matrix derivative (EMD) is approved by FDA to be used as a material for periodontal regeneration since 1997 [19]. EMD is commercially obtained by heat treated lyophilized proteins that are isolated from porcine enamel at specific stage of development [20]. Emdogain, a mixture of enamel matrix proteins mainly composed of amelogenin is used for repair of hard and soft periodontal tissues [11, 21, 22, 23]. Emdogain has shown similar results to guided tissue regeneration with added advantage of easy to use with minimal complications [23].
Owing to its unique properties like toughness and relative fracture resistance researchers are focusing on developing an enamel-like biomaterial. Enamel biomimetics hold a great promise as structural components in a wide range of fields for biomedical and engineering applications. Some examples are like tooth repair, restoring a orthopedic defect site, functional insulator components, brakes and exhaust pollutant filters [3, 24]. Enamel proteins and calcium phosphate growth solutions seems to be a convincing formulation for biologically synthesizing tooth enamel. Based on the established role of enamel proteins, using an EMP researchers were successfully grew elongated and parallel apatite crystals within decussating enamel prisms (Figure 2) [3]. The research until now using biochemical approaches can only mimic limited features of apatite and calcium phosphate crystal growth.
Scanning electron micrograph images of engineered enamel. In this study apatite was grown within a decellularized enamel protein matrix, resulting in decussating enamel prisms containing distinct and separated individual enamel crystals. A SEM image overview of the engineered enamel apatite, b depicts parallel bundles of enamel crystals, and c depicts newly formed decussating enamel rods [
The dentin consists of 65% inorganic and 35% organic and water content. The presence of more organic content in dentin than enamel makes it very similar to that of bone. The organic part of dentin is composed of collagenous fibrils embedded in ground substance of mucopolysacchrides [5]. Type I collagen is the principal type of collagen in dentin. It contributes about 90% of the organic content, the remaining 10% contains several proteins and proteoglycans, acidic glycoproteins referred to as non-collagenous proteins [25, 26]. Also type I collagen is abundantly present organic constituent of the bone extracellular matrix [27]. The collagen fibrils form a scaffold network and are densely mineralized. The dentin consists of little amounts of type V and III collagen. The odontoblasts synthesize and secretes the non-collagenous proteins as well collagen fibrils [28].
Dentin constitutes tubules ranging in size of micrometer and surrounded by highly mineralized peritubular dentin, embedded in a matrix rich in collagen called intertubular dentin. Lamina limitans a sheet-like structure divide the peritubular and the intertubular dentin and primarily composed of proteoglycans protein cores. The proteoglycans contribute to mechanical behavior of dentin. They link the collagen fibrils securing the collagenous network together [12]. Peritubular dentin is primarily made of glycosaminoglycans and lacks collagen fibrils [29]. Intertubular matrix chiefly constitutes type I collagen fibrils with non-collagenous proteins and proteoglycans which forms a three-dimensional organic network buttressed by apatite mineral crystallites [30].
The adhesive systems used for dentin bonding rely on formation of a hybrid layer. This hybrid layer is formed by demineralized collagen fibrils reinforced by resin matrix. As the resin monomers are unable to infiltrate the mineralized tissues, so adhesive bonding systems are used which has an acid, primer and an adhesive. The acid helps in removing mineral crystals and exposing the collagen. The primer which is a hydrophilic solution permits the infiltration of resin monomer into the demineralized dentin. Finally, the adhesive consisting of a mixture of monomers penetrates the treated surface thereby forming mechanical adhesion with dentin. Removing the unbound water from hybrid layer and suppressing the endogenous enzymatic activity have helped in increasing biocompatibility by inhibiting degradation of the hybrid layer [31].
The dentin matrix and bone proteins are similar. Type I collagen designs an effective and instructional template for guiding deposition of calcium phosphate polymorphs and subsequently transforming into crystalline hydroxyapatite crystals. The highly complex process of hydroxyapatite nucleation and collagen mineralization is also controlled by non-collagenous proteins. The amount of these non-collagenous proteins in dentin and bone is small, but they play an indispensable role in bone formation and remodeling. Some examples of non-collagenous proteins found in both are osteocalcin, osteopontin and bone sialoprotein. The dentin matrix proteins are of interest because of their calcium binding property in the extracellular matrix which leads to calcification of tissue [32]. Many studies have shown similarities between dentin and bone. Apart from type I collagen being the leading extracellular matrix element, other common proteins and proteoglycans are osteonectin/SPARC, osteocalcin, osteopontin, bone sialoprotein, decorin and biglycan [33].
Dentin proteoglycans plays a key role in mineralization of the dentin and bone, so they perform structural, metabolic, and functional role. The proteoglycans are classified as small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRP) and the large aggregating proteoglycans. The SLRP are further divided into 5 classes: decorin; biglycan; fibromodulin; lumican and osteoadherin. Among the large aggregating proteoglycan is only versican has been described well in dentin [25].
Osteocalcin and osteonectin are classified under secretory calcium-binding phosphoprotein a category of non-collagenous proteins. Osteocalcin is a vitamin K-dependent gamma-carboxylated protein. It is a small calcium binding protein consisting of three glutamic acid residues. It is found in dentin in small amounts as compared to the bone [25]. Osteonectin binds collagen, hydroxyapatite and growth factors. It is known to regulate proliferation of cells, prompts angiogenesis and formulation of matrix metalloproteinases [34]. Another subset of the secretory calcium binding phosphoprotein is the Small Integrin-Binding ligand, N-linked Glycoprotein (SIBLING) family. It includes osteopontin, bone sialoprotein, dentin matrix protein 1, dentin sialophosphoprotein, and matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein [35].
Dentin phosphoprotein (DPP) and dentin sialoprotein (DSP) were earlier thought to be unique to dentin [5, 33]. Later some immunohistochemical studies established that DSP is also present in the alveolar bone, cellular cementum, osteocytes, cementocytes and their matrices [36]. DPP is rich in aspartic acid and phosphoserine and bind calcium in considerable amounts. DSP is a glycoprotein rich in aspartic acid, serine, glutamic acid, and glycine. Both DPP and DSP are synthesized by odontoblasts and pre-ameloblast cell types. In contrast the bone matrix proteins are not exclusively made by the osteoblasts. This makes dentin unusual based on these dentin specific proteins [33]. DSP has been shown to play a role in prompting differentiation of dental pulp cells in odontoblast-like cells [36].
Growth factors are natural activation signals or substances able to stimulate cellular proliferation, wound healing, and sometimes cellular differentiation. Generally, a growth factor is secreted protein or a steroid hormone [37, 38]. They are necessary for regulating various cellular processes that take part in tissue regeneration procedure [39, 40].
Growth factors are generally acting as signaling molecules between the cells, like cytokines and hormones binding to specific receptors on the target cells surfaces. Examples of growth factors in dentin are TGF-
Promoting tertiary dentinogenesis and in primary odontoblastic differentiation. | |
Upregulated on DPSCs differentiation into a mineralizing phenotype | |
Promotes odontoblastic differentiation | |
Promotes vitro and in vivo odontoblastic differentiation, DSPP induction and increases alkaline phosphatase activity | |
Increases odontoblastic differentiation | |
Promotes DPSCs phenotype mineralization | |
Promotes proliferation and differentiation of DPSCs and SCAP into a mineralizing phenotype | |
Promotes stem cell homing (chemotaxis), angiogenesis, and stemness | |
Promotes angiogenesis, chemotaxis of MSCs modulates the process of odontoblastic differentiation, synergistic act with other growth factors | |
Promotes axonal function and regeneration after injury and plays important role in neuronal maintenance | |
Potent angiogenic factor that promotes blood vessel formation in tooth slices implanted subcutaneously in SCID mice | |
Promotes survival, proliferation, and migration of MSCs | |
Promotes odontoblastic differentiation through activation of p38 | |
Enhances neurogenic differentiation of DPSCs and SCAP | |
Promotes osteogenic and angiogenesis differentiation of MSCs | |
Promotes neuronal growth and axonal targeting | |
Promotes in vivo nerve regeneration and pulp cell proliferation. Increased expression during odontogenic differentiation. |
Growth factors in dentin matrix and their role.
We can group these growth factors by their actions as: Angiogenisis (FGF-2, PDGF, VEGF, NGF); Differentiation (TGF-β, PDGF, FGF-2, BMPs, IGF, NGF); Proliferation (PDGF, FGF-2, IGF, VEGF, TGF-β, SDF-1); Chemotaxis (PDGF, FGF-2, TGF-β, SDF-1) and Neuronal growth (NGF) [41].
The growth factors diffusion into the dentinal-pulpal junction is postulated to activate reactionary dentinogenesis and simultaneous reparative dentinogenesis along with pulp tissue inflammatory reaction [42, 43]. The surviving odontoblasts secrete reactionary dentin as a response to environmental stimuli causing metabolic activity increase in the cells. The inductive molecules determining the success of the pulp healing might be released from damaged dentin and adjacent pulp tissue [44]. Dentin-pulp regeneration process can vary as it depends on the causative agent whether trauma or pathological conditions. An inflammatory reaction is caused by these events, which is supposed to be the beginning of tissue regeneration process [39]. Dentin-pulp defensive and reparative mechanisms mimic the embryonic tooth development stage and growth factors derived from dentin may play a key role in regulating these events [42]. The dentinal matrix constitutes angiogenic growth factors and their release after injury can contribute to overall reparative response of the dentinal-pulpal complex [45].
There are multiple growth factors in dentin that also exist in bone like insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), insulin-like growth factor-2 (IGF-2), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), parathyroid bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and certain members of the growth differentiation factor (GDF) group of proteins [46, 47, 48]. That is why recent studies have shown good results after using dentin as a bone graft and stated that dentin has shown to be clinically safe and has good bone-forming capacity [49, 50].
Also known as autogenous tooth biomaterial it is derived from an extracted tooth through demineralization process. It is useful as graft material because of its osteoconductive properties [51]. This biomaterial can be used alone or combined with other materials for example with platelet-rich fibrin [52], bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells [53] or bone morphogenetic protein (BMP-2) [54] for enhanced bone regeneration effects. Recently a dentin derived barrier membrane acting as an osteoinductive collagen membrane showed successful outcome in guided bone regeneration and dental implantation. The membrane was derived from block type autogenous demineralized dentin matrix with advantage of overcoming the mechanical instability of the collagen membrane. It is mostly composed of type I collagen, making it suitable for use in implant procedures [55].
Enamel has 3 essential enamel proteins to build healthy well mineralized enamel which is secreted from ameloblasts “amelogenin, ameloblastin and enamelin” with the help of two enzymes, MMP20 and kallikrein-4 (Klk4) to form the enamel properly and sequent proteolysis of enamel protein [56]. In the event of alteration in the process of protein removal, enamel and dental defects will emerge like for example, amelogenesis imperfecta (AI), Chalky/Molar Hypomolarization (MH), Dentinogenesis Imperfecta (DI) or fluorosis [57]. Figure 3 depicts the protein content in healthy and diseased tooth.
Protein content is compared between healthy and diseased tooth enamel. Different proteins are presented in (rows) as analyzed different tooth conditions (columns). Healthy teeth is presented as reference in light gray, chalky/molar Hypomolarization (MH): Enamel affected by molar hypomineralization, fluorosis and Amelogenesis imperfecta (AI): Hypocalcified and hypomaturation amelogenesis imperfecta enamel; range of percent by weight (wt %) of protein abundance in comparison to healthy enamel show in 4 colors: Healthy range of 0.1–1 wt % (light gray); 2–3 times increase (light teal); 3–30 times increase (dark teal); 0–30 times increase (gray-teal gradient) [
Amelogenesis imperfecta is a rare, inherited enamel development disorder where mutations in the amelogenin gene results in malformation of the enamel layer. It is subdivided to 4 main types hypoplastic (type I), hypomaturation (type II), hypocalcified (type III), hypomaturation/hypoplasia/taurodontism (type IV).
Clinical and radiographical features and enamel thickness, of different subtypes are dependent on mode of inheritance and gene mutation. AI occurs due to mutations in several genes, including enamelin, amelogenin, MMP20, Klk4 and FAM83H [58, 59, 60, 61]. The mutations can lead to hypoplastic, hypomature, or hypocalcified form of the enamel [62]. AI can be easily seen clinically and radiographically as teeth appears in abnormal color like (yellow, brown, or gray). Soft enamel, due to hypo calcification enamel surface are more susceptible to caries, tooth attrition, teeth hypersensitivity, calculus formation, and gingivitis/periodontitis [63].
Type I hypoplastic AI has reduced thickness of enamel and shows pitting and grooves. In radiographs enamel shows normal contrasts from dentine. Type II hypomaturation AI has enamel of normal thickness but appearance is mottled. It is less severe than hypocalcified type. Radiographically it exhibits similar radiodensity as dentine. Type III hypocalcified AI have defect in enamel calcification. The enamel thickness is normal but is weak in structure and appearance is opaque and chalky. In radiographs enamel is less radio-opaque in comparison to dentin. Type IV hypomaturation/hypoplasia/taurodontism AI exhibits mixed hypomaturation and hypoplasia appearance. In taurodontism enlargement of the body and pulp chamber is observed. The pulp chamber floor and furcation moves apically down the root [58].
A proper diagnosis identifying the different phenotypes is essential to determine molecular etiology. The treatment plan aims at early diagnosis, managing the pain and restoring the defects with regular follow ups [58]. Mild variations can be treated adequately with facial veneers, whereas in severe cases full coverage is mandatory. For young patients milled acetal resin overlays can be used until fully erupted [64].
It is discolored white patches in one or more molars, porous dental enamel leads to hypersensitivity and risk of caries. Chalky enamel opacities contained unusually high amounts of protein, including serum albumin and other derivatives of blood and saliva [65]. Moderate and severe cases with opacities having a chalky texture exhibit failure of enamel surface soon after the eruption of tooth, it provides a hygiene-resistant nidus for dental plaque accumulation. The porous chalky enamel is invaded by accelerated decay which arises the need for restoration, extraction, or orthodontic treatment. It is observed that MH affects the 2-year molars or 6-year molars, a better understanding of its etiology is necessary [66]. Earlier systemic disturbance of enamel-forming cells (ameloblasts) during the hardening (maturation) stage of enamel formation was thought to be the cause [67]. A different pathomechanism indicating localized exposure of enamel to serum albumin was recently identified [68]. In a recent study the dose–response relationship between albumin and the enamel chalkiness was established. This supports the new pathomechanism also termed as “mineralization poisoning” [66].
MH is a complex problem requiring combinational treatment modalities. The treatment aim may be preventive or symptom control. Various treatment modalities can be adhesive and sealant restoration, composite restoration, glass ionomer restoration, preformed metal crown, microabrasion, bleach or orthodontic extraction [69].
Dental fluorosis is a very common developmental disturbance that is caused by repeated exposures to high concentrations of fluoride during tooth or enamel formation. This leads to disturbance in enamel formation as the fluoride decreases calcium concentration in the matrix. This interferes with protease activity and delays or inhibit enamel matrix protein degradation. An abnormal apatite crystals growth occurs which leads to physical tooth surface changes [70]. It differs from white striations to stained pitting of the enamel depending on case severity [71]. The use of topical fluoride dentifrices in young children may increase the risk of dental fluorosis. In case of concern for fluorosis, in children under 6 years of age toothpaste with fluoride concentration less than 1000 parts per million should be used [70].
Treatment of the case depends on the severity and the esthetics concerns. Mild cases can be treated by bleaching if the tooth. For moderate cases enamel microabrasion with acids can be done. Composite fillings, veneers and crowns can be used for treating cases with severe forms of the disease [72].
The best solution for this condition is to control the fluoride intake for prevention of dental fluorosis [71].
DI is also an inherited condition also called “dentin dysplasia” with discolored teeth but most often blue-gray or yellow-brown which leads to wear, breakage, and loss of teeth. This damage can include teeth fractures or small holes (pitting) in the enamel. The enamel may have hypoplastic or hypocalcified defect in nearly one-third of patients and has tendency to crack away from defective dentin. It is a localized mesodermal dysplasia which affects both primary and permanent dentition. It is inherited in simple autosomal dominant mode exhibiting high penetrance and low mutation rate [73].
DI has 3 types: Type I: occurs in people who have osteogenesis imperfecta so, it appears to have other health concern (mutation in COL1A1/A2 gene). Type II: the most common type occurs in people without another inherited disorder (mutation in DSPP). Radiographically it shows complete obliteration of the pulp cavity by dentin. Type II and type III, are actually similar conditions but in different forms but DI type III shows enlarged pulp cavities [63].
In histological findings although enamel is normal in structure it tends to crack. Scalloping is absent in dentino-enamel junction. Mostly mantle dentin structure is normal. However dentinal tubules of the circumferential dentin are found to be coarse and branched. The tubules are reduced in quantity. An atubular area is present in the dentin with reduction in mineralization and decreased number of odontoblasts. Another common finding is pulpal inclusions and much interglobular dentin [73].
Treatment differs from case to case depend on its severity and presenting pain, also the patient age. Mostly treatments are targeted at maintaining oral hygiene and esthetics. Early diagnosis and treatment can prevent deterioration of teeth and occlusion. In severe cases two treatment stages for primary teeth under general anesthesia is recommended. At the age of 18-20 months the stage 1 treatment involves composite restorations covering for incisors and preformed crowns for first primary molars. At the age of 28-30 months stage 2 aims at protecting second primary molars and canines. For moderate cases one-stage treatment for primary teeth at 30 months of age is optimal. In severe cases composite restoration may not be helpful. A long term follow-up is necessary to adjust treatment according to change in dentition and occlusion [73].
The enamel and dentin organic content varies in amount and its constituents. The enamel proteins help in imparting the elastic and visco-elastic properties to the enamel. The clinical significance of the non-collagenous proteins may be in relation with dentinal growth factor release by calcium hydroxide or mineral trioxide aggregate. The dentin organic matrix constitutes similarity with that of bone, makes it a desirable bone graft material. Demineralized dentin autogenous bone grafts have already been used for dental implant surgeries and provides an easy to prepare and use bone graft material. Any imbalance in the organic content can manifest as developmental disease of the tooth.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\\n\\n\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\\n\\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Stakeholders’ analysis and their needs and expectations diagnostic are the baseline for building sustainable businesses. Sustainability and excellence are connected, and particular details of these approaches’ implementation are presented. Partnership development appears a key principle in the EFQM model. Based on companies’ strategies analysis, a simplified model may be proposed in order to support business survival in changing environments. Some guidelines to allow assessment of excellence fundamentals implementation are given. Based on experience and without seeing as exhaustive, a summary sheet of possible approaches and deployments is given. This may be used as a practical tool to connect actions implemented in organizations with the excellence model enablers, so as to facilitate assessment to explore the performance maturity level. The same sequence of Plan-Do-Check-Act relates approaches stated by ISO 26000 and sustainability initiatives. Embedding excellence and sustainability into business strategic objectives allows the management to define the framework for competitive continuous improvement.",book:{id:"11476",title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg"},signatures:"Irina Severin, Maria Cristina Dijmarescu and Mihai Caramihai"},{id:"82269",title:"CSR Reporting and Blockchain Technology",slug:"csr-reporting-and-blockchain-technology",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105512",abstract:"Blockchain technology is a public ledger that stores data in a chain of blocks which can radically improve the quality of our records from “records that might be trustworthy” to “records that trust is absolute”. This chapter explores one area that blockchain technology can radically transform but has not yet received significant attention. We evaluate the suitability of applying blockchain technology for corporate social responsibility (CSR) reporting. We demonstrate that blockchain technology is suitable in the context of CSR reporting since there is a strong need for an immutable common database shared among various stakeholders with potential trust issues. We also argue that blockchain technology does not completely eliminate existing trusted third parties such as governments, international organizations that provide CSR reporting standards, major CSR reporting assurance companies and major CSR infomediaries. In particular, blockchain technology can be used as a platform that integrates all traditional trusted third parties, transforms their functions, and reduces their drawbacks for advancing CSR reporting. We also demonstrate that a permissionless public blockchain would be the most suitable structure.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Pattarake Sarajoti, Pattanaporn Chatjuthamard, Suwongrat Papangkorn and Piyachart Phiromswad"},{id:"82270",title:"From Corporate Social Opportunity to Corporate Social Responsibility",slug:"from-corporate-social-opportunity-to-corporate-social-responsibility",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105445",abstract:"During the early 2020s, business leaders have been faced with the confluence of multiple challenges, the likes of which they had never seen before: the Covid-19 pandemic, systemic racism and the continued escalation of the climate crisis. These challenges forced companies to search for new ways to create value for their investors and other stakeholders; these challenges forced business leaders to think differently about the role that their companies play in the broader society. As we think about how business leaders balance these short-term opportunities and long-term strategies, it is critical that they realize that he level of social responsibility expected by society has risen significantly in recent years. Companies need to move beyond seeing social dynamics as short-term opportunities and incorporate them into long-term strategies. In this study, we offer 6 rules for moving forward and for turning short-term social opportunities into long-term strategic value creations. Business leaders need to focus on offering products, services and relationships that help their stakeholders improve their lives. In doing this, we rely on both academic studies and case studies to show how moving beyond corporate social opportunity and towards value creation through social responsibility is the key to long-term corporate success.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Brian Bolton"},{id:"82341",title:"Circular Economy - Recent Advances in Sustainable Construction Waste Management",slug:"circular-economy-recent-advances-in-sustainable-construction-waste-management",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105050",abstract:"With time, construction waste is increasing massively and its dumping is a serious issue globally. Utilizing the waste in various products and construction projects is boosting, but still, the amount of waste is much higher. Transitions to more sustainable construction can assist in attaining the specific goal of slowing down natural resources depletion, reducing environmental damage by extracting and recycling new materials, and minimizing pollution from the processing, use, and disposal of materials once they complete their useful life period. An important way to do this is to improve efficiency and bring productivity in the utilization of resources. The circular economy is more productive and healthier, where raw materials are stored longer in the production cycle and can be recycled, thus producing less waste. Due to potential benefits through enhanced quality and productivity in the processes, the concept of circular economy is grabbing the attention of construction industry stakeholders to attain sustainable construction waste management. This chapter focuses on the significance of a circular economy for the attainment of sustainable waste management in the construction sector. Moreover, the impact of construction waste and its utilization through recent sustainable solutions which also impact the economy has also been highlighted.",book:{id:"11256",title:"Circular Economy - Recent Advances of Sustainable Waste Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11256.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Ali Musarat, Muhammad Irfan, Wesam Salah Alaloul, Ahsen Maqsoom, Muhammad Jamaluddin Thaheem and Muhammad Babar Ali Rabbani"},{id:"82344",title:"Supply Chain: A Modeling-Based Approach for Cyber-Physical Systems",slug:"supply-chain-a-modeling-based-approach-for-cyber-physical-systems",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105527",abstract:"Within the frame of this chapter, the author focuses on the distribution processes of green supply chain solutions and describes a potential mathematical model, taking environmental aspects into consideration. The first part of the chapter includes a systematic literature review. Based on the identified research gap, a new mathematical model is described, which makes it possible to describe last-mile logistics processes from an environmental point of view. The functional model of the distribution system includes the potential of Industry 4.0 technologies, which makes it possible to gather real-time information from the distribution process and use real-time status information for a sophisticated design and operation. The mathematical model of this approach defines an NP-hard optimization problem; therefore, heuristic optimization algorithm is supposed to solve the design and operation tasks of the green distribution problem. As the computational results show, cyber-physical systems increase the performance of green supply chain solutions and have a great impact on operational cost. As the numerical example shows, the integrated approach resulted in a 5.3% cost reduction in transportation operations.",book:{id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain - Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg"},signatures:"Ágota Bányai"},{id:"82339",title:"Green Human Resource Management: An Exploratory Study from Moroccan ISO 14001 Certified Companies",slug:"green-human-resource-management-an-exploratory-study-from-moroccan-iso-14001-certified-companies",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105565",abstract:"Green human resource management (GHRM) is one of the most critical topics that aim at driving green change and improving environmental performance of companies. However, implementing GHRM functions may pose a major challenge in Morocco since the term is still new, especially for developing countries. Thus, the present study was carried out to assess the awareness of HR managers and directors of GHRM, explore the connection between environmental concerns and HR strategies, investigate the perceived importance of GHRM, its requirements, the feasibility of its practices, and the challenges related to its implementation. For this purpose, the data required for this study were collected through in-depth semistructured interviews with HR managers and directors of four ISO 14001 certified companies, a qualitative analysis was conducted through a thematic analysis using NVIVO12 software. The results revealed that GHRM is still in its beginning stages in Morocco, faces many challenges as well as the unfeasibility of several GHRM practices. Thus, the significance of the present study stems from the fact that very few studies have explored GHRM in Morocco, which provides additional insights and perspectives into GHRM from an unexplored nation.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Hosna Hossari and Kaoutar Elfahli"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:70},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:4,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. 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He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. 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